ietionai 




Hi 

3V I? 1885 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 




Shelf ..J.13- 
L8S.4j_ 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 




OLIVE-TREE IN THE GARDEN OF GETHSEMANE. From a Photograph. 



Dictionary 



of 



THE HOLY BIBLE, 



FOR GENERAL USE 



IN THE 

Study of the Scriptures 

WITH 

ENGRAVINGS, MAPS, AND TABLES. 






NN™ W 



REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION. 

. NOV 17 1886 ^} 
AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY, 

ISO NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK. 






COPYRIGHT, 1886, 
BY THE AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY. 



PREFACE. 



One of the most cheering tokens of the progress of the gospel in our 
country and the world is the growing interest in the study of God's Word, 
which, as experience continually demonstrates more clearly, is the foun- 
tain of all the truth and the channel of the only spiritual power that can 
regenerate man and reform the world. To promote and aid in its study 
the Tract Society has published many most valuable Bible Helps : among 
them Dr. Barrows' "Companion to the Bible," and his "Sacred Geogra- 
phy and Antiquities;" "The Bible Text-Book," the "Bible Atlas," two 
Concordances, Locke's " Commonplace-book of the Bible," the " Family 
Bible with Notes," Hanna's "Life of Christ," and " The Dictionary of the 
Holy Bible." Of this latter volume over two hundred thousand copies 
have been circulated, and it has been the basis of translations into several 
foreign languages. But since its first publication great progress has been 
made in Biblical researches : the lands of the Bible have been more thor- 
oughly explored — by the " Palestine Exploration" Companies, the "Brit- 
ish Ordnance Survey," and recent travellers; the admirable Bible Diction- 
ary of Dr. William Smith, with those of Fairbairn, Fausset, and others, 
have made a new era in Bible study ; and the Revised Version of Scrip- 
ture has appeared. 

All these recent works have been used in preparing this revised Bible 
Dictionary, with the purpose to present clearly and briefly the best attain- 
able results of Biblical research, new and old — gathering from many large 
and costly works all the important information which the pastor, the Sun- 
day-school teacher, or any earnest student of the Bible would require. 

A great proportion of the articles have been rewritten, many new 
illustrations have been added, and improved maps ; and in this revised 
and enlarged form the Dictionary is almost a new work. It is sent forth 
with the earnest recommendation that the student will use it only as an 
aid in the study of the Bible itself, turning to all the passages referred to, 
and inspecting them, with the purpose above all so to search the Scrip- 
tures as to find Him of whom chiefly they testify, and who alone is "the 
Way, the Truth, and the Life." 

W. W. RAND. 



EXPLANATORY. 



In this work the received chronology, in general that of Ussher, is 
adopted. While no little uncertainty exists as to some ancient epochs, 
the scientific speculations which would add many thousands of years to 
the early ages of mankind upon the earth are not confirmed by later re- 
searches. 

The meaning of Biblical names of persons and places is given in ital- 
ics where it can be determined; but in many cases it is conjectured from a 
somewhat uncertain derivation. 

In proper names of Greek origin g before e or i is pronounced soft, 
as in Genesis. But in almost all Scripture names it should be pronounced 
hard, as in Gethsemane, Gihon. 

Ch, in both Hebrew and Greek words, is pronounced like k, as in 
Chloe, Chios, Charran. The exceptions are Rachel, cherub, and cheru- 
bim. 

In referring to a passage of Scripture, the book is first named by the 
customary abridged form, then the chapter followed by a colon : the verses 
are separated from one another by commas, and from a following reference 
by a semicolon. When a dash is used, all the verses between the one pre- 
ceding and that following the dash are referred to. 

A. V. stands for the Authorized, or King James, Version of the Bible. 
R. V. for the Revised Version. 

ARABIC WORDS OF FREQUENT OCCURRENCE. 

Abu, father. Khan, inn. 

Km, fountain. Kh. for Khurbet, ruins. 

Bab, gate. Kubbet, dome. 

Bahr, sea. Kul'ah, castle. 

Beit, house. Kuryet, village. 

Benat, daughters. Merj, meadow. 

Beni, sons. Nahr, river. 

Bir, well. Nzby, prophet. 

Deir, convent. Ras, head. 

Ghor, a long valley. Tell, mound or hill. 

Hummam, bath. Tur, mountain. 

J. for Jebel, mountain. Um, mother. 

Jisr, bridge. Wady, bed of a stream. 

Kefr, village. Wely, saint. 

The Arabic definite article, el, often changes its final consonant ac- 
cording to the word to which it is attached, as ed-Deir, the castle ; er-Ram, 
Ramah ; esh-Sheikh, the old man. 



DICTIONARY 



OF 



THE HOLY BIBLE 



A. j the first letter in almost all alpha- 
bets. In Hebrew, it is called aleph; in 
Greek, alpha, the last letter in the Greek 
alphabet being omega. Both the Hebrews 
and Greeks used their letters as numerals ; 
and hence A {aleph or alpha) denoted one, 
or the first. So our Lord says, " I am Alpha 
and Omega, the beginning and the end, the 
first and the last;" thus declaring his eter- 
nity, and that he is the cause and end of all 
things, and that what he has been and has 
done is a surety of what he ever will be and 
-do, Rev. 1:8, n ; 21:6; 22:13. Compare 
Isa. 44:6; 48:12; Col. 1:15-18. 

AAR'ON, {ar'on), a teacher, or lofty, the 
:son of Amram and Jochebed, both of the 
tribe of Levi, and brother of Moses and 
Miriam, Exod. 6:20; born about the year 
A. M. 2430; B. C. 1574. He was younger 
than Miriam and 3 years older than Moses, 
Exod. 7:7; and was the spokesman and 
assistant of the latter in bringing Israel 
•out of Egypt, Exod. 4:16, 30; 7:19. His 
wife was Elisheba, daughter of Ammina- 
dab ; and his sons, Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, 
and Ithamar. He was 83 years old when 
God summoned him to join Moses in the 
desert near Horeb. Cooperating with his 
brother in the exodus from Egypt, Exod. 
4-16, he held up one of his hands in the 
battle with Amalek, Exod. 17:9; and ap- 
proached Mount Sinai with him to see the 
glory of God, Exod. 24:1, 2, 9-1 1, though 
Moses alone ascended to the summit. 



Aaron's chief distinction consisted in the 
choice of him and his male posterity for 
the priesthood. He was consecrated the 
first high-priest by God's directions, Exod. 
28, 29 ; Lev. 8 ; Psa. 106 : 16 ; and was after- 
wards confirmed in his office by the de- 
struction of Korah and his company, by 
the staying of the plague at his interces- 
sion, and by the budding of his rod, Num. 
16, 17. He was faithful and self-sacrificing 
in the duties of his office, and meekly " held 
his peace " when his sons Nadab and Abi- 
hu were slain, Lev. 10:1-3. Yet ne f eu< 
sometimes into grievous sins : he made the 
golden calf at Sinai, as an image of Jeho- 
vah for the people to worship, Exod. 32 ; 
he joined Miriam in sedition against Mo- 
ses, they presuming, the one as high-priest 
and the other as a prophetess, to claim like 
authority to his, Num. 12; and with Moses 
disobeyed God at Kadesh, Num. 20:8-12. 
God, therefore, did not permit him to enter 
the promised land ; but he died on Mount 
Hor, in Edom, near Mosera, Deut. 10:6, in 
the 40th year after leaving Egypt, at the 
age of about 123 years, and was buried by 
Moses and Eleazar, the latter succeeding 
him as high-priest, Num. 20:22-29; 33 '■ 39- 
The Arabs pretend to show his tomb on the 
mount still bearing his name, and highly 
venerate it. In his office as high-priest, 
Aaron was an eminent type of Christ : be- 
ing "called of God," and anointed; offer- 
ing sacrifices; bearing the names of the 

5 



A 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ABA 



tribes on his breast ; communicating God's 
will by Urim and Thummim ; entering the 
Most Holy place on the Day of Atonement, 
"not without blood;" and interceding for 
and blessing the people of God, Heb. 6 : 20. 
See Abiathar, Eleazar, Hor, Priest. 

AAR'ONITES, descendants of Aaron the 
high-priest, so called, 1 Chr. 12:27; 27:17. 
13 cities were assigned to them, in Judah 
and Benjamin, Josh. 21:13-19; 1 Chr. 6: 
57-60. 

AB, father, found in many compound 
Hebrew proper names : as Abner, father, 
or possessor, of light; Absalom, father of 
peace. 

AB. The 5th month of the sacred, and 
the nth of the civil, year among the Jews. 
It began, according to the latest authorities, 
with the new moon of late July or early 
August. It was a sad month in the Jewish 



calendar. . On its 1st day a fast was ob- 
served for the death of Aaron, Num. 33 : 38 ; 
and on its 9th another was held in mem- 
ory of the divine edicts which excluded so 
many that came out of Egypt from enter- 
ing the promised land ; and also of the 
overthrow of the 1st and 2d temple. See 
Month. 

ABAD'DON, or Apol'lyon. The former 
name is Hebrew and the latter Greek, and 
both signify the destroyer, Job 31:12; Rev. 
9:11. He is called the "angel of the 
abyss," that is, the angel of death, or the 
destroying angel, Psa. 78 : 49. Abaddon 
frequently occurs in the Hebrew, and is 
translated " destruction," meaning often 
the world of the dead, Job 26 : 6 ; 28 : 22 ; 
Psa. 88:11; Prov. 15:11. 

ABAG'THA, fortune-giver, a court-officer 
of Ahasuerus, Esth. 1 : 10. 




RIVER ABANA, NOW BARADA, AND DAMASCUS. 



ABA'NA, perennial, and Phar'par, swift, 
rivers of Damascus, 2 Kings 5:12. The 
Abana (or, as in the margin, Amana) was 
undoubtedly the present Barada, the Chry- 
sorrhoas of the Greeks. It is a clear, cold, 
and swift mountain stream, rising in Anti- 
Lebanon, northeast of Hermon, flowing 
southeast into the plain 23 miles, bursting 
through a gorge 2 miles northwest of Da- 
mascus, turning eastward, skirting the 
northern wall of the city, and terminating 
20 miles east in 2 of 3 large lakes. It is a 
perennial river, and so copious, that though 
no less than 9 or 10 branches or canals are 
drawn off from it to irrigate the plain and 
6 



supply the city and the numerous villages 
around it, the stream is a large one to the 
end. 

The only other independent river of any 
size in the territory of Damascus is the 
Awaj, which rises on the southeast slopes 
of Hermon, crosses the plain 8 miles or 
more south of Damascus, and enters the 
southernmost of the 3 lakes above referred 
to. This is supposed to be the Pharpar of 
the Bible. As these rivers of Damascus 
were never dry, but made the region they 
watered like the garden of Eden for fertil- 
ity and beauty, Naaman might well con- 
trast them with the Jordan whose waters 



ABA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ABE 



are often turbid, and with most of "the 
waters of Israel," which dry up under the 
summer sun. See Amana. 

ABA'RIM, mountains beyond, or of the 
fords, east of the Dead Sea and the Lower 
Jordan, " over against Jericho," within the 
territory of Moab and the tribe of Reuben. 
It is impossible to define exactly their ex- 
tent. The mountains Nebo, Pisgah, and 
Peor were in the Abarim, Num. 27:12; 
S3 : 47, 48 ; Deut. 32 : 49 ; 34: 1. Ije-abarim, 
Num. 21:11; 33:44, seems to denote the 
southern part of the same chain. It is 
probably referred to in Jer. 22 : 20, where it 
is rendered " passages." A Hebrew word, 
apparently of the same derivation, desig- 
nates the whole country beyond the Jor- 
dan. 

AB'BA, a Syriac word signifying/a//z<?r, 
easily pronounced by infant children, and 
expressing the peculiar tenderness, famili- 
arity, and confidence of the love between 
parent and child, Mark 14 : 36 ; Rom. 8:15; 
Gal. 4:6. Luther translated Abba, Pater, 
"Abba, dear Father." In the Old Testa- 
ment God sought for the filial love and trust 
of his people, Jer. 3:4; but it is through 
Christ alone that we receive the true spirit 
of adoption, and learn to call God " Our 
Father," Luke 11:2; John 17 : 1, 21 ; 20 : 17. 

ABED'NEGO, servant of Nego ; a Chal- 
dee name given to Azariah, one of the three 
captive young princes of Judah, B. C. 604, 
who were Daniel's companions at the court 
of the king of Babylon, Dan. 1 : 7. Their 
virtue, wisdom, and piety secured their 
promotion at court, Dan. 1 : 3-19 ; 2 : 17, 49 ; 
and their steadfastness in witnessing for 
God among idolators, with their deliver- 
ance from the fiery furnace by the Angel- 
Jehovah, led many to acknowledge the true 
God, and rendered these pious youth for 
ever illustrious as monuments of the excel- 
lence and safety of faith in Him, Dan. 3 ; 
Heb. 11:34. See Daniel, Furnace. 

A'BEL, in Hebrew Hebel, vapor; the 
2d son of Adam and Eve. His name was 
a recognition at the outset of the short- 
ness of human life, Jas. 4 : 14. He became 
a shepherd, and offered to God a sacrifice 
from his flocks, at the same time that Cain 
his brother offered of the fruits of the earth. 
God received Abel's sacrifice and not 
Cain's; hence Cain in anger killed Abel, 
Gen. 4, who was the first martyr, Matt. 
2 3 : 35- See Sacrifice. It was " by faith " 
that Abel offered a more acceptable sacri- 
fice than Cain ; that is, his heart was right 
towards God, and he worshipped Him in 



trustful obedience to the divine directions. 
His offering, made by the shedding of 
blood, was that of a penitent sinner con- 
fiding in the atonement ordained of God; 
and it was accepted, " God testifying of his 
gifts," probably by fire from heaven; "by 
which he obtained witness that he was right- 
eous," that is, justified, Heb. 11:4. His life 
was short, but not therefore fruitless : for 
his bright and early example of faith in a 
divine atonement for sinners has been a 
beacon-light for all ages since, guiding men 
to Christ. The first of the human race to 
die, he was also the first to enter heaven, 
and a pledge and firstfruits of a harvest 
none can number. "The blood of Abel" 
called from the ground for vengeance, Gen. 
4 : 10 ; but the blood of Christ claims for- 
giveness and salvation for his people, Heb. 
12 : 24 ; 1 John 1 : 7. See Sin. 

Abel is also a prefix in the names of 
several towns. In such cases it signifies a 
grassy place or meadow. 

ABEL-BETH-MA'ACHAH, meadow of the 
house of Maachah; a town in the tribe of 
Naphtali, north of Lake Merom, now prob- 
ably Abil-el-Karub, in the upper region of 
the Jordan, in the latitude of Tyre. It was 
a place of some value, and was besieged in 
the rebellion of Sheba, 2 Sam. 20:13-22. 
80 years afterwards it was taken by Ben- 
hadad, 1 Kin. 15 : 20, and again, after 200 
years, by Tiglath-pileser, 2 Kin. 15:29. It 
is called Abel-maim in 2 Chr. 16 : 4. Com- 
pare 1 Kin. 15 : 20. Also simply Abel, 2 Sam. 
20:18. 

ABEL-CARMA'IM, or Kera'mim, meadow 
of vineyards ; a village of the Ammonites, 
6 miles from Rabbath-Ammon ; in the his- 
tory of Jephthah it is called "the plain of 
the vineyards," Judg. 11 : 33. 

ABEL-MEHO'LAH, meadow of the da?ice, 
or Abel-mea, a town of Issachar, near the 
Jordan, 10 miles south of Beth-shean. Near 
this place Gideon defeated the Midianites, 
Judg. 7:22; and here Elisha was born, 
1 Kin. 19: 16. 

ABEL-MIZ'RAM, meadow (or, otherwise 
pointed, mourning) of the Egyptians ; so 
called from the 7 days' lamentation of Jo- 
seph and his company on bringing up the 
body of Jacob from Egypt for burial, Gen. 
50:10, 11. It lay in the plain of Jericho, 
between that city and the Jordan. Jerome 
locates it at Beth-hoglah. 

ABEL-SHIT'TIM, plain of the acacias, in 
the plains of Moab, east of the Jordan, and 
near Mount Peor. It was one of the last 
encampments of Israel before the death of 

7 



ABI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ABI 



Moses, Num. 33:49; called also Shittim, 
Josh. 2 : 1. Here the Israelites were enticed 
by the women of Moab and Midian into 
uncleanness and the idolatry of Baal-peor, 
and 24,000 died of the plague, Num. 25. 

ABI'A. See Abijah. 

ABI'AH, the Lord is viy father, 2d son 
of Samuel, who appointed his brother and 
him judges in Israel. Their corruption and 
injustice were the pretext upon which the 
people demanded a king, 1 Sam. 8 : 1-5. 

ABI'ATHAR, father of abundance, son 
of Ahimelech, and 4th high-priest of the 
Jews after Eli. When Saul sent his emis- 
saries to Nob, Psa. 52, to destroy all the 
priests there, Abiathar, who was young, 
fled to David in the wilderness, 1 Sam. 
22:11-23, with whom he continued in the 
character of priest, 1 Sam. 23 : 9 ; 30 : 7. 
Being confirmed in the high-priesthood on 
David's accession to the throne, he aided 
in bringing up the ark to Jerusalem, 1 Chr. 
15: 11, 12, and adhered to David during the 
rebellion of Absalom, 2 Sam. 15:35; 1 Chr. 
27:34; but afterwards was led to follow 
Adonijah,thus strangely betraying his royal 
friend in his old age. Solomon succeeding 
to the throne, degraded him from the priest- 
hood, and sent him to Anathoth, 1 Kin. 
2 : 26, 27 ; thus fulfilling the prediction made 
to Eli 150 years before, 1 Sam. 2:27-36; 
3 : 11-14. Saul, it would appear, had trans- 
ferred the dignity of the high-priesthood 
from the line of Ithamar, to which Eli be- 
longed, to that of Eleazar, by conferring the 
office upon Zadok. Thus there were, at 
the same time, 2 high-priests in Israel — 
Abiathar with David, and Zadok with Saul. 
This double high -priesthood continued 
from the death of Ahimelech till the reign 
of Solomon, after which the office was held 
by Zadok and his race alone. See Elea- 
zar. 

A difficulty arises from the circumstance 
that, in 1 Kin. 2 : 27, Abiathar is said to be 
deprived of the priest's office by Solomon, 
while in 2 Sam. 8:17; 1 Chr. 18:16; 24:3, 
6, 31, Ahimelech the son of Abiathar is said 
to be high-priest along with Zadok. The 
most probable solution is, that both father 
and son each bore the 2 names Ahime- 
lech and Abiathar, as was not at all unu- 
sual among the Jews. See under Abigail. 
In this way also we may remove the diffi- 
culty arising from Mark 2 : 26, where Abia- 
thar is said to have given David the show- 
bread, in allusion to 1 Sam. 21 :i-6, where 
it is Ahimelech. 

A'BIB, the 1 st month of the ecclesiasti- 
8 



cal year of the Hebrews; afterwards called 
Nisan. It answered nearly to our April. 
Abib signifies green ears of grain, or fresh 
fruits. It was so named, because grain, 
particularly barley, was in ear at that time. 
The firstfruits of barley were to be offered 
on the 15th of Abib ; and the barley harvest 
now occurs in the latter part of April. See 
Month. On the 10th of this month the 
passover was set apart; it was killed on 
the 14th towards sunset, and eaten the 
same evening after the 15th had begun. 
The 7 days from the 15th to the 21st inclu- 
sive were " the feast of unleavened bread," 
closing with a solemn convocation, Exod. 
12, 13. 

AB'IEL, father of strength, I. the father 
of Kish and Ner, and grandfather of Saul 
and Abner, 1 Sam. 9:1; 14 : 51. 

II. One of David's 30 mighty men, 1 Chr. 
11 :32; Abi-albon, 2 Sam. 23:31. 

ABIE'ZER, father of help, great-grand- 
son of Manasseh, Num. 26 : 29, 30 : 1 Chr. 
7 : 14-18 ; and founder of the family to which 
Gideon belonged, Josh. 17:2; Judg. 6:34; 
8:2. In this last verse, "the vintage of 
Abiezer " means the 1st rout of the Mid- 
ianites by the 300, mostly Abiezrites ; and 
"the gleaning of the grapes of Ephraim " 
means the capture of Oreb and Zeeb, and 
other fruits of the victory, gathered by the 
Ephraimites. 

AB'IG AIL, father of joy, I., formerly the 
wife of Nabal of Carmei, and afterwards of 
David. The issue of this marriage was, as 
some critics suppose, two sons, Chileab and 
Daniel, 2 Sam. 3:351 Chr. 3:1; but prob- 
ably these names were borne by one per- 
son. 

II. A sister of David, and mother of Ama- 
sa, 2 Sam. 17 : 25 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 16, 17. 

AB'IHAIL, father of might, the wife of 
Rehoboam, king of Judah, 2 Chr. 11:18; 
the " daughter" — that is here, the descend- 
ant — of Eliab, David's brother. 

ABI'HU, he (God) is my father, the 2d 
son of Aaron and Elisheba, Exod. 6 : 23 ; 
Num. 3:2; honored with his brother Na- 
dab, Ex. 24:1; consecrated to the priest- 
hood with his 3 brethren, Exod. 28 : 41 ; 
but shortly after killed by lightning from 
the Lord, with Nadab, for burning incense 
with common fire instead of the holy fire 
that was kept burning perpetually on the 
altar of burnt-offerings, Lev. 6:9,12; 10: 
1, 2; 16:12; Num. 16:46. As this is imme- 
diately followed by the prohibition of wine 
to the priests when ministering in the tab- 
ernacle, it is not improbable that Nadab 



ABI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ABI 



and Abihu were intoxicated when thus 
transgressing. Their death is a solemn 
warning not to presume to worship God 
except with incense kindled at the one al- 
tar which Christ hath sanctified and made 
acceptable with his blood, Heb. 10:10-14. 
It is a dangerous thing, in the service of 
God, to decline from his own institutions. 
We have to do with a God who is wise to 
prescribe his own worship, just to require 
what he has prescribed, and powerful to 
punish what he has not prescribed, Col. 
2 : 20-23. 

ABI'JAH, the Lord is my father, I., called, 
in Luke 1:5, Abia; founder of a family 
among the posterity of Aaron and Eleazar. 
When David divided the priests into 24 
courses, to perform the temple service in 
turn, the 8th class was called after him, 
1 Chr. 24 : 10. To this class Zacharias be- 
longed. 

II. Son of Jeroboam the 1st king of Isra- 
el. He died young, and much beloved and 
lamented, 1 Kin. 14:1-18. 

III. Son of Rehoboam the 1st king of Ju- 
dah, Mat. 1:7; called, in 1 Kin. 15:1, Abi- 
jam. He came to the throne B. C. 958, in 
the 18th year of Jeroboam I., and reigned 
only 3 years. In war with Jeroboam he 
gained a signal victory, 2 Chr. 13 ; yet he 
followed the evil example of his father, 
1 Kin. 14:23, 24. There is some reason 
for believing that the numbers in 2 Chr. 
13:3, 17 should be, as Josephus and some 
editions of the Vulgate have them — 40,000, 
80,000, and 50,000. His mother Maachah, 
or Michaiah, was probably the grand- 
daughter of Absalom and daughter of Uri- 
el, 1 Kin. 15:2; 2 Chr. 1 1 : 20 ; 13:2. 

IV. The mother of king Hezekiah, 2 Chr. 
29 : 1 ; called Abi in 2 Kin. 18 : 2. 

ABILE'NE, a district on the eastern de- 
clivity of Anti-Lebanon, from 12 to 20 miles 
northwest of Damascus ; so called from the 
<:ity Abila, in a gorge, on the river Abana 
or Barada, and also called Abilene of Ly- 
sanias, to distinguish it from others. In 
the 15th year of Tiberius, Abilene was a 
tetrarchate under Lysanias, Luke 3:1. 

ABIM'ELECH, father-king, I., king of 
Gerar of the Philistines, who took Sarah 
into his harem, compare Gen. 12 : 15 ; Esth. 
2:3; but being restrained by God in a 
dream, he restored her to Abraham, and 
gave him 1,000 pieces of silver as a "cov- 
ering of the eyes " for Sarah, that is, as an 
atoning present, and to be a testimony of 
her innocence in the eyes of all ; or as some 
think, for a veil to hide her beauty, and 



"thus was she reproved" for not wearing 
one. He afterwards made a league with 
Abraham, Gen. 20, 21. 

II. Another king of Gerar, probably son 
of the former, and contemporary with Isaac. 
He rebuked Isaac for dissimulation in re- 
gard to Rebekah, and afterwards made a 
new league with him at Beersheba, Gen. 
26. 

III. A son of Gideon by a concubine- 
wife, Judg. 8:31, made himself king of 
Shechem after his father's death, and slew 
his father's 70 sons, only Jotham the 
youngest being left, B. C. 1235. Jotham 
reproached the Shechemites in his celebra- 
ted fable of the trees. Three years after- 
wards they rose against Abimelech ; he de- 
feated them, but perished ignominiously in 
attacking Thebez, Judg. 9; 2 Sam. 11 : 21. 

ABIN'ADAB, father of nobleness, the 
same as Aminadab, b and m being often 
interchanged in Hebrew. I. A Levite of 
Kirjath-jearim, in whose house the ark of 
God, when restored by the Philistines, re- 
mained 70 years, 1 Sam. 7 : 1 ; 1 Chr. 13 : 7. 

II. The 2d son of Jesse, one of the 3 who 
followed Saul in the war with the Philis- 
tines, 1 Sam. 16:8; 17 : 13. 

III. A son of Saul, slain in the battle at 
Gilboa, 1 Sam. 31:2; 1 Chr. 8 : 33 ; 10 : 2. 

ABI'RAM, a high father, I., a prince of 
Reuben, who with Korah, Dathan, etc., 
conspired to overthrow the authority of 
Moses and Aaron in the wilderness, Num. 
16. See Korah. 

II. 1 Kin. 16:34, a son of Hiel, who per- 
ished early because of his father's presump- 
tion in rebuilding Jericho. See Hiel. 

AB'ISHAG, father of error, a beautiful 
virgin of Shunem, in Issachar, chosen to be 
a member of the household of David in his 
old age and cherish him. After his death, 
Adonijah sought her hand to promote his 
treasonable aspirations, and was punished 
by death, 1 Kin. 1, 2. 

ABISH'AI, father of a gift, eldest son of 
Zeruiah, David's sister, brother of Joab and 
Asahel, one of the bravest of David's chiv- 
alric order of "mighty men," 1 Chr. 2 : 16, 
always faithful to his royal uncle, and usu- 
ally a personal attendant. He went with 
him alone to the tent of Saul, 1 Sam. 26: 
5-12 ; and was a leader in the war with Ish- 
bosheth, 2 Sam. 2 : 18, 24, in the war with 
the Edomites, 1 Chr. 18 : 12, 13, and with the 
Syrians and Ammonites, 2 Sam. 10 : 10, 14. 
In a battle with the Philistines, he rescued 
David, and slew Ishbi-benob the giant, 
2 Sam. 21 : 16, 17. He broke through their 

9 



ABI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ABR 



host around Bethlehem, and lifted up his 
spear against 300, and slew them, 2 Sam. 

23 : 14-18 ; and was with David in the affairs 
of Shimei, Absalom, and Sheba' 2 Sam. 
16:9; 18:2; 19:21; 20:6,7. 

ABISH'U Afalher of welfare, son of Phin- 
ehas, and 4th high-priest, 1 Chr. 6:4, 5, 50. 
He was probably a contemporary of Eglon 
and Ehud, Judg. 3. 

AB'NER, father of light, the son of Ner ; 
Saul's cousin, and the general of his armies, 
1 Sam. 14 : 50. He knew David, and aided 
Saul in persecuting him, 1 Sam. 17:57; 
26 : 3-14. • For 7 years after Saul's death 
he supported Ishbosheth ; but being re- 
proved by him for his conduct towards 
Rizpah, he undertook to unite the whole 
kingdom under David. He was, however, 
treacherously slain by Joab, either to re- 
venge the death of Asahel, Joab's brother, 
whom Abner had formerly killed, or more 
probably from jealousy. David abhorred 
this perfidious act, and composed an elegy 
on his death, 2 Sam. 2:8; 3 : 33. He also 
charged Solomon to punish the crime of 
Joab with death, 1 Kin. 2 : 5, 6. See Joab. 

ABOMINA'TION, a term applied in Scrip- 
ture to objects of great detestation. Idols 
and their worship were so named, because 
they robbed God of his honor, while the 
rites themselves were impure and cruel, 
Deut. 7 : 25, 26 ; 12:31. The term was used 
respecting the Hebrews in Egypt, Gen. 
43 : 32, Exod. 8 : 26, either because they ate 
and sacrificed animals held sacred by the 
Egyptians, or because they did not observe 
those ceremonies in eating which made a 
part of the religion of Egypt ; and in Gen. 
46 : 34, because they were " wandering shep- 
herds," a race of whom had for a time grie- 
vously oppressed Egypt. 

The Abomination of Desolation fore- 
told by Daniel, 9:27; 11:31; 12:11, de- 
notes, probably, the image of Jupiter, erect- 
ed in the temple of Jerusalem by command 
of Antiochus Epiphanes, 170 B. C, 2 Mac. 
6 : 2 ; 1 Mac. 6 : 7. But by the Abomination 
of Desolation spoken of by our Lord, Matt. 

24 : 15 ; Mark 13 : 14, and foretold as about 
to be seen at Jerusalem during the last 
siege of that city by the Romans under Ti- 
tus, is commonly understood the Roman 
army, whose standards had the images of 
their gods and emperors upon them, and 
were worshipped in the precincts of the 
temple when that and the city were taken. 
Perhaps, however, it refers to some iniquity 
of the Jewish zealots near the beginning of 
the siege, Luke 21 : 20. See Armor. The 

10 



initials SPQR are for Senatus Populusque 
Romanus, the Senate and the People of 
Rome. 




A'BRAM, high father, afterwards named 
A'BRAHAM, father of a multitude, Gen. 
17:4, 5; see Names; the great founder of 
the Jewish nation, as well as of the Ish- 
maelites and other Arabian tribes, Gen. 
25. He was a son of Terah, a descend- 
ant of Shem, and brother of Nahor and 
Haran, and wr.s born in Ur, a city of Chal- 
dea, A. M. 2008, B. C. 1996, Gen. 11 :27, 28. 
Here he lived 70 years, when at the call of 
God he left his idolatrous kindred, Josh. 
24 : 2, 14, and removed to Haran, in Meso- 
potamia, Acts 7 : 2-4, accompanied by his 
father, his wife Sarai, his brother Nahor, 
and his nephew Lot. A few years after, 
having buried his father, he again removed 
at the call of God, with his wife and neph- 
ew, and entered the land of promise as a 
nomade or wandering shepherd, Heb. 11:8. 
Sojourning for a time at Shechem, he built 
here, as was his custom, an altar to the 
Lord, who appeared to him, and promised 
that land to his seed. Removing from place 
to place for convenience of water and pas- 
turage, he was at length driven by a famine 
into Egypt, where he dissembled in calling 
his wife his sister, Gen. 12. Returning to 
Canaan rich in flocks and herds, he gener- 
ously left Lot to dwell in the fertile valley 
of the Lower Jordan, and pitched his own 
tents in Mamre, Gen. 13. A few years after, 
he rescued Lot and his friends from cap- 
tivity, and received the blessing of Mel- 
chizedek, Gen. 14. 

Again God appeared to him, promised 
that his seed should be like the stars for 
number, and foretold their oppression in 



ABR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ABS 



Egypt 400 years, and their return to pos- 
sess the promised land, Gen. 15. But the 
promise of a son being yet unfulfilled, Sa- 
rai gave him Hagar her maid for a second- 
ary wife, of whom Ishmael was born, Gen. 
16; and it is noteworthy, that though Abra- 
ham took Hagar at the request of his wife, 
as Adam did the fruit, Gen. 3:17, great 
domestic troubles ensued. After 13 years, 
God again appeared to him, and assured 
him that the heir of the promise should yet 
be born of his wife, whose name was then 
changed to Sarah. He established also the 



:enant of circumcision, Gen. 1; 



Here, 



too, occurred the visit of the 3 angels, and 
the memorable intercession with the Angel- 
Jehovah for the inhabitants of Sodom, Gen. 
18. After this, Abraham journeyed south 
to Gerar, where he again called Sarah his 
sister. In this region Isaac was born, when 
Abraham was about 100 years old, Rom. 
4 : 19-22, and soon after, Hagar and Ish- 
mael were driven out to seek a new home, 
Gen. 21. 

About 25 years after, God put to trial the 
faith of Abraham, by commanding him to 
sacrifice Isaac, his son and the heir of the 
promise, upon Mount Moriah, Gen. 22. 
After 12 years, Sarah died, and the cave of 
Machpelah was bought for a burial-place, 
Gen. 23. Abraham sent his steward, and 
obtained a wife for Isaac from his pious 
kindred in Mesopotamia, Gen. 24. He him- 
self also married Keturah, and had 6 sons, 
each one the founder of a distinct people in 
Arabia. At the age of 175, full of years 
and honors, he died, and was buried by his 
sons Isaac and Ishmael in the same tomb 
with Sarah, Gen. 25. See Machpelah. 

The character of Abraham is one of the 
most remarkable in Scripture. He was a 
genuine Oriental patriarch, of free and 
simple manners, a prince in the land; his 
property was large, his retinue very nu- 
merous, and he commanded the respect of 
the neighboring people; and yet he was 
truly a stranger and a pilgrim, the only 
land he possessed being the burial-place 
he had purchased. Distinguished by his 
integrity, generosity, and hospitality, he 
was most of all remarkable for his simple 
and unwavering faith, a faith that obeyed 
without hesitation or delay, and recoiled 
not from the most fearful trial ever im- 
posed upon man, so that he is justly styled 
"the father of the faithful," that is, of be- 
lievers. He is repeatedly distinguished by 
the honorable title, "the friend of God," 
2 Chr. 20 : 7 ; Isa. 41 : 8 ; Jas. 2 : 23 ; and the 



name El-Khulil, the friend, is still given by 
the Arabs both to him and to Hebron his 
home. No name in history is venerated by 
so large a portion of the human race, Mo- 
hammedans as well as Jews and Chris- 
tians. He understood and rejoiced in the 
promise that in his divine descendant the 
Messiah all nations should be blessed, 
John 8 : 56 ; and as the ancestor of Christ 
and the father of all believers, the cove- 
nant is abundantly fulfilled to him : his 
seed are as the stars of heaven, and with 
them he shall inherit the heavenly Canaan. 

Abraham's Bosom, in Luke 16 : 22, the 
state of bliss in paradise which the father 
of the faithful was enjoying. This is often 
represented as a feast or banquet, Matt. 
8:11; Luke 13 : 29. To lean on one's bosom 
refers to the Oriental mode of reclining at 
table, John 13 : 23. See Eating. 

AB'SALOM, father of peace, only son of 
David by Maacah, 2 Sam. 3 : 3, born about 
1033 B. C. He was remarkable for his 
beauty and for his fine head of hair, 2 Sam. 
14 : 25, which being cut when it incommo- 
ded him, used to weigh 200 shekels, an ex- 
traordinary weight, suggesting a copyist's 
error, or that a heavy coronet or other head 
ornament was included. Amnon, another 
of the king's sons, having violated his sis- 
ter Tamar, Absalom caused him to be slain, 
and then fled to Geshur, where Talmai his 
grandfather was king. After 3 years, at 
the intercession of Joab, David permitted 
him to return to Jerusalem, and at length 
received him again into favor, 2 Sam. 14. 
Absalom, however, grossly abused his fa- 
ther's kindness ; by many artful devices 
"stole the hearts of the people," and got 
himself proclaimed king in Hebron. Da- 
vid retired from Jerusalem ; Absalom fol- 
lowed him after a fatal providential delay, 
and in the battle which ensued he was de- 
feated, and being caught by his head in a 
tree, was found and slain by Joab, and bur- 
ied with dishonor, 2 Sam. 18 : 17, 18 ; Josh. 
7 : 26. David was much affected by his 
death, and uttered bitter lamentations over 
him, 2 Sam. 18 : 2>Z- See also Psa. 3. 

His history affords instructive lessons to 
the young against the sins to which they 
are prone, particularly vanity, ambition, 
lawless passions, and filial disobedience. 

The " Tomb of Absalom," as it is called, 
in the valley east of Jerusalem, is of com- 
paratively modern date, and of unknown 
origin and purpose. It may possibly mark 
the site of the monument mentioned in 
2 Sam. 18:18. 



ABS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ACH 




TOMB OF ABSALOM. 



AB'STINENCE. See FASTING. 

AC'CAD, band or fortress, one of the 4 
cities built in the plain of Shinar by Nim- 
rod, founder of the Assyrian empire, Gen. 
10: 10. Its site is identified by some trav- 
ellers with Nisibis, in northern Mesopota- 
mia. By others, with ruins called Akker- 
kuf, which lie from 6 to 9 miles west of 
Bagdad. There is here a ruinous struc- 
ture called Tell-nimrud, Hill of Nimrod, 
consisting of a mass of brickwork 400 feet 
in circumference at the base, and 125 feet 
high, standing on a mound of rubbish. 

ACCEPT', to receive with favor, Luke 
4 : 24. So the penitent and believing sinner 
is welcomed by God for Christ's sake — 
"accepted in the Beloved," Eph. 1 :6. 

AC'CHO, sun-heated, a seaport of the tribe 
of Asher, Judg. 1 .31. In the New Testa- 
ment, Accho is called Ptolemais, Acts 21 :j, 
from one of the Ptolemies, who enlarged 
and beautified it. The Crusaders gave it 
the name of Acre, or St. John of Acre. It 
is still called Akka by the Turks. 

Accho, with all the sea-coast beyond it 
northwards, was considered a half-heathen 
land by the Jews. 

ACCURSED', devoted to destruction, 
Deut. 21 : 23 ; Josh. 6 : 17, 18. See Anath- 
ema. 

ACCUSA'TION written, a statement of 
the crime for which one was executed. 

ACCU'SER, an enemy or adversary, es- 
pecially in a court of law, Matt. 5 : 25 ; Luke 
18 : 3. So Satan is the public accuser of 
12 



God's people, Job 1:6; Zech. 3:1; Rev. 
12 : 10. 

ACEL'DAMA,>/rf of blood, a small field 
south of Jerusalem, which the priests pur- 
chased with the 30 pieces of silver that 
Judas had received as the price of our Sa- 
viour's blood, Matt. 27 : 8 ; Acts 1 : 19, the 
" potter's field," to be a burying-place for 
strangers. Judas is said, Acts 1 : 8, to have 
purchased the field, because it was bought 
with his money. See Judas. Tradition 
points out this field on the steep hill of 
Evil Counsel overhanging the valley of 
Hinnom on the south. It appears to have 
been used, after the time of the Crusaders, 
as a sepulchre for pilgrims, and great 
quantities of its soil were carried away by 
Crusaders for burial-places at Rome, Pisa, 
and elsewhere. 

ACHA'IA, trouble, used in the New Tes- 
tament for the whole region of Greece 
south of Macedonia, including the Pelopon- 
nesus, or Morea, and some territory north 
of the Gulf of Corinth, Acts 18 : 12 ; 19 : 21 ; 
2 Cor. 11 : 10. It was a Roman province in 
Paul's time, and was governed by a pro- 
consul, in our version " deputy," Acts 18 : 
12. Achaia proper, however, embraced 
only the northwestern part of the Pelopon- 
nessus. See Greece. 

ACHA'ICUS. See FORTUNATUS. 

A'CHAN, troubler, the son of Carmi, of 
the tribe of Judah ; he violated the divine 
anathema and disobeyed the strict charge 
of the Lord, by purloining some of the 



ACH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ACH 



spoils of Jericho which were doomed to 
destruction. This brought a curse and de- 
feat upon the people. He was discovered 
by lot, and stoned with all his family, prob- 
ably accessories, in the valley of Achor, 
north of Jericho, Josh. 6 : 18 ; 7 : 1-26. He 
is called Achar in 1 Chr. 2 : 7. See Achor. 

A'CHIM, Heb. Jachin, an abridgment of 
Jehoiachin, the name of an ancestor of our 
Lord, in the genealogical register five de- 
grees back from Joseph, Matt. 1 : 14. 

A'CHISH, angry, king of Gath, a city of 
the Philistines, to whom David twice fled 
for protection from Saul. On the first oc- 
casion, being recognized and thinking his 
life in danger, he feigned madness, and so 
escaped, 1 Sam. 21 : 10. Several years after, 
he returned with a band of 600 men, and 



was welcomed by Achish as an enemy of 
Saul and of Israel. Achish gave him Zik- 
lag for a residence ; and being deceived as 
to the views and operations of David, ex- 
pected his assistance in a war with Israel, 
but was persuaded by his officers to send 
him home to Ziklag, 1 Sam. 26-29. 

ACH'METHA, Ezra 6 : 2, supposed to 
mean Ecbatana, the chief city of Media, 
inferior to none in the East but Babylon 
and Nineveh. There were two cities of this 
name : the northern city, the capital of Cy- 
rus, now Takht-i-Suleiman, was surround- 
ed by 7 walls of different heights and colors. 
The southern and larger city was a sum- 
mer residence of the Persian kings after 
Darius. Travellers identify it with the 
modern Hamadan, in which many Jews 




HAMADAN. 



still reside, and where they profess to point 
out the tomb of Mordecai and Esther. 

A'CHOR, trouble, a valley north of Jeri- 
cho, according to Jerome ; so called, per- 
haps, from the troubles occasioned by the 
sin of Achan, who was here put to death, 
Josh. 7 : 26. The prophets allude to it with 
promises of hope and joy in the gospel era, 
Isa. 65 : 10; Hos. 2 : 15. The northern boun- 
dary of Judah reached it, Josh. 15 : 7; from 
which it would seem to have lain south of 
Jericho, which was in Benjamin. 

ACH'SAH, anklet, the daughter of Caleb, 
given in marriage with a large dowry to 
his nephew Othniel, as a prize for taking 
the city Debir, Josh. 15 : 15-19 ; Judg. 1 : 13. 

ACH'SHAPH, fascination, a royal city of 



the Canaanites, Josh. 11 :i, conquered by 
Joshua, and assigned to the tribe of Asher, 
Josh. 12:20; 19:25. Dr. Robinson finds 
its ruins, now called Kesaf, a little south- 
west of the curve of the Orontes, more than 
halfway from Tyre to the Upper Jordan. 

ACH'ZIB, lying, I., a city of Asher, from 
which, however, the Jews were unable to 
expel the Canaanites, Judg. 1:31. It was 
afterwards called by the Greeks Ecdippa, 
and is now named Zib ; it lay on the sea- 
coast, 10 miles north of Acre. 

II. Probably called Chezib in Gen. 38: 5, 
a town in the plain of Judah, towards La- 
chish and Gath, Josh. 15 : 44. See also Mic. 
1 : 14, where the word rendered a lie is also 
achzib. 

13 



ACR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ADA 



A'CRE, i Sam. 14: 14; Isa. 5: 10, literally 
a yoke, as much land as a yoke of oxen 
would plough in a day. 

ACTS OF the APOSTLES, the 5th canon- 
ical book of the New Testament, written 
by Luke as a sequel to his Gospel, and a 
history in part of the early church from 
A. D. 30 to 65, Luke 1:1-4; Acts 1:1. It is 
not, however, a record of the acts of all the 
apostles, but chiefly of those of Peter and 
Paul. In his Gospel, Luke described the 
founding of Christianity in what Christ did, 
taught, and suffered : in the Acts he illus- 
trates its diffusion, selecting what was best 
fitted to show how the Holy Spirit guided 
and blessed the first followers of Christ in 
building up his church. Beginning where 
his Gospel ended, he narrates the ascension 
of the Saviour and the conduct of the dis- 
ciples thereupon; the outpouring of the 
Holy Spirit according to Christ's promise; 
the miraculous preaching of the apostles, 
their amazing success, and the persecutions 
raised against them, with other events of 
moment to the church at Jerusalem, till they 
were scattered abroad. He then shows how 
Judaism was superseded, and how Peter 
was led to receive to Christian fellowship 
converts from the Gentiles. The 2d divis- 
ion of the narrative is devoted to the con- 
version and calling of the apostle Paul, 
his missionary zeal, labors, and sufferings 
chiefly among the Gentiles, and ends with 
his 2 years' imprisonment at Rome. 

Luke himself witnessed, to a great ex- 
tent, the events he narrates. See Acts 16 : 
ir ; 20:6 to 28 : 31. His Greek is the most 
classical in the New Testament; and the 
view he gives of the spirit of the early 
church, so many of whose members had 
"been with the Lord," is invaluable. The 
book was probably written about A. D. 63 
or 64, that is, soon after the time at which 
the narration terminates. The place where 
it was written is not known, but may have 
been Rome. Its genuineness was univer- 
sally recognized by the early church, and 
is confirmed by the searching criticism of 
modern times. 

In order to read the Acts of the Apostles 
with intelligence and profit, it is necessary 
to have a sufficient acquaintance with geog- 
raphy, with the manners of the times and 
people referred to, and with the leading 
historical events. The power of the Ro- 
mans, with the nature and names of the 
public offices they established, and the dis- 
tinctions among them, must be understood, 
as well as the disposition and political 
14 



opinions of the unconverted Jewish nation, 
which were too prevalent among the Chris- 
tianized Hebrews. 

AD'AM, -the progenitor and representa- 
tive head of our race ; formed of the dust 
of the ground, to which (its redness) his 
name refers, and made a living soul by the 
Creator's breath. The account of the crea- 
tion, etc., in Genesis, seems to be in 3 parts : 
the 1st, ch. 1:1 to 2:3, being general and 
preliminary ; the 2d, ch. 2 : 4 to 4 : 26, rela- 
ting to Paradise and the fall, and the fam- 
ily of Adam ; and the 3d, ch. 5:1 to 9 : 29, 
giving the history of the patriarchs, down 
to Noah. See Creation. 

Adam alone, of all beings on earth, was 
made " in the image and likeness of God " — 
with reason, conscience, the faculty of 
knowing, loving, and communing with 
God, etc., and was the greatest and last 
work of the creation, and received domin- 
ion over all that the earth contained. That 
he might not be alone, God provided Eve 
as a helpmeet for him, and she became his 
wife. Marriage is thus a divine institu- 
tion, first in order of time, as well as of 
importance and blessedness to mankind. 
Adam was made a perfect man — complete 
in every physical, mental, and spiritual 
endowment; and placed in the garden of 
Eden on probation, holy and happy, but 
liable to sin. From this estate he fell by 
breaking the express command of God, 
through the temptations of Satan and the 
compliance of Eve ; and thus brought the 
curse upon himself and all his posterity. 
Sovereign grace interposed ; a Saviour was 
revealed, and the full execution of the 
curse stayed ; but Adam was banished from 
Eden and its tree of life, and reduced to a 
life of painful toil. His happiness was fur- 
ther imbittered by witnessing the fruits of 
his fall in his posterity. Cain his firstborn 
son, and Abel the second, born in the like- 
ness of their fallen parents, were erelong 
lost to them— the one slain, and the other 
a fugitive. They had many other sons and 
daughters, but the name of Seth alone is 
given. Adam lived to the age of 930 years, 
and saw the earth rapidly peopled by his 
descendants; but "the wickedness of man 
was great upon the earth." At the time of 
his death, Lamech, the father of Noah, was 
56 years of age ; and being in the line of 
those who "walked with God," had proba- 
bly heard the early history of the race from 
the lips of the penitent Adam. 

The curse pronounced on man includes 
not only physical labor and toil on a bar- 



ADA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ADO 



ren and thorny earth, and the physical 
dissolution of the body, but also the ex- 
posure of the soul, the nobler part, to ever- 
lasting death. In that very day Adam lost 
the moral image of his Maker, and became 
subject not only to physical death, but also 
to God's eternal wrath and curse, which is 
death in the highest sense of the word, and 
is the doom which has fallen upon all his 
race. Such is the view of the apostle Paul, 
who everywhere contrasts the death intro- 
duced into the world through Adam with 
the life which is procured for the redeemed 
through Jesus Christ, Rom. 5. This life is 
spiritual ; and the death, in its highest 
sense, is also spiritual. So far as the pen- 
alty is temporal and physical, no man is or 
can be exempt from it ; but to remove the 
spiritual and eternal punishment, Christ 
has died ; and he who comes to Him in 
penitence and faith will avoid the threat- 
ened death, and enter into life eternal, both 
of the body and the soul. 

The Redeemer is called " the 2d Adam," 
1 Cor. 15 : 45, as being the head of his spir- 
itual seed, and the source of righteousness 
and life to all believers, as the 1st Adam 
was the source of sin and death to all his 
seed. 

II. A city near the Jordan, towards the 
Sea of Tiberias, near which the waters of 
the Jordan began to be heaped up to open 
a dry passage for the Jews, Josh. 3 : 16. 

AD'AMANT, an old English name for the 
diamond, the hardest of all minerals. It 
is used for cutting or writing on glass and 
other hard substances, Jer. 17 : 1. It is also 
employed figuratively, Ezek. 3:9; Zech. 
7:12. The diamond as a precious stone 
seems to have been unknown to the an- 
cients, and some other hard and sharp 
mineral is meant, probably the smiris or 
emery-stone. 

A'DAR, the 12th month of the Hebrew 
ecclesiastical year, and the 6th of the civil 
year. On the 14th and 15th of this month 
occurred the celebrated feast of Purim, 
Esth. 3 : 7 ; 8 : 12 ; 9 : 21. It nearly answered 
to our March. As the lunar year, which 
the Jews follow, is shorter than the solar 
year by 11 days, which, after 3 years, make 
about a month, they then insert a 13th 
month, which they call Ve-Adar, or a 2d 
Adar. See Month. 

AD'DER, a species of serpent, more com- 
monly called viper. The word adder is 
used 5 times in the Bible, as a translation 
of 4 different Hebrew words, denoting dif- 
ferent serpents of the venomous sort. In 




Gen. 49 : 17, it seems to mean the cerastes, 
or horned viper, of the color of sand, and 
very deadly bite ; accustomed to lie hidden 
in the tracks in the sand, and dart up on 
the unwary traveller. In Psa. 58 : 4 ; 91 : 13, 
it is probably the asp. In Psa. 140 : 3 per- 
haps the tarantula, or some serpent that 
strikes backward. See Serpent, Viper. 

ADJURE', to put one under oath, so bind- 
ing him to speak or act as in the presence 
of God, Josh. 6:26; 1 Sam. 14:24; Matt. 
26 : 63 ; Mark 5 : 7. See Oath. 

AD'MAH, earthy, one of the 4 cities in 
the plain of Siddim destroyed by fire from 
heaven, generally believed to be covered 
by the Dead Sea, Gen. 10:19; 14 : 2 ; 19 : 24, 
25; Deut. 29:23; Hos. 11:8. 

ADONIBE'ZEK, lord of Bezek, the title 
of a Canaanite tyrant of Bezek, east of 
Shechem. Having taken 70 of the neigh- 
boring petty chiefs, he disabled them for 
war by cutting off their thumbs and great 
toes, and fed them like dogs. The same 
barbarous treatment was deservedly me- 
ted out to him, when defeated at the head 
of an army of Canaanites and Perizzites, by 
Judah and Simeon, Judg. 1 : 4-7. 

ADONI'JAH, fehovah is my Lord, the 4th 
son of David, by Haggith, 2 Sam. 3 : 4. After 
the death of Amnon and Absalom, and prob- 
ably Chileab, he aspired to the throne, al- 
though it was divinely promised to Solo- 
mon, his younger brother. Having gained 
over Joab and Abiathar and other adhe- 
rents, he at length openly revolted and 
claimed the crown while David was yet liv- 
ing. The news of this revolt being brought 
to the king, he caused Solomon to be 
crowned king at once ; upon which the 
friends of Adonijah dispersed, and he took 
refuge at the horns of the altar. Solomon 
dismissed him with only an admonition — a 
magnanimous course, very different from 
the prevalent custom in the East. But soon 
after the death of David he applied for the 

15 



ADO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ADR 



hand of Abishag, thus renewing his preten- 
sions to the throne, for which he was put 
to death, i Kin. i, 2. 

ADONI'RAM, lord of height, a receiver of 
tributes under David and Solomon, and 
director of the 30,000 men sent to Lebanon 
to cut timber, 1 Kin. 4:6; 5:14. The same 
person is also called Adoram, by contrac- 
tion, 2 Sam. 20 : 24 ; 1 Kin. 12 : 18 ; and also 
Hadoram, 2 Chr. 10 : 18. He was stoned to 
death by the revolted 10 tribes, having been 
sent to them by Rehoboam, either to in- 
duce them to return, or to test them by 
gathering the taxes. 

ADONI-ZE'DEK, lord of justice, the offi- 
cial title of an Amorite king of Jerusalem, 
who made an alliance with 4 other kings 
against Joshua. A great battle was fought 
at Gibeon, where the Lord aided Israel by 
a terrific hailstorm, and by miraculously 
prolonging the day. The 5 kings were ut- 
terly routed, and hid themselves in a cave 
at Makkedah ; but were taken by Joshua, 
and put to death, Josh. 10. 

ADOP'TION is an act by which a person 
takes a stranger into his family, acknowl- 
edges him as his child, and constitutes him 
heir of his estate. As a national custom, it 
was more common among the Romans than 
with the Jews, the Mosaic laws as to tribes, 
families, and inheritances standing in its 
way. Jacob's adoption of his 2 grandsons, 
Ephraim and Manasseh, Gen. 48 : 5, was a 
kind of substitution whereby he intended 
that these his grandsons should have each 
his lot in Israel, as if they had been his 
own sons. As he gives no inheritance to 
their father Joseph, the effect of this adop- 
tion was simply the doubling of their inher- 
itance. 

But Scripture affords instances of anoth- 
er kind of adoption— that of a father hav- 
ing a daughter only, and adopting her chil- 
dren. Thus, 1 Chr. 2:21, Machir, grandson 
of Joseph, and father of Gilead, Num. 26 : 
29, gave his daughter to Hezron, and their 
posterity are reckoned as sons of Machir, 
the father of Gilead. Nay, more, it ap- 
pears, Num. 32:41, that Jair, who was in 
fact the son of Segub, the son of Hezron, 
the son of Judah, is expressly called "Jair, 
the son of Manasseh," because his mater- 
nal great-grandfather was Machir the son 
of Manasseh. In like manner we read that 
Mordecai adopted Esther, his cousin ; he 
took her to himself to be a daughter, Esth. 
2:7. So the daughter of Pharaoh adopted 
Moses, and he became her son, Exod. 2 : 10. 
So we read, Ruth 4:17, that Naomi had a 
16 



son — a son is born to Naomi ; when indeed 
it was the son of Ruth. 

At the present day, adoption is not un- 
common in the East, where it is made 
before a public officer with legal forms. 

In the New Testament, adoption denotes 
that act of God's free grace by which, on 
being justified through faith, we are re- 
ceived into the family of God, and made 
heirs of the inheritance of heaven. It is 
" in Christ," and through his atoning mer- 
its, that believers "receive the adoption of 
sons," Gal. 4 : 4, 5. Some of the privileges 
of this state are, deliverance from a fearful 
and servile spirit ; the special love and care 
of our Heavenly Father ; conformity to his 
image ; a filial confidence in him ; free ac- 
cess to him at all times ; the witness of the 
Holy Spirit, whereby we cry, "Abba, Fa- 
ther;" and a title to our heavenly home, 
Rom. 8 : 14-17 19:4; Eph. 1 : 4, 5. 

ADORA'IM, 2 mounds, a town in the south 
of Judah, fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 
11:9. Now Dura, a large village 5 miles 
west by south from Hebron. 
ADO'RAM, see Adoniram. 
ADORA'TION, see WORSHIP. 
ADRAM'MELECH, splendor of the king, 
I., son of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, Isa. 
37:38; 2 Kin. 19:37; 2 Chr. 32:21, who, 
upon returning to Nineveh after his fatal 
expedition against Hezekiah, was killed by 
his 2 sons, Adrammelech and Sharezer, 
through fear, according to a Jewish tradi- 
tion, of being sacrificed to his idol Nisroch. 
They then fled to the mountains of Arme- 
nia, B. C. 711. 

II. One of the gods adored by the inhab- 
itants of Sepharvaim, who settled in Sama- 
ria, in the stead of those Israelites who 
were carried beyond the Euphrates. They 
made their children pass through fire, in 
honor of this false deity, and of another 
called Anammelech, 2 Kin. 17:31. Some 
think that Adrammelech represented the 
sun, and Anammelech the moon. 

ADRAMYT'TIUM, a large maritime town 
of Mysia, in Asia Minor, opposite to the 
island of Lesbos, Acts 27 : 2. Paul no doubt 
visited it during his tours in Asia Minor, 
Acts 16:8; 27 : 2. It is now called Adra- 
myti. 

A'DRIA, in Acts 27:27, is the Adriatic 
Sea, lying between Italy and Greece, and 
extending on the south from Crete to Sici- 
ly ; within it the island of Malta or Melita 
lies. So Ptolemy and Strabo. 

A'DRIEL, flock of God, a son of Barzil- 
lai, married Merab, daughter of Saul, who 



ADU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



AGA 



had been promised to David, i Sam. 18 : 19. 
Adriel had 5 sons by her, who were deliv- 
ered up to the Gibeonites, to be put to 
death before the Lord, to avenge the cruel- 
ty of Saul their grandfather against the 
Gibeonites. From 2 Sam. 21:8 it would 
seem that Michal, David's wife, had adopt- 
ed the children of her sister Merab. 

ADUL'LAMj'wfc of the people, an an- 
cient city in the "plain of Judah," south- 
west of Jerusalem, probably not far from 
Eleutheropolis, Gen. 38 : 1 ; Josh. 15 : 35. 
Its king was slain by Joshua, Josh. 12 : 15. 
It was one of the cities rebuilt and fortified 
by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11 ; 7; Mic. 1 : 15, and 
was reoccupied by the Jews after the cap- 
tivity, Neh. 11 :3c 

When David withdrew from Gath, he re- 
tired to the " cave of Adullam," 1 Sam. 22 : 1. 
The location of this cave, however, is un- 
certain. Tradition places it in the hill 
country, about 6 miles southeast of Bethle- 
hem, the city of David ; a large and fine 
cave at Khureitun, visited by many travel- 
lers. It is capable of holding thousands. Its 
vicinity to Bethlehem, whence the 3 war- 
riors obtained water for David, agrees with 
this location of the cave, 2 Sam. 23 : 13, 14. 
Lieut. Conder places the cave 13 miles from 
Bethlehem, in the valley of Elah, near 
Adullam, where is a row of smaller caves 
still often used for shelter. 

ADUL'TERY is a criminal connection be- 
tween a married man or woman and any 
other person than the lawful spouse; and 
thus it exceeds the guilt of fornication, 
which is the same intercourse between un- 
married persons. As the highest sin of its 
kind, and so including all other sins of the 
flesh, it is forbidden in the 7th command- 
ment. Where polygamy was allowed, as 
among the ancient Jews, illicit intercourse 
between a married man and a woman who 
was not married, nor betrothed, constituted 
not adultery, but fornication. 

Fornication may be, in some sense, cov- 
ered by a subsequent marriage of the par- 
ties ; but adultery cannot be so healed. 
Hence God often compares himself to a 
husband jealous of his honor, Jer. 31 .-32; 
and hence the forsaking of the true God is 
compared to fornication and adultery of the 
vilest kind, Jer. 3:9; Ezek. 23 : 36-49. 

By the law of Moses, both the man and 
the woman who had committed adultery 
were punished with death by stoning, Lev. 
20 : 10 . Deut. 22 : 22-24 ," John 8:5; or even 
by fire, Lev. 21:9. See Gen. 38:24. A 
woman suspected of this crime might, in 



order to clear herself, drink the " water of 
jealousy," as prescribed in Num. 5. By our 
Saviour adultery only is made a sufficient 
ground for divorce, Matt. 19 :g. 

ADUM'MIM, a border town of Benjamin 
and Judah, not far from Jericho on the road 
to Jerusalem. This ascent through a des- 
olate and rocky region, Josh. 15:7; 18 : 17, 
furnished many lurking-places for robbers, 
and was the scene of our Saviour's para- 
ble, The Good Samaritan, Luke 10. 

AD'VERSARY, see ACCUSER. 

AD'VOCATE, or Par'aclete, one that 
pleads the cause of another. In its tech- 
nical sense, the office was unknown to the 
Jews till they became subject to the Ro- 
mans. See Tertullus. It is applied to 
Christ as our intercessor, 1 John 2:1; com- 
pare Rom. 8:34; Heb. 7:25; and to the 
Holy Spirit, as our teacher and comforter, 
John 14: 16; 15 : 26. 

/E'NEAS, a Greek, or Grecian Jew, at 
Lydda, healed of palsy by Peter, Acts 9: 

33, 34- 

ffl'NON, see Enon. 

AFFIN'ITY, 1 Kin. 3:1, relationship by 
marriage, as consanguinity is relationship 
by blood. In early ages, good men sought 
wives among their kindred who worshipped 
the true God, Gen. 11:29; 2 4 :2_ 4>* 28:2. 
The degrees within which relatives were 
forbidden by the Levitical law to inter- 
marry may be found in Lev. 18. 

AG'ABUS, locust," a prophet " of the early 
church, perhaps one of " the 70 " disciples 
of Christ. He foretold the famine, of which 
Suetonius and others speak, in the days of 
Claudius, A. D. 44. It was very severe in 
Judaea ; and aid was sent to the church at 
Jerusalem from Antioch, Acts 11:27-29. 
Many years after, at Caesarea, Agabus pre- 
dicted the sufferings of Paul at the hands 
of the Jews, Acts 21 : 10. 

A'GAG, jlame, a general name of the 
kings of the Amalekites, apparently like 
Pharaoh for Egyptian kings, Num. 24 : 7 ; 
1 Sam. 15 : 8. The last one mentioned in 
Scripture was " hewed in pieces " by Sam- 
uel, before the Lord. He seems to have 
incurred an uncommon punishment by in- 
famous cruelties, 1 Sam. 15 : t>3- 

Agagite, in Esther 3 : 1, 10 ; 8 : 3, 5, is used 
to mark the nation whence Haman sprang, 
and to account for his hatred of the Jews. 
Josephus explains the word by Amalekite. 

AG' ATE, a precious stone, said to take 
its name from the river Achates in Sicily, 
where it abounded. Agates are semi-trans- 
parent, and often beautifully veined and 

17 



AGE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



AHA 



clouded, and present in miniature the pic- 
ture of many natural objects. The agate 
was the 2d stone in the 3d row of the high- 
priest's breastplate, Exod. 28:19; 39:12. 
In Isa. 54 : 12 and Ezek. 27 : 16, a different 
Hebrew word is used, denoting perhaps the 
ruby. 

AGE. Old age, serene and wise, was re- 
garded as a token of God's favor, Job 5 : 26 ; 
Zech. 8 : 4. The aged were venerated for 
their wisdom, Job 15:10; 32:4; and the 
law required the young to honor them, Lev. 
19:32. See 1 Kin. 12:6-16; Prov. 16:31; 
20 : 29. 

AG'RICULTURE. In early ages men 
lived, a pastoral life, and the change to an 
agricultural life among the Jews took place 
on their settling in the land of promise, 
where each family received an inalienable 
inheritance, Lev. 25 : 8-16, 23-35. The soil 
of Palestine amply repaid the labor and 
care expended upon it — especially requi- 
ring terraces and artificial irrigation. See 
Canaan. There are frequent allusions in 
the Bible to ploughing, sowing, watering, 
reaping, threshing, garnering, etc. ; it was 
customary to watch over the ripening crop ; 
the firstfruits were devoted to the Lord, as 
well as tithes of all ; and the poor were 
provided for by the divine law, Lev. 19 : 9; 
23 : 22 ; Deut. 24 : 19-21 ; Ruth 2 : 2, 7-9. See 
Ploughing, Threshing, Rain, Sabbati- 
cal Year. 

AGRIP'PA, see Herod III., IV. 

A'GUR, gatherer, an inspired Hebrew, 
author of the 30th chapter of Proverbs, in- 
corporated with those of Solomon. 

A'HAB, uncle, L, the 7th king of Israel, 
succeeded his father Omri B. C, 918, and 
reigned 22 years. No king of the Jews has 
left a sadder record. His wife was Jezebel, 
daughter of Ethbaal king of Tyre ; an am- 
bitious and passionate idolatress, through 
whose influence the worship of Baal and 
Ashtoreth was introduced in Israel. Ahab 
erected in Samaria a house of Baal, and set 
up images of Baal and Ashtoreth ; idolatry 
and wickedness became fearfully preva- 
lent, the prophets of God were slain, his 
worship forbidden, and the king " did more 
to provoke the Lord to anger than all the 
kings that were before him." In the midst 
of this great apostasy, God visited the land 
with 3 years of drought and famine ; and 
then, at Mount Carmel, reproved idolatry 
by fire from heaven, and by the destruction 
of 450 prophets of Baal and 400 of Astarte. 
About 6 years later, Ben-hadad, king of 
Syria, invaded Israel with a great army, 
18 



but was ignominiously defeated ; and still 
more disastrously the year after, when Ahab 
took him captive, but soon released him, 
and thus incurred the displeasure of God. 
In spite of the warnings and mercies of 
Providence, Ahab went on in sin; and at 
length, after the murder of Naboth, near 
his palace in Jezreel, his crimes and idola- 
tries were such that God sent Elijah to de- 
nounce judgments upon him and his seed. 
These were in part deferred, however, by 
his apparent humiliation. Soon after, hav- 
ing gone with Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, 
to regain Ramoth-gilead from the Syrians, 
and joined battle with them in defiance of 
Jehovah, he was slain, and dogs licked up 
his blood at the pool of Samaria, 1 Kin. 
16 : 29 to 22 : 40. 

II. A false prophet, who seduced the Is- 
raelites at Babylon, and was denounced by 
Jeremiah and burned by Nebuchadnezzar, 
Jer. 29 : 21, 22. 

AHASUE'RUS, lion-king, a royal title, 
common to several Median and Persian 
kings named in Scripture. I. The father 
of Darius the Mede, Dan. 9:1, B. C. 634. 
The most probable opinion is, that the 
name here designates Astyages, the last 
independent king of the Medes, father of 
Darius, who is the Cyaxares II. of Xeno- 
phon, and whose daughter Mandane was 
the mother of the famous Cyrus. See Cy- 
rus and Darius I. 

II. Mentioned Ezra 4 : 6, probably Cam- 
byses, the son and successor of Cyrus, who 
reigned 9 or 10 years from B. C. 529. He 
was an unscrupulous despot, and a mur- 
derer of his own brother and sister. He 
conquered Egypt, but was unsuccessful in 
attempts on Ethiopia and Carthage. His 
crimes provoked the rebellion in which the 
pseudo-Smerdis secured the throne. See 
Artaxerxes I. 

III. The husband of Esther, probably 
Xerxes, the 2d son of Darius Hystaspis, 
and father of Artaxerxes Longimanus. 
He is famous for his invasion of Greece at 
the head of 1,000,000 of men, and his defeat 
at Thermopylae and Salamis, whence he 
returned, in the 7th year of his reign, to 
seek comfort in his harem, and to repair 
the wastes of war by a general taxation, 
Esth. 10: 1. The Hebrew word for Ahasu- 
erus is formed from the Persian name of 
Xerxes ; and the feast in his 3d year, and 
the enlargement of his harem, Esth. 1:3; 
2 : 1-4, sychronize with facts stated by He- 
rodotus respecting Xerxes. See Esther. 

AHA'VA, water, a town in Chaldea, and 



AHA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



AHI 



a stream on the banks of which the exiled 
Jews assembled their 2d caravan under 
Ezra, when returning to Jerusalem, Ezra 
8 : 15, 21, 31. It may be the modern Hit on 
the Euphrates, nearly in the latitude of 
Damascus and Bagdad. 

A'HAZ, possessor, son of Jotham, and nth 
king of Judah. He ascended the throne at 
20, or, as some ancient texts have it, 25 
years of age, and reigned 16 years, 2 Kin. 
16: 1, 2, 20, B. C. 741-725. He was distin- 
guished for his idolatry and contempt of 
the true God ; and against him many of the 
prophecies of Isaiah are directed, Isa. 7, 
8, 9. He made his own children pass 
through the fire to idols ; he introduced the 
Syrian gods into Jerusalem, altered the 
temple after the Syrian model, and even 
closed it altogether. Having thus forfeited 
the aid of Jehovah, he met various repulses 
in battle with Pekah and Rezin ; the Edom- 
ites revolted, and the Philistines harassed 
his borders. He turned yet more away 
from God in his distress, and sought aid 
from Pul, king of Assyria. This fatal step 
made him tributary to Pul, and to Tiglath- 
pileser his successor. Ahaz was reduced 
to great extremities in buying off the As- 
syrians ; but became more infatuated still 
in idolatry, 2 Kin. 23: 11, 12, and dying in 
his impiety at the age of 36, was refused a 
burial with the kings his ancestors, 2 Chr. 
28. 

AHAZI'AH, upheld by the Lord, I., son 
and successor of Ahab, and 8th king of 
Israel, 1 Kin. 22:40, 51; 2 Kin. 1. He 
reigned 2 years, alone and with his father, 
who associated him in the kingdom the 
year before his death, B. C. 896. Ahaziah 
imitated Ahab's impiety, and worshipped 
Baal and Astarte, whose rites had been in- 
troduced into Israel by Jezebel his mother. 
During his reign the Moabites revolted. 
Having joined king Jehoshaphat in a com- 
mercial enterprise on the Red Sea, his im- 
piety blasted the whole, 2 Chr. 20:35-37. 
After a fall from the gallery of his house, 
he sent to consult a god of the Philistines 
as to his recovery. Elijah the prophet fore- 
told his speedy death— first to the messen- 
gers, and again to Ahaziah himself, after 2 
companies of 50 had been consumed by fire 
from heaven. 

II. Otherwise Jehoahaz, or Azariah, king 
of Judah, son of Jehoram and Athaliah, and 
5th king of Judah; he succeeded his father 
B. C. 885,2 Kin. 8:25; 2 Chr. 22:2. He 
was 22 years of age when he ascended the 
throne, and reigned but 1 year at Jerusa- 



lem. He followed the house of Ahab, to 
which he was allied by his mother, and did 
evil. He met his death at the hand of 
Jehu, while visiting Joram, son of Ahab. 
The 2 accounts of his death do not neces- 
sarily conflict. He seems to have escaped 
at first from Jehu and concealed himself in 
Samaria ; then to have been seized and 
brought before Jehu, smitten in his chariot 
at Gur, and to have expired at Megiddo. 

AHI' AH, brother of the Lord, son of Ahi- 
tub, and high-priest in the reign of Saul, 

1 Sam. 14 : 3, 18. He was probably the bro- 
ther of his successor Ahimelech, slain by 
Saul, 1 Sam. 22 : 9. 

AHI'JAH, brother of the Lord, in Shiloh, 
a prophet and chronicler of the times of 
Solomon and Jeroboam, 1 Kin. 11:29; 2 
Chr. 9 : 29. He is thought to be the person 
who spoke in God's name to Solomon while 
building the temple, 1 Kin. 6:11; and again 
after he fell into sin, 1 Kin. 11 : 11. He no- 
tified Jeroboam of the separation of Israel 
from Judah, and of the foundation of his 
house — the ruin of which he afterwards 
foretold, 1 Kin. 14 : 1-14. He was fearless 
and faithful. 

AHI'KAM, brother who stands, sent by 
Josiah to Huldah the prophetess, when the 
book of the law was found in the temple, 

2 Kin. 22 : 12. He and his son Gedaliah, 
afterwards governor of Jerusalem, nobly 
befriended the prophet Jeremiah, Jer. 26 : 
24 ; 39 : 14. 

AHIM'AAZ, brother of anger, the son and 
successor of Zadok, who probably became 
high-priest in the reign of Solomon. Dur- 
ing the reign of David, he revealed to him 
the counsels of Absalom and his advisers 
in rebellion, 2 Sam. 17 : 15-21 ; and con- 
veyed to him also the tidings of Absalom's 
defeat and death, 2 Sam. 18. 

AHIM'ELECH, brother of the king, I., son 
of Ahitub, and brother of Ahiah, whom he 
succeeded in the high-priesthood. Some 
think, however, that both names belong to 
the same person. During his priesthood 
the tabernacle was at Nob, where Ahime- 
lech dwelt, with many priests. Here he 
received David when fleeing from Saul, 
and gave him the show-bread and Goliath's 
sword. This act, as reported by Doeg the 
Edomite, Saul viewed as treasonous ; and 
by the hand of this idolatrous and malig- 
nant foreigner he put Ahimelech and 85 
other priests of Jehovah to death, 1 Sam. 
22 — a crime sufficient of itself to forfeit the 
throne and the favor of God. 

II. Also called Abimelech, 1 Chr. 18 : 16, 

19 



AHI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ALA 



probably the same as Abiathar, which see, 
i Chr. 24:3, 6, 31. 

AHIN'OAM, brother of grace, I., daughter 
of Ahimaaz, and wife of Saul, 1 Sara. 14 : 50. 

II. A woman of Jezreel, wife of David 
and mother of Amnon, 1 Sam. 25 : 43 ; 27 : 3. 
She was taken captive by the Amalekites, 
at Ziklag, 1 Sam. 30 : 5 ; but was recovered 
by David, and accompanied him to Hebron, 
2 Sam. 2:2; 3:2. 

AHI'O, brotherly, a. son of Abinadab, who 
went before the ark of God. on its way to 
Jerusalem from his father's house ; thus 
escaping the fate of Uzzah his brother, 
2 Sam. 6:3,7; 1 Chr. 13 : 7. 

AHITH'OPHEL, brother of folly, a native 
of Giloh in Judah, originally one of David's 
most intimate and valued friends and coun- 
sellors, Psa. 41 :g; 2 Sam. 16:23; but upon 
the defection and rebellion of Absalom, he 
espoused the cause of that prince, and be- 
came one of David's bitterest enemies. 
Being disappointed that Absalom did not 
follow his sagacious advice, and foreseeing 
the issue of the rebellion, he hanged him- 
self, 2 Sam. 15:12; ch. 17; Psa. 55:12-14. 
Ahithophel seems to have been the grand- 
father of Bathsheba, 2 Sam. 23 : 34, com- 
pared with 11:3; and the loss of his friend- 
ship may have been one of David's penal- 
ties for wronging Bathsheba. 

AHI'TUB, brother of goodness, I., grand- 
son of Eli, and son of Phinehas, in whose 
place he succeeded to the high-priesthood 
on the death of Eli, Phinehas having per- 
ished in battle, B. C. 1141, 1 Sam. 4: 11. 

II. Son of Amariah, and father of Zadok, 
2 Sam. 8:17; 1 Chr. 6 : 8. 

AHO'LAH, her tent, and AHOL'IBAH, 
my tabernacle i?i her, 2 symbolical names, 
adopted by Ezekiel, 23:4, to denote the 2 
kingdoms of Samaria and Judah. They 
are represented as sisters, and of Egyp- 
tian extraction. The allegory is a history 
of the Jewish church. 

AHOLIBA'MAH, my tabernacle is on 
high, also called Judith, Gen. 26 134, a Hit- 
tite woman of Mount Hor, one of the 3 
wives of Esau. Her 3 sons were heads of 
families or tribes in Edom, Gen. 36 : 18. 

A'l, 7'7(ins, called also Hai, Gen. 12:8; 
Aija, Neh. 11 : 31 ; and Aiath, Isa. 10:28. A 
royal city of the Canaanites, east of Bethel, 
near which Abraham once sojourned and 
built an altar, Gen. 12:8:13:3. It is mem- 
orable for Joshua's defeat on account of 
Achan, and his subsequent victory, Josh. 
7 : 2-5 ; 8 : 1-29. It was rebuilt, and is men- 
tioned by Isaiah. 
20 



AI'JELETH-SHAHAR, hind of the morn- 
ing, in the title of Psalm 22, is conjectured 
to denote the melody to which the Psalm 
was sung. 

A'lN, eye, fountain, spelt Ex in the Eng- 
lish Bible, in compound words, as En-rogel. 
It is the name of a city of Judah, afterwards 
assigned to Simeon, Josh. 15:32; 1 Chr. 
4 : 32. It was given to the priests, Josh. 
21 : 16 ; and called Ashan in 1 Chr. 6 : 59. 

Also a place in the north of Canaan, west 
of Riblah, Num. 34 : 11. 

AIR. The air or atmosphere surround- 
ing the earth is often denoted by the word 
heaven; so "the fowls of heaven" means 
the birds of the air. 

To " beat the air," and to " speak in the 
air," 1 Cor. 9 : 26 ; 14 : 9, signify to speak or 
act without judgment, or to no purpose. 
" The powers of the air," Eph. 2 : 2, proba- 
bly means devils— many Jews, and heathen 
also, regarding the lower part of the atmos- 
phere as the home of spirits, especially evil 
spirits. Yet Paul does not say that this is 
his belief. 

AJ'ALON, or Aijalon, place of gazelles. 
I. A town in the tribe of Dan, assigned to 
the Levites, sons of Kohath, Josh. 19 : 42 ; 
21:24; Judg. 1:35, and a city of refuge. 
It was not far from Timnath, and was ta- 
ken by the Philistines from Ahaz, 2 Chr. 
28 : 18. It lay on the south side of a fine 
valley, not far from the valley of Gibeon, 
and is recognized in the modern village of 
Yalo, near the road to Jaffa, some 14 miles 
from Jerusalem. The valley is the place 
where Joshua commanded the sun and 
moon to stand still, and they obeyed him, 
Josh. 10 : 12. See also 1 Sam. 14 : 31. 

II. A town in Benjamin, some 3 miles 
east of Bethel. It was fortified by Rehobo- 
am, 2 Chr. 11 : 10. Some regard this as the 
same place as the above, in possession of 
different tribes at different times, 1 Chr. 
6 : 66, 69. 

III. In the tribe of Zebulun, the place of 
Elon's burial, Judg. 12 : 12. 

AKRAB'BIM, scorpions, a point in the 
south frontier line of Judah, Judg. 1 .-36, and 
in a region infested with serpents and scor- 
pions, Deut. 8 : 15. Robinson identifies it 
with a line of cliffs running across the val- 
ley El-Ghor, some 8 miles south of the Dead 
Sea; it is from 50 to 150 feet high, and 7 
miles long. In Josh. 15:3, it is called Maa- 
leh-acrabbim, the ascent of Akrabbim. 

AL'ABASTER, from Alabastron in Egypt ; 
a sort of stone, of fine texture, either the 
white gypsum, a sulphate of lime, or the 



ALA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ALE 



onyx-alabaster, a hard carbonate of lime, 
having the color of the human nail, and 
nearly allied to marble. This material 
being very generally used to fabricate ves- 
sels for holding unguents and perfumed 
liquids, many vessels were called alabas- 
ter though made of a different substance, 




EGYPTIAN BOTTLES. 

as gold, silver, glass, etc. In Matt. 26 : 6, 7, 
we read that Mary, sister of Lazarus, John 
12:3, poured an alabaster box of precious 
ointment on Christ's head. Mark says 
" she brake the box," or the neck of the 
flask ; which may indicate her eagerness 
in honoring Christ, or that the seal which 
kept the perfume from evaporating had 
never been removed — it was on this occa- 
sion first opened. See Cruse, Spikenard. 
AL'AMOTH, virgins, a musical term, in- 
dicating probably music for female voices, 
Psa. 46, title ; 1 Chr. 15 : 20. 




ALEXAN'DER, helper of men, I., the 
Great, the famous son and successor of 
Philip, king of Macedon. He is alluded 
to in Dan. 7:6; 8 .-4-7, under the figures of 
a leopard with 4 wings, and a one-horned 
he-goat, representing the swiftness and ex- 
tent of his conquests and his great strength. 
He was appointed by God to destroy the 
Persian Empire and substitute the Grecian. 
In the statue seen by Nebuchadnezzar in 
his dream, Dan. 2 : 39, the belly of brass 
was the emblem of Alexander, and the legs 
of iron the Roman power. See Darius III. 



He succeeded his father B. C. 336, and 
within 12 years overran Syria, Palestine, 
and Egypt, founded Alexandria, conquered 
the Persians, and penetrated far into the 
Indies. It is related by Josephus that he 
visited Jerusalem, and was appeased by the 
high-priest Jaddua, Neh. 12:11, 22, whom 
he had seen in a vision ; and that he offered 
sacrifices in the temple, heard the proph- 
ecies of Daniel concerning him, and con- 
ferred favors on the Jews in Judaea and 
Babylonia. He died at Babylon at the age 
of 32, from the effects of intemperance, and 
left his vast empire to be divided among 
his 4 generals. The conquests of Alex- 
ander, by giving the Greek language and 
civilization such an ascendancy in Pales- 
tine and the countries around it, wonder- 
fully prepared the way for the diffusion of 
the gospel. The Septuagint version of the 
Old Testament, 200 years before Christ, was 
in general use among Hellenistic Jews ; and 
the New Testament writers found in this 
widely-diffused language the best means of 
making this new revelation known to the 
world. See Alexandria, Talent. 

II. Son of Simon the Cyrenian, Mark 
15:21, apparently one of the more promi- 
nent early Christians. 

III. One of the council which condemned 
Peter and John, Acts 4 : 6. 

IV. A Jew of Ephesus, who sought in vain 
to quiet the popular commotion respecting 
Paul, Acts 19 : 33. 

V. A coppersmith, and apostate from 
Christianity, 1 Tim. 1 : 20 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 14. 

ALEXANDRIA, Acts 6 : 9, a celebrated 
city in Lower Egypt, between the Mediter- 
ranean and the lake Mareotis, 12 miles 
from the most westerly mouth of the Nile. 
It was founded by Alexander the Great, 
B. C. 332, and peopled by colonies of Greeks 
and Jews ; it was the early home of Apol- 
los, Acts 8 : 24. Alexandria rose rapidly to 
a state of prosperity, becoming the centre 
of commercial intercourse between the East 
and the West, Acts 27 : 6 ; 28 : 11, and in pro- 
cess of time was, in point both of magnitude 
and wealth, second only to Rome itself. The 
ancient city was about 15 miles in circuit, 
peopled by 300,000 free citizens and as 
many slaves. From the gate of the sea ran 
one magnificent street, 2,000 feet broad, 
through the entire length of the city, to the 
gate of Canopus, affording a view of the 
shipping in the port, whether north in the 
Mediterranean, or south in the noble basin 
of the Mareotic lake, connected with the 
Mediterranean by 2 canals. Another street 

21 



ALE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ALE 



ANCIENT 

ALEXANDRIA 

Stadia 




of equal width intersected this at right an- 
gles, in a square half a league in circumfer- 
ence. A magnificent lighthouse, one of the 
7 "wonders of the world," stood opposite 
the city, on an island named Pharos. 

Upon the death of Alexander, whose body 
was deposited in this new city, Alexandria 
became the capital of Egypt, under the Ptol- 
emies, and rose to its highest splendor in 
the reign of the first 3 princes of this name. 
The most celebrated philosophers from the 
East, as well as from Greece and Rome, 
resorted thither for instruction ; and emi- 
nent men, in every department of knowl- 
edge, were found within its walls. Ptolemy 
Soter, the 1st of that line of kings, formed 
the museum, the library of 700,000 volumes, 
and several other splendid works. Clem- 
ent and Origen were born there. At the 
death of Cleopatra, B. C. 26, Alexandria 
passed into the hands of the Romans ; and 
was taken in A. D. 640 by the Saracens 
under Caliph Omar, and its library de- 
stroyed. 

The present Alexandria, called Skan- 
deria, occupies only about the 8th part of 
the site of the ancient city. The splendid 
temples have been exchanged for wretched 



mosques and miserable churches, and the 
magnificent palaces for mean and ill-built 
dwellings. But of late it has become a 
great commercial mart, and is growing 
rapidly. Many old streets are so narrow 
that the inhabitants can lay mats of reeds 
from one roof to the opposite, to protect 
them from the scorching sun. The popu- 
lation of 240,000 consists of Turks, Arabs, 
Copts, Jews, and Armenians. Many Euro- 
peans have counting-houses here, and ex- 
change European for Oriental merchan- 
dise. One of the famous obelisks that for 
many years stood in its suburbs was re- 
moved to London in 1877, an ^ the other to 
New York in 1880. 

The Greek or Alexandrian version of the 
Scriptures was made here by learned Jews, 
72 in number, according to the doubtful 
story of Josephus, and hence it is called the 
Septuagint, or version of the 70. The Jews 
established themselves in great numbers 
in this city very soon after it was founded. 
Josephus says that Alexander himself as- 
signed to them a particular quarter of the 
city, and allowed them equal rights with 
the Greeks. Philo, who himself lived there 
in the time of Christ, affirms that, of 5 parts 



ALG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ALM 



of the city, the Jews inhabited 2. Jews 
from Alexandria had a synagogue in Jeru- 
salem, Acts 6 : 9. 

AL'GUM, see Almug. 

ALL is sometimes used, as the context 
shows, in a general, not a literally univer- 
sal sense, Exod. 9:6; Matt. 3:5; 10 : 22. 

AL'LEGORY, a figurative mode of dis- 
course, which employs terms literally be- 
longing to one thing, in order to express 
another. It is like a prolonged metaphor. 
Such are Nathan's address to David, 2 Sam. 
12: 1-14, Psalm 80, and our Lord's parable 
of the sower, Luke 8 : 5-15. " Which things 
are an allegory, - ' Gal. 4:24, means that 
these events in the life of Isaac and Ish- 
mael have been allegorically applied. 

ALLELU'IA, see Hallelu'jah. 

ALLI'ANCE with the heathen, either by 
family and social intimacy or by entang- 
ling political ties, was strictly forbidden to 
God's peculiar people, Ezra 9:2; Neh. 13: 
23-27 ; and in a special degree as to the 
ancient Canaanites, Deut. 7 : 3-6 ; Judg. 2 : 
2, 3. Hebrews, however, sometimes mar- 
ried converts from heathenism, as notably 
Rahab and Ruth ; and they were enjoined 
to maintain peaceful and friendly relations 
with other nations. But whenever they 
went beyond this, idolatry, corruption, and 
trouble ensued; as from Solomon's allian- 
ces with Egypt, 1 Kin. 10:28, 29; 11: 1-11. 
See also 2 Kin. 16:8-10; 17:4-18. See 
Covenant. 

AL'LON-BACHUTH', oak of weeping ; 
the spot where Rebekah's nurse was bur- 
ied, Gen. 35:8. See Rebekah. 

ALL TO, an old English expression, giv- 
ing additional force to a verb. " All to 
brake his skull," Judg. 9:53, thoroughly 
broke or crushed it. 

AL'MON-DIBLATHA'IM, covering of two 
cakes, one of the latest encampments of the 
Israelites on their way from Mount Hor to 
the plains of Moab, next before the mount- 
ains called Abarim, Num. 33 : 46. 

AL'MOND-TREE, Gen. 43 : u. This tree 
resembles a peach-tree, but is larger. In 
Palestine it blossoms in January, and in 
March has fruit. Its blossoms are pinkish 
white. Its Hebrew name signifies to watch 
and hasten, and to this there is an allusion 
in Jer. 1 : 11, 12. Aaron's rod was from an 
almond, Num. 17:8. In Eccl. 12:5, the 
hoary head is beautifully compared with 
the almond-tree, either on account of its 
whiteness, beauty, and winter blossoming, 
or the hastening on of decay. The golden 
bowls of the sacred candlestick were made 



M m 




almond-tree : AMYGDALUS communis. 

" like almonds, with their knops and their 
flowers," Exod. 25 : 33, 34- 




LEAF, FLOWER, AND FRUIT OF THE ALMOND. 

ALMS, see Poor and Tithes. Alms- 
giving is a Christian duty, Acts 10:31; 

1 John 3 : 17, not to be practised ostenta- 
tiously, Matt. 6 : 1-4, nor indiscriminately, 

2 Thess. 3:10; but systematically, 1 Cor. 
16 : 1-4, and liberally, 2 Cor. 9:6; Psa. 41 : 1. 

23 



ALM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ALT 



AL/MUG, or AL'GUM, a kind of wood 
which Hiram brought from Ophir for the 
use of Solomon in making pillars for the 
temple and his own house, and also musi- 




SANDAL-WOOD : SANTALUM ALBUM. 

cal instruments, i Kin. 10 : n ; 2 Chr. 2:8; 
9 : 10, 11. Perhaps what is now commonly 
called Brazil wood, which is also a native 
of the East Indies, Siam, the Molucca isl- 
ands, and Japan, and has several species. 
Its wood is very durable, and is used in 
fine cabinet work. 

AL/OES, or more properly, Aloe, a tree 
of tropical Asia, yielding a ri^ch perfume. 
Num. 24:6; Psa. 45:8; Prov. 7:17; Song 
4 : 14. It was called by the Greeks Agallo- 
chon, and is known to moderns by the 
names of lign-aloe, paradise-wood, eagle- 
wood, etc. Botanists distinguish several 
kinds : one grows in Cochin-China, Siam, 
and China; and another in Northern In- 
dia. The tree is represented as large, with 
an erect trunk and lofty branches. Aloe- 
wood is said by Herodotus to have been 
used by the Egyptians for embalming dead 
bodies, and Nicodemus brought it, mingled 
with myrrh, to embalm the body of our 
Lord, John 19:39. This perfume is not the 
aloes of apothecaries. 

AL'PHA, see the letter A. 

ALPH^'US, changing, I., father of the 
apostle James the Less, Matt. 10 : 3, Luke 
6:15, and husband of the Mary regarded 
by many as sister to the mother of Christ, 
John 19:25. See Mary, I. and III. Com- 
paring John 19:25 with Luke 24:18 and 
Matt. 10:3, it seems probable that Alphaeus 
24 



is the same as Cleophas ; Alphaeus being 
his Greek name, and Cleophas or Clopas 
his Hebrew or Syriac name. 

II. Father of Matthew, or Levi, the evan- 
gelist, Mark 2 : 14. 

AL/TAR, a table -like structure on 
which sacrifices and incense were of- 
fered, built of various materials, usually 
of stone, but sometimes of brass, etc. 
Sacrifices were offered long before the 
flood, Gen. 4:3, 4 ; but the first men- 
tion of an altar in Scripture is when 
Noah left the ark, Gen. 8:20. Altars 
were reared by Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, 
and Moses. The latter built an altar of 
earth, Exod. 20 : 24. If stone was em- 
ployed, it must be rough and unhewn, 
probably lest the practice of sculpture 
should lead them to violate the 2d com- 
mandment. It was not to be furnished 
with steps, Deut. 27 : 2-6. From the first, 
the altar seems to have been the centre 
around which all religious services clus- 
tered, even before the Jewish ritual was 
ordained. 

The altars in the Jewish tabernacle, 

and in the temple at Jerusalem, were the 

following: 1. The altar of burnt-offerings. 

2. The altar of incense. 3. The table of 

show-bread, for which see Bread. 




1. The Altar of Burnt -offerings 
was a kind of hollow coffer of shittim-wood 
covered with brass plates, about 7 feet 6 
inches square, and 4 feet 6 inches in height, 
and was without steps, Exod. 20 : 26. At 
the four corners were 4 horns or elevations, 
Psa. 118:27. It was portable, and had 
rings and staves for bearing it, Ex. 27, 38. 
It was placed in the court before the taber- 
nacle, towards the east. Its furniture was 
of brass, and consisted of a pan for the 
ashes that fell through the grating ; shov- 
els ; basins for the blood with which the 



ALT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



AMA 



altar was sprinkled ; and forks, to turn and 
remove the pieces of flesh upon the coals ; 
also flesh-hooks and censers. The fire was 
a perpetual one, kindled miraculously, and 
carefully cherished, Lev. 6:12, 13; 9:24. 
Upon this altar the lamb of the daily morn- 
ing and evening sacrifice was offered, and 
the other stated and voluntary blood-sac- 
rifices and meat and drink offerings. To 
this also certain fugitives were allowed to 
flee and find protection, Exod. 21:13, 14; 
1 Kin. 1 : 50. The altar in Solomon's tem- 
ple was larger, being at least 30 feet 
square and 15 feet high, 2 Chr. 4:1. It 
is said to have been covered with thick 
plates of brass and filled with stones, with 
an ascent on the east side. It is often 
called "the brazen altar," Exod. 38:30. 




2. The Altar of Incense, or Golden 
Altar, Exod. 39 : 38, was a small table of 
shittim-wood, covered with plates of gold ; it 
was 18 inches square and 3 feet high, Exod. 
30 ; 37 ' : 25, etc. At the 4 corners were 4 
horns, and all around its top was a little 
border or crown. On each side were 2 
rings, into which staves might be inserted 
for carrying it. It stood in the Holy place ; 
not in the Holy of Holies, but before it, 
between the golden candlestick and the 
table of show-bread, and the priests burned 
incense upon it every morning and even- 
ing. So Zacharias, Luke 1 :g, 11. No other 
offering was permitted, Exod. 30 : 9, except 
yearly at the Feast of Atonement, Lev. 16 : 
18, 19. See Temple. 

Altar at Athens, inscribed "to the un- 
known God," Acts 17': 23. It is certain, 
both from Paul's assertion and the testi- 
mony of the Greek writers Pausanias and 
Philostratus, that altars to an unknown god 
or gods existed at Athens. Diogenes Laer- 
tius states that amid the terrors of a plague 



sheep were let loose in the streets, and sac- 
rificed at the shrine near which they lay 
down. If some of these stopped where no 
altar was nigh, the people would offer them 
to appease the " unknown God " who abode 
on that spot, and whose power they hoped 
would do what their known gods' could 
not ; for many things reveal the conscious- 
ness we know they must have had of the 
need of some God to adore and trust of 
vaster and nobler attributes than heathen- 
ism could boast. 

AL-TAS'CHITH, destroy not, supposed to 
be the first words of some familiar refrain, 
to which the Psalms 57, 58, 59, and 75 were 
to be sung. 

AM'ALEK, a people that licks up, son of 
Eliphaz, grandson of Esau, and one of the 
princes of Edom, Gen. 36 : 12, 16. It is not 
certain that any distinct mention is made 
in the Bible of his posterity, people called 
Amalekites being in existence long be- 
fore, Gen. 14:7; Num. 24:20. A rem- 
nant of them may be referred to in 1 Chr. 

4:43- 

AM'ALEKITES, a powerful people, who 
dwelt in Arabia Petraea, between the Dead 
Sea and the Red Sea, Num. 13 : 29 ; and it 
does not appear that they possessed many 
cities, though one is mentioned in 1 Sam. 
15 : 5. They lived generally in migrating 
parties, in caves or in tents, like the Bed- 
ouin Arabs of the present day, Judg. 6 : 5. 
The Israelites had scarcely passed the Red 
Sea when the Amalekites attacked them in 
the desert of Rephidim ; and for this un- 
provoked assault on the people of God the 
doom of extermination was passed upon 
them, Exod. 17 : 8-16. They came again into 
conflict with a part of the Israelites on the 
border of the promised land, Num. 14 : 45, 
and in the days of Ehud and Gideon, Judg. 
3:13; 6:3; and after 400 years Saul at- 
tacked and destroyed them at the com- 
mand of the Lord, 1 Sam. 15. A remnant, 
however, escaped and subsisted after- 
wards ; David defeated them on several 
occasions, 1 Sam. 27 : 8 ; 30 : 1 ; 2 Sam. 8 : 
12 ; and they were finally blotted out in 
fulfilment of the prediction of Balaam, 
Num. 24:20. Haman, the last of the race 
mentioned in Scripture, perished like his 
fathers, in conflict with the Jews. See 
Agag and the book of Esther. 

AM 'ANA, confirmation, the southern part 
or summit of Anti-Lebanon, adjacent to 
and north of Hermon, from which the river 
Amana or Abana poured down towards 
Damascus, Song 4 : 8. 

25 



AMA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



AME 



AMARI'AH, the Lord says, I., son of Me- 
raioth, a descendant of Aaron in the line of 
Eleazar. He was the father of Ahitub (II.), 
and grandfather of Zadok, in whose person 
the high-priesthood was restored to that 
line, i Chr. 6 : 7, 52. 

II. High-priest at a later period, a son 
of Azariah, and father of another Ahitub, 

1 Chr. 6: 11. In like manner, in the same 
list there are 3 persons named Azariah. 

AM'ASA, a burden, I., David's nephew, 
the son of Abigail, David's sister, and Je- 
ther, an Ishmaelite. His parentage may 
have led David to show him less favor than 
his other nephews, and this may have dis- 
posed him to join in the rebellion of Absa- 
lom. He was the general of Absalom's 
army, and was defeated by his cousin Joab, 

2 Sam. 17, 18. David afterwards offered 
him a pardon and the command of his 
troops in the place of Joab, whose over- 
bearing conduct he could no longer endure, 
2 Sam. 19 : 13. But in the confusion of She- 
ba's rebellion, Amasa was treacherously 
murdered by his powerful rival, 2 Sam. 
20:4-10. B. C. 1022. 

II. A chief of Ephraim, who opposed re- 
taining as bondsmen the men of Judah 
taken captive in a war with Pekah king of 
Israel, 2 Chr. 28 : 12. 

AMA'SAI, burdensome, a Levite, father 
of Mahath and ancestor of Samuel and 
Ethan the singer, 1 Chr. 6:25, 35, who 
joined David with 30 gallant men, while in 
the desert flying from Saul, 1 Chr. 12: 
16-18. 

AMAZI'AH, the strength of the Lord, I., 
9th king of Judah, son of Joash, began to 
reign B. C. 837, at the age of 25, and reigned 
29 years in Jerusalem. He did good in the 
sight of the Lord, but not with a perfect 
heart. Having established himself in his 
throne and slain the murderers of his fa- 
ther, he mustered a host of 300,000 men of 
Judah, and hired 100,000 men of Israel, for 
a war upon Edom. These hired forces he 
reluctantly dismissed at the command of 
God, who gave him the victory without 
their aid. But this did not prevent him 
from carrying home with him the idols of 
Edom, and setting them up as gods. For 
this defiance of Jehovah he was threatened 
with destruction by a prophet of the Lord ; 
and soon after went headlong into war 
with Joash king of Israel, in which he was 
defeated and humbled, being taken to his 
own capital as a captive, and obliged to 
ransom himself by treasures and hostages. 
Fifteen years after, he was slain by con- 
26 



spirators, after flying to Lachish to escape 
them, 2 Kin. 14 : 1-20 ; 2 Chr. 25. 

II. A priest of the golden calf at Bethel, 
who denounced the prophet Amos to Jero- 
boam II., and sought to banish him into 
Judah for his fidelity, Amos 7 : 10-17. 

AMBASS'ADORS were sent by the Jews 
to foreign nations, not as permanent rep- 
resentatives, but only as occasion required, 
in peace, 2 Kin. 14 : 8 ; 16:7; 18 : 14, as well 
as in war, Num. 20:14: 21:21; 1 Kin. 20: 
2, 6. They were usually men of note, and 
their persons were held sacred, and indig- 
nities to them avenged, 2 Sam. 10:1-5; 
I 13:26-31. Ministers are Christ's ambassa- 
dors, 2 Cor. 5 : 20 ; Eph. 6 : 20. 

AM'BER. The Hebrew word chashmal 
is translated by the Septuagint and Vul- 
gate electrum, amber, and may denote 
either amber itself or a very brilliant am- 
ber-like metal, composed of 1 part silver 
and 4 parts gold, which was much prized 
in antiquity, Ezek. 1:4, 27 ; 8:2. Others, 
as Bochart, refer here to a mixture of gold 
and brass, which exhibited a high degree 
of lustre. Something similar to this was 
probably also the "fine brass " in Ezra 8 : 
27 ; Rev. 1 : 15. 

A'MEN', firm, faithful, and true ; used 
as an adjective, an adverb, and a substan- 
tive. God is called "the God of Amen" — 
truth, in Isa. 65 : 16. So in Rev. 3 : 14, our 
Lord is called "the Amen, the faithful and 
true Witness," where the last words ex- 
plain the preceding appellation. See 2 Cor. 
1 : 20. In its adverbial use it means cer- 
tainly, truly, surely. It is used at the be- 
ginning of a sentence by way of emphasis, 
frequently by our Saviour, and is transla- 
ted Verily. In John's Gospel alone it is 
often used in this way double : Verily, ver- 
ily. At the end of a sentence it is often 
used, singly or repeated, especially at the 
end of hymns and prayers ; as, " Amen and 
Amen," Psa. 41:13; 7 2:I 9; 8 9 : 5 2 - This 
was the custom of the Jews, in private ; and 
of the early Christians, Matt. 6 : 13 ; 1 Cor. 
14 : 16. The proper signification of it here 
is, to confirm the words which have prece- 
ded, assert the sincerity, and invoke the 
fulfilment of them : So it is, So be it, Let it 
be done. Hence, in oaths, after the priest 
has repeated the words of the covenant or 
imprecation, all those who pronounce the 
Amen bind themselves by the oath, Num. 
5:22; Deut. 27:15, etc; Neh. 5:13; 8:6; 
1 Chron. 16:36. Compare Psa. 106:48. 

AMERCE', to punish by a fine, Deut. 22 : 
19. The term implied that the debtor stood 



AME 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



AMO 



"at the mercy" of the creditor, who could 
pardon him if he pleased. 

AM'ETHYST, a precious stone of a violet- 
blue color, verging towards a purple. It is 
seldom uniform in color, and is generally 
cloudy and spotted with zigzag stripes. It 
is highly prized, Exod. 28:19; Rev. 21:20. 

AM'MI, my people, and RUHA'MAH, hav- 
ing obtained mercy, were figurative names 
for God's covenant people; the word Lo, 
not, prefixed, gave these words the oppo- 
site signification, Hos. 2:1. 

AMMIN'ADAB, my people is liberal, I., a 
son of Aram, a prince of the tribe of Judah, 
and father of Nahshon, He was one of the 
ancestors of Christ; and his daughter Eli- 
sheba was the wife of Aaron, Exod. 6 : 23 ; 
Ruth 4 : 20 ; Matt. 1 : 4. 

II. A son of Kohath, 1 Chr. 6 : 22. " The 
chariots of Amminadib," Song 6 : 12, were 
very light and swift, in allusion perhaps 
to some noted charioteer of that day. 

AM'MONITES, the descendants of Am- 
nion, or Ben-Ammi, a son of Lot, Gen. 19: 
38. Their history throughout is involved 
with that of their brethren the Moabites. 
They destroyed an ancient race of giants 
called Zamzummim, and seized their coun- 
try, which lay east of Judaea, Deut. 2 : 19-21. 
Their territory extended from the Arnon 
to the Jabbok, and from the Jordan a con- 



siderable distance into Arabia. Their cap- 
ital city was Rabbah (also called Rabbath 
Ammon, and afterwards Philadelphia), 
which stood on the Jabbok. Yet in the 
time of Moses they had been driven out of 
this region, towards the east, by the Am- 
orites, Num. 21 : 21-35 > 3 2 : 33- Moses was 
forbidden to assail them, Deut. 2 : 19. They 
were gross idolaters ; their chief idol being 
Moloch, 1 Kin. 11:5-7; 2 Kin. 23:13. They 
were a predatory race, fierce and cruel, 
1 Sam. 11:2; Amos 1:13; and were early 
enemies of the Israelites, whom they op- 
pressed in the time of Jephthah, and were 
defeated by him with great slaughter, Deut. 
2 3 : 3-6 ; Judg. 11 ; and afterwards by Saul, 

1 Sam. 11: 11; 14:47, and by David, etc., 

2 Sam. 10-12; 2 Chr. 20:1-25. The chil- 
dren of Ammon afterwards, at various 
times, troubled the Israelites, for which the 
prophets threatened them with divine judg- 
ments, Jer. 49 : 1-6 ; Ezek. 25 : 2-10 ; and 
they were at last totally subdued by Judas 
Maccabeus, 1 Mace. 5 : 6-44. 

AM'NON , faithful, the eldest son of Da- 
vid, by Ahinoam of Jezreel, 2 Sam. 3 : 2. 
He is known only by his guilt in violating 
his half-sister Tamar ; for which Absalom, 
2 years after, caused him to be assassina- 
ted, 2 Sam. 13, thus also getting an elder 
brother out of his way to the throne. 




LUXOR, A PART OF ANCIENT THEBES, FROM THE RIVER NILE. 



A'MON, or No-A'mon, or No, a city of 
ancient Egypt, the seat or dwelling of 



the Egyptian god Amon, called at Thebes 
Amen-Ra, Nah. 3:8. Similar is its Greek 

27 



AMO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



AMU 



name Diospolis, the city of Jupiter- Anion. 
In Ezek. 30:14, 15, 16, it is called simply 
No ; and in Nah. 3 : 8 and Jer. 46 : 25 also, 
the English version has only No. For 
"populous No" read No-Amon ; and for 
" multitude of No " read Amon of No. The 
name designates, beyond all reasonable 
doubt, the city of Thebes, the ancient and 
renowned capital of Upper Egypt. 

The vast ruins of the temples of Luxor 
and Carnac proclaim the grandeur and 
magnificence with which the worship of 
Jupiter-Amon was conducted. The ruins of 
the ancient city of Thebes, covering 30 or 
40 square miles— broken temples and pal- 
aces, huge statues, avenues of sphinxes, 
etc. — are the wonder and delight of modern 
travellers, for their extent, their vastness, 
and their sad and solitary grandeur. They 
are covered with ancient hieroglyphics and 
historical sculptures, among which one in- 
teresting scene is thought to record the 
exploits of Shishak against Jerusalem in 
the 5th year of Rehoboam, 1 Kin. 14 : 25. 
See Wilkinson, Robinson, and Olin. See 
Egypt and Shishak. 

A'MON, builder, the 14th king of Judah, 
son of Manasseh, began to reign B. C. 642, 
at the age of 22, and reigned only 2 years 
at Jerusalem. He did evil in the sight of 
the Lord, as his father Manasseh had done, 
by forsaking Jehovah and worshipping 
idols. See Zeph. 1:4; 3:3-11. His ser- 
vants conspired against him, and slew him 
in his own house ; but the people killed all 
the conspirators, and established his son 
Josiah on the throne. He was buried in 
the garden of Uzzah, 2 Kin. 21:18-26; 
2 Chr. 33:21-25. 

AM'ORITES, mountaineers, a warlike 
people descended from Emer, the 4th son 
of Canaan, Gen. 10: 16. They first peopled 
the mountains west of the Dead Sea, Gen. 
14:7; towards Hebron, Gen. 14:13, and 
farther south, Deut. 1:7, 19, 20, 44; but 
afterwards extended their limits, and took 
possession of the finest provinces of Moab 
and Ammon on the east between the brooks 
Jabbok and Arnon, Num. 13 : 29 ; 21 : 21-31 ; 
Josh. 5:1; Judg. 11:13. Moses took this 
country from their king, Sihon, when he 
resisted the peaceful passage of the He- 
brews into the land of promise, Judg. 11 : 
19-22. The lands which the Amorites pos- 
sessed west of the Jordan were given to 
the tribe of Judah, and those beyond the 
Jordan to the tribes of Reuben and Gad. 
The name Amorite is often taken in Scrip- 
ture for Canaanite in general, Gen. 15 : 16; 
28 



Num. 14 : 45 with Deut. 1 : 44 ; Amos 2 : 9. 
See Canaanite. 

In Ezek. 16 : 3, God reminds the Jews 
that they were naturally no more worthy 
of his favor than the heathen Canaanites. 

A'MOS, a burden, I., the 3d of the minor 
prophets, was a herdsman of Tekoah, a 
small town of Judah, about 12 miles south 
of Jerusalem. He prophesied, however, 
concerning Israel, at Bethel, in the days of 
Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II., 
king of Israel, about B. C. 800 to 787, and 
was thus a contemporary of Hosea and 
Joel. He was a herdsman, and not a "son 
of the prophets." The first 2 chapters con- 
tain predictions against the surrounding 
nations, enemies of the people of God. 
But the ten tribes of Israel were the chief 
subjects of his prophecies. Their tempo- 
rary prosperity under Jeroboam led to 
gross idolatry, injustice, oppression, and 
corruption ; for which sins he denounces 
the judgments of God upon them ; but he 
closes with cheering words of consolation. 
His holy boldness in reproving sin drew 
on him the wrath of the priests, who la- 
bored to procure his banishment, Amos 7 : 
10-17. I n regard to style, Amos takes a 
high rank among the prophets. He is full 
of imagery drawn from rural objects and 
occupations, concise, and yet simple and 
perspicuous. The authorship and canoni- 
cal authority of the book are beyond ques- 
tion. Two passages are quoted in the New 
Testament : ch. 5 : 25-27 in Acts 7 : 42 ; and 
ch. 9:11 in Acts 15 : 16. 

II. One of the ancestors of our Lord, 
Luke 3 : 25. 

A'MOZ, robust, the father of Isaiah, 2 Kin. 
19 : 2 ; Isa. 1 : 1. 

AMPHIP'OLIS, on both sides the city, a 
city of Macedonia, not far from the mouth 
of the Strymon, which flowed " around the 
city." It was visited by Paul and Silas, 
Acts 17:1. The village now upon its site 
is called Neokhorio, new-town. 

AM'RAM, an exalted people, a son of 
Kohath, and father of Aaron, Miriam, and 
Moses. He died in Egypt, aged 137, Exod. 
6 : 18, 20 ; Num. 3 : 27. His wife was named 
Jochebed, and their faith is commended in 
Heb. 11 : 23. 

AM'RAPHEL, king of Shinar in the time 
of Abraham. With 3 other petty kings, he 
made war upon the tribes around the Dead 
Sea and the cities of the plain. Gen. 14 : 1. 

AM'ULETS, still so largely used in Africa 
and the East, were common in ancient 
times, being worn as ear-rings, Gen. ^ : 4; 



ANA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



AND 



Judg. 8 : 34 ; Isa. 3 : 20 ; Hos. 2 : 13 ; and in 
necklaces, precious stones being often 




clothed with superstitious power. Sacred 
words arranged in some cabalistic manner, 
and many other small objects, were thus 
associated with demoniacal influences and 
worn as safeguards. 

A'NAB, grape-town, still found under its 
old name, in the mountains of Judah, south- 
southwest of Hebron, Josh. 11:21; 15 : 50. 

A'NAH, answerer, of Mount Hor, the fa- 
ther of Aholibamah, one of Esau's wives. 
While feeding his father's asses in the des- 
ert, he is said to have found the " mules," 
Gen. 36:24, rather "warm springs;" and 
such springs are still found on the eastern 
coast of the Dead Sea, called Callirrhoe. 
Hengstenberg suggests that Anah took his 
other name, Beeri, of the wells, from the 
springs he found, Gen. 26 : 34. 

A'NAK, plural An'akim, long-necked, fa- 
mous giants in Palestine, descended from 
Arba, founder of the city Hebron, Josh. 
21 : 11. They spread themselves over the 
south of Judah, the hill country, and sev- 
eral cities of the Philistines. The Hebrew 
spies were terrified at their sight, Num. 
13 : 2,3 ; but in the conquest of Canaan they 
were destroyed or expelled, Josh. 11:22; 
15:14; Judg. 1 :20. 

ANAM'MELECH, see Adrammelech. 

ANANI'AS, protected by God, I., a Jew of 
Jerusalem, the husband of Sapphira, who 
attempted to join the Christians, and pre- 
tended to give them the entire price of his 
lands, but died instantly on being convict- 
ed of falsehood by Peter, Acts 5:1-10, a 
timely warning for the early Christians and 
for us. 

II. A Christian of Damascus, who re- 
stored the sight of Paul, after his vision of 
the Saviour, Acts 9 : 10-17 ; 22 : 12. 

III. A high-priest of the Jews, a son of 
Xebedaeus, A. D. 48. It was he before 
whom with the Sanhedrin Paul was sum- 
moned, under Felix, and who ordered an 
attendant to smite Paul on the mouth. The 



apostle's prophetic denunciation in reply 
seems to have been fulfilled when, as Jose- 
phus relates, in the commencement of the 
siege of Jerusalem, the assassins burned 
the house of Ananias, and afterwards dis- 
covered his place of retreat in an aqueduct, 
and slew him, Acts 23 : 2 ; 24 : 1. 

ANATH'EMA, something set apart and 
devoted irrecoverably to God, sometimes 
in obedience to his command, sometimes 
by a spontaneous vow, Exod. 22 : 20 ; Num. 
21:2; Judg. 11:31. It is understood to de- 
note the irrevocable and entire separation 
of a person from the communion of the 
faithful, or from the number of the living, 
or from the privileges of society, Ezra 10 : 8; 
or the devoting of any man, animal, city, 
or thing, to be extirpated and destroyed, 
Lev. 27. Thus Jericho, Josh. 6:17-21, and 
Achan were accursed, Josh. 7. The word 
anathema is several times used in the New 
Testament with this idea of execration, 
Matt. 26 : 74 ; Acts 23 : 12, 14, 21 ; 1 Cor. 12 : 
3 ; Gal. 1:8, 9. Paul, remembering perhaps 
that Christ was " made a curse " for us, 
says he could himself suffer in like manner, 
if it were fitting and would avail for the sal- 
vation of his countrymen, Rom. 9 : 3. 

Another kind of anathema, very peculi- 
arly expressed, occurs 1 Cor. 16:22: "If 
any man love not the Lord Jesus Christ, 
let him be Anathema, Maranatha." The 
last word seems made up of two Syriac 
words, signifying, " Our Lord cometh," 
that is, the Lord will surely come, and will 
execute this curse, by condemning those 
who love him not. At the same time, the 
opposite is also implied, that is, the Lord 
cometh also to reward those who love him. 
See Excommunication. 

AN'ATHOTH, answers {to prayer), one of 
the cities given to the priests, in Benjamin ; 
identified by Robinson in Anata. a hamlet 
some 4 miles north by east of Jerusalem, 
Josh. 21:18; 1 Chr. 6:60; Ezra 2:23. It 
was the birthplace of the prophet Jeremiah, 
Jer. 1 : 1 ; 32 : 7. Its people, however, re- 
jected his words, and sought his life, Jer. 
11 : 21. 

AN'CIENT, aged. Before printing was 
invented and while books were scarce, aged 
men were the repositories of history and 
all forms of learning and wisdom, Job 12 : 
12. Ancient of Days is a title of the 
Eternal Jehovah, Dan. 7 : 9. 

AN'DREW, manly, one of the 12 apos- 
tles, was of Bethsaida, and brother of Peter, 
John 1 : 40, 44. Being a disciple of John the 
Baptist, he understood the intimations of 

29 



AND 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ANG 



his master as to the Lamb of God, and was 
the first of the apostles to follow him, John 
i : 35-40, and come to the knowledge of the 
Messiah. Compare Jas. 4 : 8. His first step 
was to lead his brother Simon to the Lord — 
an example for all young converts. He 
was afterwards called as an apostle, on the 
shore of the Sea of Galilee, Matt. 4:18; and 
thenceforth followed Christ to the end, 
Mark 13 .3; John 6:8; 12:22. Of his later 
history nothing is known with certainty. 
There is a doubtful tradition that after 
preaching the gospel in Greece, and perhaps 
Thrace and Scythia, he suffered crucifixion 
at Patrae in Achaia, on a cross of peculiar 
form (X), hence commonly known as " St. 
Andrew's cross." 

ANDRONI'CUS, man- conqueror, a Jew- 
ish Christian at Rome, a relative and fel- 
low-prisoner of Paul, Rom. 16 : 7. 

A'NER, a boy, I., of Hebron, one of Abra- 
ham's allies in the pursuit of Chedorlaomer 
and the rescue of Lot, Gen. 14 : 13, 24. 

II. A Levitical city, in Manasseh, 1 Chr. 
6:70. 

AN'GEL. The original word, both in 
Hebrew and Greek, means messenger, and 
is so translated in Matt. 11 : 10; Luke 7 : 24, 
etc. It is often applied to an ordinary mes- 
senger, Job 1 : 14; 1 Sam. 11:3; Luke 9 : 52; 
to prophets, Isa. 42 : 19 ; Hag. 1:13; to 
priests, Eccl. 5:6; Mai. 2:7; and even to 
inanimate objects, Psalm 78 : 49 ; 104 : 4 ; 
2 Cor. 12:7. Under the general sense of 
messenger, the term is applied also to 
Christ, as the great Angel or Messenger of 
the covenant, Mai. 3:1, and to the minis- 
ters of his gospel, the overseers or angels 
of the churches. Rev. 2:1, 8, 12, etc. In 
1 Cor. 11 : 10, the best interpreters under- 
stand by the term "angels" the holy an- 
gels, who were present in an especial sense 
in the Christian assemblies; and from rev- 
erence to them it was proper that the wo- 
men should have power (veils, as a sign 
of their being in subjection to a higher 
power) on their heads. See under Veil. 

But generally in the Bible the word is 
applied to a race of intelligent beings, of a 
higher order than man, who surround the 
Deity, and whom he employs as his mes- 
sengers or agents in administering the 
affairs of the world, and in promoting the 
welfare of individuals, as well as of the 
whole human race, Matt. 1:20; 22:30; 
Acts 7 : 30, etc. Whether pure spirits, or 
having spiritual bodies, they have no bod- 
ily organization like ours, and are not dis- 
tinguished in sex, Matt. 22:30; though 



whenever they have appeared to men it 
has been in a form like that of a man, more 
or less glorified at times, Gen. 18, 19; Luke 
24 : 4. They were doubtless created long 
before our present world was made, Job 
38 : 7. The Bible represents them as ex- 
ceedingly numerous, Dan. 7:10; Matt. 26: 
53; Luke 2:13; Heb. 12:22, 23; as remark- 
able for strength, Psa. 103:20; 2 Pet. 2:11 ; 
Rev. 5:2; 18:21; 19:17; and for activity, 
Judg. 13:20; Isa. 6:2-6; Dan. 9:21-23; 
Matt. 13 : 49 ; 26 : 53 ; Acts 27 : 23 ; Rev. 8 : 13. 
They appear to be of divers orders, Isa. 
6:2-6; Ezek. 10:1; Col. 1:16; Rev. 12:7. 
See Cherubim, Seraphim. We have only 
glimpses of them as they are in heaven, 
1 Kin. 22:19; Dan. 7:9, 10; Rev. 5:11-14. 
Their name indicates their agency in the 
dispensations of Providence towards man, 
and the Bible abounds in narratives of 
events in which they have borne a visible 
part, Dan. 4:13; 10:10, 13-21; Zech. 1, 4, 
etc. Yet in this employment they act as the 
mere instruments of God, and in fulfilment 
of his commands, Psa. 91 : 11 ; 103:20; Heb. 
1 : 14. We are not therefore to put trust in 
them, pay them adoration, or pray in their 
name, Rev. 19 : 10 ; 22 : 8, 9. Though Scrip- 
ture does not warrant us to affirm that each 
individual has his particular guardian an- 
gel, it teaches very explicitly that the angels 
minister to every Christian, Matt. 18 : 10 ; 
Luke 16 : 22 ; Acts 12 : 15 ; Heb. 1 : 14. They 
are intensely concerned in the salvation of 
men, Luke 2 : 10-12 ; 15 : 7, 10 ; 1 Pet. 1:12; 
and will share with saints the blessedness 
of heaven for ever, Heb. 12 : 22. 

Those angels " who kept not their first 
estate," but fell and rebelled against God, 
are called the angels of Satan or the devil, 
Matt. 25 : 41 ; Rev. 12 : 9. These are repre- 
sented as being "cast down to hell, and 
reserved unto judgment," 2 Pet. 2:4. See 
Synagogue, Archangel, Satan. 

ANGEL OF THE LORD, THE ANGEL- 
Jehovah, the usual title of Christ in the 
bid Testament. Compare Gen. 16:7-13; 
22:11-18; 31:11-13; 32:24-30, with Hos. 
12:3-5; Gen - 4 8:I 5. l6 ; Exod. 3:2-6, 14; 
23:20,21; Judg. 2; 13:16-22; Acts 7:30-38. 
Often he appeared in the form of man, as 
to Abraham, Gen. 18 : 2, 22 ; Lot, Gen. 19 : 1 ; 
and to Joshua, Josh. 5 : 13, 15- Christ thus 
appears in the Patriarchal, the Mosaic, and 
the Christian dispensation as the same Je- 
hovah, the "Word" of God, revealing the 
Father to men, and carrying forward the 
same great plan for the redemption of his 
people, Isa. 63 : 9. 



ANG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ANO 



AN'GER, a violent emotion of a painful 
nature, sometimes arising spontaneously 
upon just occasion, but usually character- 
ized in the Bible as a great sin, Matt. 5 : 22 ; 
Eph. 4:31; Col. 3 : 8. Even when just, our 
anger should be mitigated by a due consid- 
eration of the circumstances of the offence 
and the state of mind of the offender, of 
the folly and ill-results of this passion, of 
the claims of the gospel, and of our own 
need of forgiveness from others, but espe- 
cially from God, Matt. 6 : 15. Anger is in 
Scripture frequently attributed to God, Psa. 
7:11; 90 : 11 ; not that he is liable to those 
violent emotions which this passion pro- 
duces, but because he punishes the wicked 
with the just severity of a superior pro- 
voked to anger. 

AN'GL-E, a fishing-hook, Job 41 : 1, 2 ; Isa. 
19:8; Hab. 1 : 15. 




AN'ISE, a well-known annual herb, re- 
sembling carraway, etc., but more fragrant. 
The plant mentioned in Matt. 23 : 23 was no 
doubt the dill, which grows in Palestine, 
and was tithed by scrupulous Jews. 

ANK'LETS, see BRACELETS, RINGS, AM- 
ULETS. 

AN'NA, gracious, a daughter of Phanuel, 
of the tribe of Asher, early married, but 
left a widow after 7 years, and thenceforth 
devoted to the service of God. She was 
constant in attendance at the morning and 
evening sacrifices at the temple ; and there, 
at the age of 84, was blessed with a sight 
of the infant Saviour, and inspired to an- 
nounce the coming of the promised Mes- 
siah to many who longed to see him, Luke 
2:36-38. 

AN'NAS, one who answers, a high-priest 
of the Jews, Luke 3:2; John 18:13, 2 4J 
Acts 4 : 6, along with Caiaphas, his son-in- 
law. He was first appointed to that office 
by Cyrenius, or Quirinus, proconsul of 



Syria, about A. D. 7 or 8, but was after- 
wards deprived of it. After various chan- 
ges, the office was given to Joseph, also 
called Caiaphas, the son-in-law of Annas, 
about A. D. 25, who continued in office 
until A. D. 36 or t>7- But Annas being his 
father-in-law, and having great influence 
and authority, could with propriety be still 
termed high-priest along with Caiaphas. It 
was before him that Christ was first taken 
on the night of his seizure. He also assist- 
ed in presiding over the Sanhedrin which 
sat in judgment upon Peter and John, Acts 
4:6. 

ANNIHILATION, see IMMORTALITY, 

Sadducees. 




ANOINT'ING was a custom in general 
use among the Hebrews and other Oriental 
nations, and its omission was one sign of 
mourning, Isa. 61 : 3. They anointed with 
oil or ointment the hair, head, and beard, 
Psa. 104 : 15 ; 133 : 2. At their feasts and 
rejoicings they anointed the whole body; 
but sometimes only the head or the feet, 
Psa. 23 : 5 ; Matt. 6 : 17 ; John 12:3. It was 
a customary mark of respect to guests, 
Luke 7 : 38, 46 ; and a symbol of prosper- 
ity, Psa. 92: 10; Eccl. 9:8. The use of oil 
upon the skin was thought to be conducive 
to health. Anointing was then used, and 
is still, medicinally, Mark 6 : 13 ; Jas. 5:14; 
but the miraculous cures thus wrought by 
the apostles furnish no warrant for the cer- 
emony just before death called " extreme 
unction," and the papal ceremony so called 
was not heard of in the church until the 
12th century. The anointing of dead bod- 
ies was also practised, to preserve them 
from corruption, Mark 15:8; 16 : 1 ; Luke 
23 : 56. Kings and high-priests were an- 

31 



ANO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ANT 



ointed at their inauguration, and some- 
times prophets, Exod. 29 : 7. 29 ; Lev. 4:3; 
Judg. 9:8; 1 Sam. 9:16; 1 Kin. 19 : 15, 16, 
as also the sacred vessels of the tabernacle 
and temple, Exod. 30:26. King Saul is 
called "the Lord's anointed," also David 
and Zedekiah, 1 Sam. 24 : 6 ; 2 Sam. 23 : 1 ; 
Lam. 4 : 20, and Cyrus, who was raised up 
for God's purposes, though not anointed 
with oil ; so also the high-priest is called 
"the anointed priest." This anointing of 
sacred persons and objects signified their 
being set apart and consecrated to the ser- 
vice of God; and the costly and fragrant 
mixture appointed for this purpose was 
forbidden for all others, Exod. 30:23-33; 
Ezek. 23:41. See Christ and Messiah. 
Christians are spiritually anointed by the 
Holy Ghost unto knowledge and holiness, 
2 Cor. 1:21; 1 John 2 : 20, 27. 

ANON', Matt. 13 : 20, quickly, soon. 

AN'SWER. Besides the common use of 
this word in the sense of to reply, it is very 
often used in the Bible, following the He- 
brew and Greek idioms, in the sense of to 
speak ; meaning simply that one begins or 
resumes his discourse, Zech. 3:4; 6:4; 
Matt. 11:25; I2: 38; Luke 7:40. It also 
means to sing in choruses or responses, 
Exod. 15:20, 21; 1 Sam. 18:7; 29:5, and 
to give account of one's self in judgment, 
Gen. 30:33; Job 9: 3. 



and the chrysalis state. The termites or 
white ants are large and very destructive. 




THE BROWN ANT: FORMICA BRUNNEA. 

i. Worker. 4. Male. 6. Female. 3. Cocoon. 
2, 5, and 7 natural size of 1, 4, and 6. 

ANT, a small insect, famous for its indus- 
try and economy, for its social habits and 
skill in building. Some species build 
habitations truly immense compared with 
themselves, and able to contain a dozen 
men. Their roofs are impervious to rain, 
and they contain numerous stories, galler- 
ies, etc., the result of skilful and incessant 
labor. Ants lavish the utmost care and 
pains upon their young, both in the egg 
32 




DWELLING OF THE TERMITES 



Most varieties of ants are known to prefer 
animal or saccharine food; and it is often 
said that no species has yet been found 
laying up stores of grain for winter use, 
for while the frost continues they all lie 
torpid. The contrary belief, however, was 
current among the ancients, as many pas- 
sages in Jewish, Greek, and Roman writers 
prove ; and two species of harvesting-ants 
have been found in Palestine. Solomon, 
Prov. 6 : 6, commends them for toiling as 
soon and as long as the season permits their 
labor, and bids us make the same diligent 
use of life and opportunities, Prov. 30 : 24, 
25. The inferior animals are in many re- 
spects wiser than sinful man, Job 12 : 7, 8. 

AN'TELOPE, see under Roe. 

AN'TICHRIST, one opposed to Christ. 
John says there were already in his time 
many having the spirit of antichrist : unbe- 
lievers, heretics, and persecutors, 1 John 
2:18; 4:3. They were characterized by 
the denial of the Father and the Son, and 
of Christ's coming in the flesh, 1 John 2:22; 
4:352 John 7. But the apostles and early 
Christians seem to have looked forward to 
some one great antichrist, who should pre- 
cede the second coming of our Lord, stand- 
ing in some connection with the "little 
horn " of Daniel 7, and the " beast " of Rev. 
13; 19:11-21, and whom Paul calls "the 
man of sin, the son of perdition," 2 Thess. 
2:3. To this passage John alludes, 1 John 



ANT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ANT 



2 : 18. The antichrist was to come after the 
removing of an obstacle that "withheld" 
it — generally believed to be the old Roman 
empire — and after a certain " falling away ;" 
was to be marked by open iniquity and 
opposition to God, claiming His attributes, 
doing pretended miracles, and having great 



power to deceive men and gain admiration 
and worship — whose spirit was already at 
work in apostolic times. It seems to de- 
note an organized body of men and a cor- 
rupt polity, perpetuated from age to age, 
opposed to Christ, and which he will de- 
stroy, Rev. ii ; 13; 17. 



%^ 




ANTAKIA (ANTIOCH IN SYRIA), ON THE ORONTE9. 



AN'TIOCH, an opponent, I., a city on the 
river Orontes, 20, or by the river 40, miles 
from its mouth, at the meeting of the great 
mountain ranges of Lebanon and Taurus, 
and the metropolis of all Syria. It was 
founded by Seleucus Nicator B. C. 300, and 
called by him after his father Antiochus. 
This city is celebrated by Cicero as being 
opulent and abounding in men of taste and 
letters. It was at one time a place of great 
wealth and refinement, as well as luxury 
and vice, and ranked as the 3d city in the 
Roman empire, only Rome and Alexandria 
surpassing it. It was also a place of great 
resort for the Jews, and afterwards for 
Christians. It came under Roman govern- 
ment B. C. 64. Here the 1st church among 
the Gentiles was formed, Acts 11:20, 21. 
The distinctive name of " Christians " was 
here first applied to the followers of Jesus, 
Acts 11 : 19, 26; 13 : 1 ; Gal. 2:11. It is es- 
pecially famous as the scene of Paul's first 
systematic labors in the gospel, Acts 11 : 
22-26 ; and the home whence he started and 
to which he returned on his missionary 
tours, Acts 13 : 1-3 ; 14 : 26 ; 15 : 36 ; 18 : 22, 
23. Three general councils were held 
there in the 3d century, and in A. D. 347 
3 



Chrysostom was here born. Few cities 
have suffered greater disasters. Many 
times it has been nearly ruined by earth- 
quakes, one of which, in 1822, destroyed 
one-fourth of its population, then about 
20,000. It is to-day a considerable village 
called Antakia. * 

II. Another city, also founded by Seleu- 
cus Nicator, was called Antioch of Pisidia, 
because it was attached to that province, 
although situated in Phrygia. It is mem- 
orable for Paul's visits and sufferings, in 
his 1st and 2d missionary tours, Acts 13 : 
14; 14:19, 21; 2 Tim. 3:11. It is now 
called Yalobatch. 

AN'TIPAS, I. See Herod Antipas. 

II. A martyr in Pergamos, Rev. 2 : 13. 

ANTIP'ATRIS, city of Antipater, a city 
of Palestine, situated 7 or 8 miles from the 
coast, in a fertile and well-watered plain 
between Csesarea and Jerusalem, on the 
site of the former city Caphar-Saba. It 
was founded by Herod the Great, and 
called Antipatris in honor of his father 
Antipater. It was visited by Paul, Acts 
23:31. The British Ordnance Survey place 
it at Raq el-Ain. q miles <=onth of Kefr Saba. 

ANTO'NIA, a square fortress on the east 

33 



APE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



APO 



side of Jerusalem, north of the temple area, 
with which it had a covered communica- 
tion. There was a tower at each corner, 
and it was isolated by high walls and 
trenches. It was rebuilt by Herod the 
Great, and named after Mark Antony. Jo- 
sephus often speaks of it. It was "the 
castle " from which soldiers came down to 
rescue Paul from the Jews in the temple ; 
and from its stairs he addressed the mul- 
titude, Acts 21 : 31-40. 




APE, an animal rudely resembling the 
human race. The tribe may be familiarly 
distinguished as monkeys, apes, and ba- 
boons, apes proper being the tailless Quad- 
rumana. Solomon imported them from 
Ophir, 1 Kin. 10:22; 2 Chr. 9:21. They 
were at one time worshipped in Egypt ; 
and still are adored in some parts of India, 
where one traveller describes a magnifi- 
cent temple dedicated to the monkey. 
There may be an allusion to large apes or 
baboons, literally "hairy ones," in Lev. 
17 : 7 ; Isa. 13:21; 34 : 14. See Satyrs. 

APHAR'SACHITES, etc., Ezra 4:9; 5:6; 
named among the heathen subjects of the 
king of Assyria, transplanted into Samaria 
after the captivity of the 10 tribes, B. C. 721. 
The Apharsites, also named in Ezra 4 : 9, 
are regarded by Gesenius as Persians. 

A'PHEK, strength, I., a city in Lebanon, 
assigned to the tribe of Asher, Josh. 13 : 4; 
19:30; but not subdued, Judg. 1:31. Its 
site may be still found on the northwest 
slopes of Mount Lebanon, called Aphka. 
34 



II. A place noted in the wars with the 
Philistines, 1 Sam. 4:1; 29:1. Perhaps 2 
places are spoken of, one where the Philis- 
tines encamped before Eli's death — appa- 
rently not far northwest of Jerusalem ; the 
other farther north, towards Jezreel and 
Shunem — a royal city of the Canaanites, 
Josh. 12: 18. 

III. A city 6 miles east of the Sea of Gal- 
ilee, the walls of which fell upon 27,000 
Syrians under Ben-hadad, after his defeat 
by the Israelites, 1 Kin. 20 : 26-34. Now 
called Fik. 

APOCALYPSE signifies revelation, but 
is particularly referred to the revelations 
which John had in the isle of Patmos, whith- 
er he was banished by Domitian. Hence 
it is another name for the book of Revela- 
tion. This book belongs to the prophetical 
writings, and stands in intimate relation 
with the prophecies of the Old Testament, 
especially with the writings of the later 
prophets, as Ezekiel, Zechariah, and par- 
ticularly Daniel, inasmuch as it is almost 
entirely symbolical! This circumstance 
has surrounded the interpretation of this 
book with difficulties, which no interpreter 
has yet been able fully to overcome. As 
to the author, the almost entire weight of 
testimony is in favor of John, the beloved 
apostle ; and this is undeniably implied in 
the writer's account of himself, Rev. 1:4, 9, 
with 1 John 1 : 1-3, and in the harmony of 
spirit between this and his other writings. 
Most commentators suppose it to have 
been written on the isle of Patmos after 
the destruction of Jerusalem, about A. D. 
96 ; there is very slight ground for assign- 
ing it an earlier date. 

It is an expanded illustration of the first 
great promise, " The seed of the woman 
shall bruise the head of the serpent." Its 
figures and symbols are august and impres- 
sive. It is full of prophetic grandeur, and 
awful in its types, shadows, and mystic 
symbols: seven seals opened, seven trum- 
pets sounded, seven vials poured out; 
mighty antagonists and hostile powers, full 
of malignity against Christianity, and for a 
season oppressing it, but at length defeat- 
ed and annihilated ; the darkened heaven, 
tempestuous sea, and convulsed earth fight- 
ing against them, while the issue of the 
long combat is the universal reign of peace 
and truth and righteousness— the whole 
scene being relieved at intervals by a cho- 
ral burst of praise to God the Creator, and 
Christ the Redeemer and Governor. Thus 
its general scope is intelligible to all read- 



APO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



APO 



ers, or it could not yield either hope or 
comfort. It is also full of Christ. It ex- 
hibits his glory as Redeemer and Govern- 
or, and describes that deep and universal 
homage and praise which the " Lamb that 
was slain " is for ever receiving before the 
throne. Either Christ is God, or the saints 
and angels are guilty of idolatry. 

The historical interpretation of its de- 
tails is very difficult, though some of its 
most important portions clearly designate 
the deceitful and tyrannical papal power, 
in close alliance with Satan. See chs. 13 
and 17 " To explain this book perfectly," 
says Bishop Newton, " is not the work of 
one man or of one age ; probably it never 
will be clearly understood till it is all ful- 
filled." 

APOCRYPHA, concealed; as applied to 
books, it means those which assume a claim 
to a sacred character, but are really unin- 
spired, and have not been admitted into the 
canon. These are of 2 classes : namely 

1. Those which were in existence in the 
time of Christ, but were not admitted by 
the Jews into the canon of the Old Testa- 
ment, because they had no Hebrew origi- 
nal, and were regarded as not divinely in- 
spired. The most important of these are 
collected in the Apocrypha often bound up 
with the English Bible, though without 
good reason ; but in the Septuagint and 
Vulgate they stand as canonical. 

These apocryphal writings are 14 in 
number, namely, the 2 books of Esdras or 
Ezra, Tobit, Judith, additions to Esther, the 
Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, or Je- 
sus the son of Sirach, Baruch, Song of the 
Three Children, History of Susanna, Bel 
and the Dragon, Prayer of Manasseh, and 
the 2 books of the Maccabees. Their style 
proves that they were a part of the Jewish- 
Greek literature of Alexandria, within 300 
years before Christ ; and as the Septuagint 
Greek version of the Hebrew Bible came 
from the same quarter, it was often accom- 
panied by these uninspired Greek writings, 
and they thus gained a general circulation. 
Josephus and Philo, of the 1st century, ex- 
clude them from the canon. The Talmud 
contains no trace of them ; and from the 
various lists of the Old Testament Scrip- 
tures in the early centuries, it is clear that 
then as now they formed no part of the 
Hebrew canon. None of them are quoted 
or indorsed by Christ or the apostles ; they 
have no prophetic element ; they were not 
acknowledged by the Christian fathers; 
and their own contents condemn them, 



abounding with errors and absurdities. 
Some of them, however, are of value for 
the historical information they furnish — 
running down to within a half-century of 
Christ — for their moral and prudential max- 
ims, and for the illustrations they afford of 
ancient life. 

2. Those which were written after the 
time of Christ, but were not admitted by 
the churches into the canon of the New 
Testament, as not being divinely inspired. 
These are mostly of a legendary character, 
with trivial and absurd stories and pre- 
tended miracles. The chief of them are 
The Shepherd of Hermas, and the Epistles 
of Clement and Ignatius. They have been 
collected by Fabricius in his Codex Apoc. 
New Testament ; and Tischendorf has edit- 
ed 22 gospel fragments and 13 epistles. 

APOLLO'NIA, a city of Macedonia, be- 
tween Amphipolis and Thessalonica, a long 
day's journey on foot, some 30 miles, from 
the former place, Acts 17:1. Its ruins bear 
the name of Pollina. 

APOL'LOS, a Jew of Alexandria, a learn- 
ed and eloquent man, who through the 
Scriptures and the ministry of John the 
Baptist became a Christian. He visited 
Ephesus about A. D. 54, and publicly pro- 
claimed his faith in Christ; whereupon he 
was further instructed in gospel truth by 
Aquila and Priscilla Passing thence into 
Achaia, he preached with great power and 
success, especially among the Jews, Acts 
18:24-28. At Corinth, he for a time wa- 
tered what Paul had planted, Acts 19:1; 
1 Cor. 1:12; 3:6; and was with him at Eph- 
esus when 1 Cor. was written, 16:12. His 
character was not unlike that of Paul ; they 
were equally grieved at the dissensions of 
the Corinthians, and at those personal par- 
tialities which led many away from Christ, 
1 Cor. 3:4-22; 16-12; and they cooperated 
to the end in serving him, Titus 3:13. Je- 
rome is of opinion that Apollos afterwards 
returned to Corinth from Crete. 

APOL'LYON, see Abaddon. 

APOS'TLE, a messenger or envoy. The 
term is applied to Jesus Christ, who was 
God's envoy to save the world, Heb. 3:1; 
though, more commonly, the title is given 
to persons who were envoys commissioned 
by the Saviour himself. It is the term 
translated ''messengers" in 2 Cor. 8:23, 
denoting delegates of the churches on a 
charitable mission, ver. 1-6, 16-19 ; used 
in Phil. 2:25, of Epaphroditus ; and in the 
same sense of envoys perhaps, of Barnabas 
and Paul in Acts 14:4, 14. 

35 



APO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



AQU 



In the specific and usual sense of the 
word in the New Testament, the apostles 
of Jesus Christ were his chief disciples, 
eye-witnesses of his glory, Luke 22:28; 
1 Cor. 9:1, whom he invested with author- 
ity, filled with his Spirit, intrusted particu- 
larly with his doctrines and services, and 
commissioned to raise the edifice of his 
church. From the nature of the case, the 
office of these witnesses of Christ's life ter- 
minated with them, and could not be trans- 
mitted to successors, Acts 1:21, 22. They 
were 12 in number, answering to the 12 
tribes, Matt. 19:28, and were plain, un- 
learned men, chosen from the common 
people. After their calling and charge, 
Matt. 10:5-42, they attended their divine 
Master, witnessing his works, imbibing his 
spirit, and gradually learning the facts and 
doctrines of the gospel. During his minis- 
try he sent them out by twos on prepara- 
tory tours in Judsea only, Matt. 10, Luke 
9:1-6; and after his resurrection he sent 
them into all the world, commissioned to 
preach, to baptize, to work miracles, etc. 
See John 15:27, 1 Cor. 9:1; 15:8; 2 Cor. 
12 : 22 ; 1 Thess. 2 : 13. The names of the 12 
are, Simon Peter ; Andrew, his brother ; 
James, the son of Zebedee, called also " the 
greater;" John, his brother; Philip; Bar- 
tholomew ; Thomas ; Matthew, or Levi ; 
Simon the Zealot ; Lebbaeus, surnamed 
Thaddseus, also called Judas or Jude ; 
James, "the less," the son of Alphaeus; 
and Judas Iscariot, Matt. 10:2-4; Mark 3: 
16 ; Luke 6 : 14. The last betrayed his Mas- 
ter, and then hanged himself, and Matthi- 
as was chosen in his place, Acts 1 : 15-26. 

The apostles were on a footing of entire 
equality, no one claiming any authority or 
primacy over the rest; and none of the 12 
was so eminent in endowments and servi- 
ces as Paul, 2 Cor. 11:5, 23-28, They ad- 
vanced slowly in their comprehension of 
Christ's mission, Luke 24:25; John 16:12, 
until the outpouring of the Spirit on them, 
Luke 24:49; Acts 1:8. In the Acts of the 
Apostles are recorded the self-sacrificing 
toils and sufferings of these Christlike men, 
who did that which was " right in the sight 
of God " from love to their Lord ; and gave 
themselves wholly to their work with a 
zeal, love, and faith Christ delighted to 
honor — teaching us that apostolic graces 
alone can secure apostolic successes. See 
Paul, and the Names of the Twelve. 

The " Apostles' Creed," so called, was 
not written by them, though an admirable 
c< impend of the belief of the early church. 
36 



APOTH'ECARIES, Xeh. 3:8, makers and 
venders of perfumes and ointments, Exod. 
30:25; 37:29; 2 Chr. 16:14; Eccl. 10:1. 

APPEALS' were recognized in the Mo- 
saic law, Deut. 17:8, 9, and were allowed 
to accused persons in the period of the 
Judges and the Kings, far more than in 
the less favored heathen nations of old or 
modern times, Judg. 4:5; 2 Chr. 19:8, 10. 
Paul as a Roman citizen, though not sen- 
tenced, appealed for a trial before the em- 
peror, regarding himself as already con- 
demned if left in reach of the Jews, Acts 
25:1-1?- 

AP'PHIA, Phile. 2, supposed by some to 
have been the wife of Philemon. 

AP'PII-FO'RUM, market-place of Appius, 
a village or market-town founded by Ap- 
pius Claudius on the great road (Via Appia 
which he constructed from Rome to Capua. 
Its remains are probably to be found near 
the present Treponti, situated 43 miles 
from Rome in the border of the Pontine 
marshes, where are the ruins of an ancient 
town. Three Taverns was a village near 
Cisterna, about 10 miles nearer Rome, Acts 
28:15. 

AP'PLES OF SODOM, see Sea, III. 
AP'PLE- TREES, 
perhaps quinces, are 
mentioned in Song 
2:3, 5; 8:5; Joel 1:12. 
Many suppose the cit- 
ron-tree to be here 
meant. The rich col- 
or, fragrant odor, and 
handsome appearance 
of this tree, both in 
flower and in fruit, 
agree well with the 
above passages, Song 
7 : 8. Thoughts of wise 
men, well expressed, 
are like " apples of ' 
gold in pictures of sil- 
ver," that is, like ripe 
and golden fruit in fineb 
baskets, Prov. 25:11. 

" Apple " of the eye, literally "the little 
man" or "pupil" of the eye, Deut. 32:10; 
Psa. 17:8. 

APPREHEND', Phil. 3:12-14, to lay hold 
upon. 

AQ'UILA, an eagle, a Jew born in Pontus, 
a tent-maker by occupation, who with his 
wife Priscilla joined the Christian churcb 
at Rome. When the Jews were banished 
from that city by the emperor Claudius, 
Aquila and his wife retired to Corinth. 




- rough t silver 



AR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ARA 



They afterwards became the companions 
of Paul in his labors, and are mentioned 
by him with much commendation, being 
found both at Ephesus and at Rome, Acts 
18:2, 3, 24-26; Rom. 16:3, 4; 1 Cor. 16:19; 
2 Tim. 4:19. 

AR, city, called also Rabbah and Rab- 
bath-Moab, the capital of Moab, Num. 21 : 
28; Deut. 2; Isa. 15:1. Its supposed site, 
still called Rabbah, is found upon a hill 
some 17 miles east of the Dead Sea, and 
10 south of the Arnon, midway between it 
and Kir Moab. 

AR'ABAH, desert, often translated " the 



plain," denotes the valley of the Jordan 
north of the Dead Sea, Josh. 18:18, and in 
some passages, south of it, Deut. 1:1 ; 2:8, 
to the Red Sea. See Canaan. "TheAr- 
abah " is often referred to in the Old Tes- 
tament, in connection with the Dead Sea 
and the Sea of Galilee, Deut. 3:17; 4:49; 
Josh. 3:16; 11:2, 16; 12:1, 3, 8; and with 
Gilgal and Jericho, Deut. 1 1 : 30 ; Josh. 8:14; 
2 Kin. 25:4. It occurs in the history of Da- 
vid, 2 Sam. 2:29; 5:7; and in the flight of 
Zedekiah, Jer. 39 : 4 ; 52 : 7. For history and 
description of this valley, and for the por- 
tion south of the Dead Sea, see Jordan. 




A SCENE IN ARABIA. 



ARA'BIA is a country of Western Asia, 
lying south and east of Judaea. It extends 
1,600 miles from north to south, and 1,400 
from east to west. On the north it is bound- 
ed by part of Syria, on the east by the Per- 
sian Gulf and the Euphrates, on the south 
by the Arabian Sea and the Straits of Ba- 
belmandel, and on the west by the Red 
Sea, Egypt, and Palestine. Arabia is dis- 
tinguished by geographers as in 3 parts — 
Deserta. Petraea, and Felix. 



Arabia Deskr'ta, the desert, a vast 
steppe, or elevated expanse of sand, with 
occasional hills and a sparse vegetation. 
It has the mountains of Gilead on the west, 
and the river Euphrates on the east, and 
extends far to the south. It comprehends 
the country of the Itureans, the Ishmael- 
ites, the people of Kedar, and others, who 
led a wandering life, having no cities, 
houses, or fixed habitations, but wholly 
dwelling in tents ; in modern Arabic, such 

37 



ARA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ARA 



are called Bedawln, or Bedouins. When 
Paul says he " went into Arabia and re- 
turned again to Damascus," he meant 
doubtless the northern part of Arabia De- 
serta, which lay adjacent to the territories 
of Damascus, Gal. i : 17. 

Arabia Petr^e'a, the rocky, lies south of 
the Holy Land, and had Petra for its cap- 
ital. See Sela. This region contained the 
southern Edomites, the Amalekites, etc., 
whose successors are at present known 
under the general name of Arabs. In this 
country were Kadesh-barnea. Gerar, Beer- 
sheba, Paran, Arad, Hasmona, Oboth, De- 
dan, etc., also the peninsula of Mount Sinai 
and the land of Midian. This portion of 
Arabia, though smaller than the others, is 
rich in historical associations. The patri- 
arch Job was familiar with its scenery. At 
Horeb, Moses saw the burning bush, and 
Elijah heard the "still small voice." In 
this "great and terrible wilderness " from 
Mount Sinai to the promised land, the He- 
brews spent their 40 years of wanderings. 

Arabia Fe'lix, the happy, lies still far- 
ther south and east, being bounded east 
by the Persian Gulf, south by the ocean be- 
tween Africa and India, and west by the 
Red Sea. As this region did not immedi- 
ately adjoin the Holy Land, it is not so 
frequently mentioned as the former ones. 
The queen of Sheba, who visited Solomon, 

1 Kin. 10:1, was probably queen of part of 
Arabia Felix; and the Jewish kings ob- 
tained gold and flocks from it, 1 Kin. 10: 15; 

2 Chr. 17:11. This country abounded with 
riches, and particularly with spices, and 
comprised the provinces now called Hed- 
jaz, Yemen, Hadramaut, etc. It is much 
celebrated in modern times by reason of 
the cities of Mecca and Medina being situ- 
ated in it. 

There are, according to native histori- 
ans, two races of Arabs: those who derive 
their descent from the primitive inhabi- 
tants of the land, Joktan, etc., and those who 
claim Ishmael as their ancestor. Southern 
Arabia was settled in part by Cush and his 
sons, descendants of Ham, who also peo- 
pled the adjoining coast of Africa, and in 
part by descendants of Shem, particularly 
Joktan, Gen. 10:25, 26. Ishmael, Gen. 25: 
13-15, and the 6 sons of Abraham by Ketu- 
rah, Gen. 25:2, together with the seed of 
Esau and of Lot, first occupied the parts of 
Arabia near Judaea, and in time spread over 
almost the whole country. The changes of 
40 centuries render it impossible to dis- 
tinguish either of these parent sources in 
38 



the numerous Arab tribes descended from 
them. These tribes have traditions and 
peculiarities of their own, and incessant 
feuds ; yet as a whole they are but one peo- 
ple, distinct from all others. The only gen- 
eral division is into those who dwell in 
cities, as in Southern Arabia, and those 
who live in the fields and deserts. The 
latter are migratory, dwelling in tents and 
removing according to the convenience of 
water and pasturage, and are often rob- 
bers. Each tribe is divided up into little 
communities, of which a sheikh or patriarch 
is the head. Such are the Bedaween or 
Bedouins. 

In ancient times the Arabs were idola- 
ters and star- worshippers. A form of 
Christianity made much progress in the 3d 
century among them. They are now nom- 
inally Mohammedans, but their religion 
sits but lightly on them. Isolated from 
other nations, and with slight exceptions 
free from all foreign control, they preserve 
their ancient manners with singular fidel- 
ity, and the study of these throws much 
light upon Bible narratives. Their lan- 
guage also is still spoken with great puri- 
ty ; and as it is near akin to the Hebrew, 
it furnishes invaluable aid in the study of 
the Old Testament. 

Respecting the productions and peculi- 
arities of Arabia, see Desert, Parched 
Ground, Sela, Sinai, Winds, etc. 

A'RAD, a wild ass, a Canaanitish city on 
the extreme south of Judaea, the inhabi- 
tants of which drove back the Hebrews as 
they attempted to enter the promised land 
from Kadesh, Num. 21:1; it was afterwards 
subdued, Josh. 10:41; 12:14; Judg. 1:16. 
Robinson found its site on a hill about 18 
miles south of Hebron. 

A'RAM, high, I., the name of 3 men in 
the Bible: a son of Shem, Gen. 10:22; a 
grandson of Nahor, Gen. 22:21; and an 
ancestor of our Lord, Ruth 4:19; 1 Chr. 
2:10;' Matt. 1:3; Luke 3:33. 

II. Nearly synonymous with Syria, the 
Hebrew name of the whole region north- 
east of Palestine, extending from the Tigris 
on the east nearly to the Mediterranean on 
the west, and to the Taurus range on the 
north. It was named after Aram the son 
of Shem. Thus defined, it includes also 
Mesopotamia, which the Hebrews named 
Aram-naharaim, Aram of the two vivos. 
Gen. 24:10, or Padan-aram, the plain of 
Aram, Gen. 25:20; 48:7. Various cities in 
the western part of Aram gave their own 
names to the regions around them : as Da- 



ARA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ARC 



mascus (Aram-Dammesek), 2 Sam. 8:6; 
Maachah, near Bashan, 1 Chr. 19:6; Ge- 
shur, Josh. 12:5; 2 Sam. 15:8; Zobah, and 
Beth-rehob, 2 Sam. 10:6, 8. Several of 
these were powerful states, and often 
waged war against Israel. David subdued 
them and made them tributaries, and Sol- 
omon preserved this supremacy. After 



him it was lost, except perhaps under Jero- 
boam II. See Syria, Padan-aram. The 
Aramaean language, nearly resembling the 
Hebrew, gradually supplanted the latter 
as a spoken language, and was in use in 
Judaea at the time of Christ. It is still 
used by Syrian Christians around Mo- 
sul. 





- SL x 

MOUNT ARARAT, IN ARMENIA. 




AR'ARAT, holy ground, a province in 
the centre of Armenia, between the river 
Araxes and the lakes Van and Ooroomiah, 
2 Kin. 19:37; Isa. 37:38; sometimes used 
to denote the whole country, Jer. 51:27. 
On the mountains of Ararat the ark rested, 
Gen. 8:4,- and from this region men jour- 
neyed eastward, Gen. 11:2, to the land of 
Shinar. 

The noble mountain, which is called by 
the Armenians Masis, by the Turks Agri- 
Dagh or Steep Mountain, by the Persians 
Kuh-i-Nuh or Noah's Mountain, and by 
Europeans generally Ararat, consists of 2 
peaks, one 4,000 feet higher than the other, 
connected with a chain of mountains run- 
ning off to the northwest and west, which 
yet do not detract at all from the lonely 
dignity of this stupendous mass. Its sum- 
mit, covered with perpetual snow, rises to 
the height of 16,915 feet above the sea level, 
and it is a volcano, having been in erup- 
tion so late as 1840. The ark probably 



rested, not on the peak of Ararat, but 
somewhere on the lofty plateau in that re- 
gion. 

ARAU'NAH, a Jebusite, residing on 
Mount Moriah after the Jebusites were dis- 
possessed by David, 2 Sam. 5 : 6 ; 24 : 18. In 

1 Chr. 21:18, he is called Ornan. The di- 
vine choice of his land for the temple site, 

2 Chr. 3:1, and his readiness to give it 
freely for this purpose, suggest the proba- 
bility that he was a convert to the true re- 
ligion. David seems to have bought the 
threshing-floor and oxen for 50 shekels of 
silver, and the whole hill for 600 shekels of 
gold. 

AR'BA, an ancestor of the Anakim, and 
founder of Hebron, to which he gave its 
ancient name, Josh. 15:13; Gen. 35:27. 

ARCHAN'GEL, a chief angel, only twice 
used in the Bible, 1 Thess. 4:16; Jude 9. 
In this last passage it is applied to Michael, 
who, in Dan. 10:13, 21; 12:1, is described 
as " one of the chief princes," having a 

39 



ARC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ARI 



special charge of the Jewish nation, and 
in Rev. 12:7-9 as tne leader of an angelic 
army. 

ARCHELA'US, prince of the people, a son 
of Herod the Great, by his Samaritan wife 
Malthace. He was educated with his bro- 
ther Antipas at Rome, and after his father's 
death was placed over Judaea, Idumaea, 
and Samaria, with the title of ethnarch or 
tetrarch ; whence he is said to reign, Matt. 
2 : 22. This passage implies that he inherit- 
ed the tyrannical and cruel disposition of 
his father; and history informs us that 
after enjoying his power for 10 years, he 
was accused before the emperor on ac- 
count of his cruelties, and banished to Vi- 
enne on the Rhone, where he died. 

AR'CHERS, see Bow. 

ARCHIP'PUS, rtder of horses, a Chris- 
tian minister, closely associated with Phi- 
lemon and Apphia, saluted by Paul as his 
"fellow-soldier," Phile. 2, and exhorted to 
fulfil his ministry at Colosse, Col. 4.17. 

ARCTU'RUS, the Bear's Tail, the con- 
stellation Ursa Major. The " sons " of Arc- 
turus are probably the stars in the body 
and tail of Ursa Major, Job 9:9; 38:32. 

AREOP'AGUS, hill of Mars, the seat of 
the ancient and venerable supreme court 
of Athens, called the Areopagites, Acts 17 : 
19-34. This was composed entirely of ex- 
archons, of grave and blameless character, 
and their wise and just decisions made it 
famous far beyond the bounds of Greece. 
The acting archons, or chief magistrates of 
the city for the year, had seats with them. 




RUINS OF THE AREOPAGUS AND ACROPOLIS. 

Their numbers and authority varied from 
age to age. Here a crowd once assembled 
to hear Paul preach. The stone seats of the 
40 



Areopagus lay open to the sky ; in the court 
stood Epicureans, Stoics, etc. ; around them 
spread the city, full of idolaters and their 
temples ; and a little southeast rose the 
steep height of the Acropolis, on whose lev- 
el summit were crowded more and richer 
idolatrous structures than on any other 
equal space in the world. Amid this scene 
Paul exhibited the sin and folly of idol- 
worship with such boldness and power that 
none could refute him, and some were con- 
verted. See Athens. 

AR'ETAS, a king of Northwestern Ara- 
bia, who gave his daughter in marriage to 
Herod Antipas; but she being repudiated 
by Herod, Aretas made war upon him and 
destroyed his army. In consequence of 
this, the emperor Tiberius directed Vitel- 
lius, then proconsul of Syria, to make war 
upon the Arabian king, and bring him alive 
or dead to Rome. But while Vitellius was 
in the midst of preparation for the war, he 
received intelligence of the death of Tibe- 
rius, A. D. 2)7 \ on which he recalled his 
troops, and then left the province. Aretas, 
either taking advantage of this supineness, 
or favored by the new emperor Caligula, 
seems to have got possession of Damascus, 
over which he appointed a governor or eth- 
narch, who, A. D. 39, at the instigation of 
the Jews, attempted to put Paul in prison, 
2 Cor. 11*32. Compare Acts 9:24, 25. 

AR'GOB, stony, a city in Bashan and Ma- 
nasseh east of the Jordan ; also the region 
around it, afterwards Trachonitis. This 
was very fertile, and contained at one time 
60 walled towns, which were taken by Jair 
the son of Manasseh, and called after him, 
Deut. 3:4, 13, 14; 1 Kin. 4:13. Recent ex- 
plorers in this region, the Lejah, south of 
Damascus and east of the Sea of Galilee, 
find it a vast basin full of basaltic rocks, in 
which are the remains of scores of Roman 
towns in a remarkable state of preserva- 
tion. 

A'RIEL, the lion of G$d, one of Ezra's 
chief men, Ezra 8:16. This word is used, 
in 2 Sam. 23:20; 1 Chr. 11:22, as a descrip- 
tive or perhaps a family name of 2 " lion- 
like " men of Moab. In another sense, 
Ezekiel applies it to the altar of God, Ezek. 
43:15, and Isaiah to Jerusalem, as the 
hearth on which both the burnt-offerings 
and the enemies of God should be con- 
sumed, Isa. 29:1, 2, 7. See also Gen. 49:9. 

ARIMATH^'A, or Ra'mah (dual, Ra- 

mathaim), double heights, a city whence 

came Joseph the counsellor, in whose new 

I tomb the body of Jesus was laid, Matt. 27: 




TOWER AT RAMLEH. 



ARI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ARK 



57; John 19:38. We learn from Eusebius 
and Jerome that this city was near Lydda, 
a town 24 miles northwest of Jerusalem. It 
has generally been located at the modern 
Ramleh, a town near Lydda, of 3,000 in- 
habitants, in which the route from Egypt 
to Syria crosses that from Jerusalem to 
Joppa. But its site is rather to be sought 
a few miles east of Lydda, in the hills 
which skirt the plain of Sharon. The 1st 
book of Maccabees, 11:34, speaks of it as 
transferred, together with Lydda, from 
Samaria to Judaea, which may account for 
Luke's calling it " a city of the Jews," Luke 
23:51. It has been supposed to be the 
same place as the Raman of Mount Ephra- 
im, the birthplace and residence of Sam- 
uel. This was called also Ramathaim- 
Zophim, i Sam. 1:1, 19, from which name 
the form Arimathaea is readily derived. 
See Ramah. 

A'RIOCH, venerable, I., king of Ellasar, 
and ally of Chedorlaomer, Gen. 14:1. 

II. A captain of Nebuchadnezzar's guard, 
Dan. 2:14. 

ARISTAR'CHUS, the best prince, a native 
of Thessalonica, a faithful fellow-laborer 
with Paul, Acts 20:4; 27:2; Phile. 24. His 
life was endangered in the riot at Ephesus, 
excited by the silversmiths, Acts 19:29; but 
having escaped, he continued with Paul, 
and was a prisoner with him at 
Rome, Col. 4:10. 

ARISTOBU'LUS, best counsel- 
lor, a resident of Rome whose 
household was saluted by Paul, 
Rom. 16:10. 

ARK of Noah, the vessel in 
which the family of Noah was 
preserved during the deluge 
when all the rest of our race 
perished for their sins. We may 
regard it as a large, oblong, 
floating house, with a roof either 
fiat or only slightly inclined, 
with 3 stories, and a door in 
the side. There were windows 
"above," probably in the roof, 
a cubit in height, Gen. 6:16; 
8:13. 

The dimensions of the ark, 
taking the cubit as 18 inches, 
were 450 feet in length, 75 in 
breadth, and 45 in height. It was built of 
light gopher-wood, and made waterproof 
with bitumen, and was no doubt large 
enough to accommodate the 8 persons of 
Noah's family and the animals to be saved 
in it — namely, of all birds and clean beasts 



7 each, and of unclean beasts 2 each, male 
and female. Many questions have been 
raised, and discussed at great length by 
skeptics and others, respecting the form 
and dimensions of the ark ; the number of 
animals saved in it — whether including all 
species then existing in the world, except 
such as live in water or lie dormant, or 
only the species living in the parts of the 
world then peopled by man ; and as to the 
possibility of their being all lodged in the 
ark, and their food during the year. Some 
of these questions the Bible clearly settles. 
Others it is vain to discuss, since we have 
no means of deciding them. Certain it is, 
that while the Bible eulogizes the faith and 
obedience of Noah, it shows that his sal- 
vation was a miracle of Providence. It 
was by miracle that he was forewarned 
and directed to prepare for the flood; and 
the same miraculous power accomplished 
all that Noah was unable to do in design- 
ing, building, and filling the ark, and pre- 
serving and guiding it through the deluge. 
It has been commonly supposed that the 
warning came to Noah 120 years before 
the flood. Compare Gen. 5:32 with 7:6, 
and Gen. 6 : 3 with 1 Pet. 3 : 20. Tradi- 
tions of the ark are found in most na- 
tions all over the globe. See Deluge 
and Noah. 




ARK of the Covenant, the sacred chest 
or coffer in which the tables of the law were 
deposited, written by the finger of God, and 
witnessing to his covenant with his people. 
Exod. 25:22; 34:29. It was ofshittim-wood, 
covered within and without with plates of 

41 



ARK 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ARM 



gold, nearly 4 feet in length, and 2 feet 3 
inches in width and height. On the top of 
it, all around, ran a kind of golden crown. 
It had 4* rings of gold, 2 on each side, 
through which staves were put, by which 
it was carried. These also were overlaid 
with the finest gold, and were not to be re- 
moved from the rings, Exod. 25 : 10-22. The 
lid of the ark, all of gold, was called the 
mercy-seat ; and upon its opposite ends 
were two golden cherubim, fronting each 
other and the mercy-seat, which they cov- 
ered with their outspread wings, Exod. 37 : 
1-9. Here God specially dwelt, 2 Kin. 19: 
15, 1 Chr. 13:6, and shone forth, perhaps 
by some sensible manifestations, Lev. 16:2 ; 
Psa. 80 : 1 . It was his footstool, 1 Chr. 28 : 2 ; 
Psa. 99:5. Here he received the homage 
of his people, and dispensed his living ora- 
cles, Num. 7:89. The great yearly sacri- 
fice of expiation was here offered by the 
high-priest, Heb. 9:7, in the Holy of Ho- 
lies, where no one else was allowed to 
enter. Hence there was no object held 
more sacred by the Jews than the " ark of 
God." During their journeys in the wilder- 
ness, it was borne by the priests under a 
purple canopy and with great reverence 
before the host of Israel, Num. 4:5, 6; 10: 
33-36. Before it the Jordan was divided, 
and behind it the waters flowed on again, 
Josh. 3, 4. The walls of Jericho fell down 
before it, Josh. 6:4-12. 

After this, the ark continued some time 
at Gilgal, whence it was removed to Shi- 
loh, Josh. 4:19; 10:43; 18:1. Hence the 
Israelites took it to their camp ; but when 
they gave battle to the Philistines, it was 
taken by the enemy, 1 Sam. 4. The Phil- 
istines, oppressed by the hand of God, re- 
turned the ark, and it was lodged at Kir- 
jath-jearim, 1 Sam. 7:1. It was afterwards, 
in the reign of Saul, at Nob. David con- 
veyed it from Kirjath-jearim to the house 
of Obed-Edom, and thence to his palace 
on Zion, 2 Sam. 6; and lastly, Solomon 
brought it into the temple at Jerusalem, 
2 Chr. 5:2. See Psalms 24, 47, 105, 132. It 
remained in the temple, with all suitable 
respect, till the times of the later idola- 
trous kings of Judah, who profaned the 
Most Holy place with their idols, when the 
priests appear to have removed the ark 
from the temple. At least, Josiah com- 
manded them to bring it back to the sanc- 
tuary, and forbade them to carry it about, 
as they had hitherto done, 2 Chr. 33:7; 
35:3. The ark appears to have been de- 
stroyed at the captivity, or perhaps con- 
42 



cealed by pious Jews in some hiding-place 
afterwards undiscoverable, as we hear 
nothing more of it; and the want of it 
made the second temple less glorious than 
the first. 

Besides the tables of the covenant, placed 
by Moses in this sacred coffer, God appoint- 
ed the blossoming rod of Aaron to be lodged 
there, Num. 17:10; Heb. 9:4; agoldenvase 
of manna gathered in the wilderness, Exod. 
16 : 33, 34 ; and a copy of the book of the law, 
Deut. 31 :26. At a later time these articles 
seem to have been removed, at least tem- 
porarily, 1 Kin. 8:9. 

AR'KITES, descendants of Canaan, of 
the Zidonian branch, who settled a town 
called Arka, at the northwest foot of Mount 
Lebanon, Gen. 10:17; J Chr. 1:15. The 
ruins of Arka have been found by Burck- 
hardt and others about 14 miles northeast 
of Tripolis. 

ARM, the symbol of power, Job 38:15; 
Psa. 10:15; 89:13; Isa. 52:10; Ezek. 30:21. 

ARMAGED'DON, mountain of Megiddo, 
Rev. 16:16. Megiddo is a city in the great 
plain at the foot of Mount Carmel, which 
had been the scene of much slaughter, 
Judg. 4, 5, 7; 1 Sam. 31:8; 2 Kin. 23:29, 30. 
Hence it is referred to in the above text 
as the place in which God will collect to- 
gether his enemies for destruction. Com- 
pare the figurative name " valley of Je- 
hoshaphat," suggested by the great victory 
of that king, 2 Chr. 20:26; Joel 3:2, 12; 
Zech. 14:2, 4. 

ARME'NIA, a large country of Asia, hav- 
ing Media on the east, Cappadocia on the 
west, Colchis and Iberia on the north, Mes- 
opotamia on the south, and the Euphrates 
and Syria on the southwest. It is an eleva- 
ted table-land, with a cold but salubrious 
climate. Lying between the Caucasus and 
the Taurus ranges, with Mount Ararat tow- 
ering in its central province, it gives rise 
to 3 notable rivers, the Euphrates, Tigris, 
and Araxes. It is only named in Scrip- 
ture as the place of refuge of 2 Assyrian 
parricides, 2 Kin. 19:37. The modern Ar- 
menian Church resembles strongly the 
Greek Church, and is sadly debased and 
corrupt. See Ararat, Minni, and To- 

GARMAH. 

ARM'LET, see BRACELET. 

ARMS and ARMOR. The Hebrews used 
in war offensive arms of the same kinds as 
were employed by other people of their 
time and of the East — swords, lances, 
spears, darts, javelins, bows, arrows, and 
slings. For defensive armor, they used 



ARM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ARO 



helmets, cuirasses, bucklers, armor for the 
thighs, etc. See War, Shield. 




In the accompanying engravings are rep- 
resented specimens of the various weapons 
anciently used ; also of the several parts of 
the armor for defence, and the manner in 
which they were worn: i. The cuirass, or 
defence of the body, called in Scripture the 
coat of mail, habergeon, and breastplate; 




it appears to have been made of leather or 
some pliant material, sometimes covered 
with metallic scales, and capable of taking 
the form of the parts of the body it pro- 
tected ; 2. The helmet, usually of tough 
hide or metal, with its flowing crest ; 3. The 



shield, target, or buckler, either of wood 
covered with tough hides, or of metal; 
4. The leg-pieces, or greaves, of thick leath- 
er or brass. See Eph. 6:11-17. The offen- 
sive arms are the bow and arrow ; the bat- 
tle-axe ; the spear, dart, and javelin or short 




spear ; the sling ; and the sword with its 
sheath, the ancient sword being short, 
straight, and two-edged. 

Each Jewish tribe had its own banner. 
Under Abomination is a cut representing 
the ensigns of the Roman legions, which 
the Jews regarded as idolatrous, not only 
because they had been consecrated to idols, 
and by heathen priests, but as they had 
images on them, and were objects of ado- 
ration, Exod. 20:4. 

AR'NON, roaring, a river rising in the 
mountains east of the Dead Sea, into which 
it flows, Deut. 2 : 24. It is now called Wady 
Modjeb, and anciently divided the territo- 
ries of the Moabites in turn from those of 
the Ammonites, Amorites, and Reubenites, 
Num. 21 1 13 ; Josh. 13: 16. It flows in a deep 
and wild ravine of the same name. Burck- 
hardt was 35 minutes in descending to the 
river bed. Here the heat of midsummer is 
extreme, and the river becomes almost 
dried up ; but in the rainy season there is 
an impetuous torrent. 

AR'OER, laid bare, I., an ancient city on 
the north side of the Arnon, in the south- 
ern border of the tribe of Reuben, Deut. 
2:36; 4:48; Josh. 13:9, 12 miles from the 
Dead Sea. It was in the territory of the 
Amorites, Josh. 12:2, but seems to have 
fallen at a later day into the hands of Moab, 
Jer. 48:19. 

II. A town in the tribe of Gad, probably 
east of Rabbath-Ammon, Josh. 13:25, and 

43 



ARP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ASA 



perhaps on the Jabbok, 2 Sam. 24:5. It is 
mentioned in Judg. 11 .33. 

III. A town of Judah, to which David 
sent presents, 1 Sam. 30:28; 1 Chr. 11:44. 
Robinson found traces of it about 12 miles 
southeast from Beersheba. 

AR'PAD, support, a Syrian city, associa- 
ted with Hamath, 2 Kin. 18:34; 19; Isa. 
10:9; 36:19, and with Damascus, Jer. 49:23. 
Its site is unknown. 

ARPHAX'AD, son of Shem, born 2 years 
after the flood, Gen. 10:22; 11:10; Luke 
3 : 36. Seven generations followed him be- 
fore Abraham, and yet he lived till after 
the settlement of Abraham in the land of 
promise. He died A. M. 2096, aged 438. 

AR'ROW, used by the Jews both in hunt- 
ing and in war ; sometimes merely a sharp- 
ened reed, sometimes feathered, barbed, 
and even poisoned, Job 6:4. The quiver 
hung by the side from the girdle or on the 
back, projecting above the left shoulder, so 
that arrows could easily be drawn. The 
bow was of various forms and materials, 
and many could be used only by the 
strongest men, Psa. 18:34. Arrows were 
used to convey fire to an enemy's house, 
or to his clothing or person, and the shield 
was sometimes wet as a safeguard, Psa. 
120:4; Eph. 6:16; the}' were also employed 
in divination, Ezek. 21:21. The word is 
applied symbolically to children, Psa. 
127:4, 5; to the lightning, Psa. 18:14; Hab. 
3:11; to sudden calamities, Job 6:4; Psa. 
38:2; 91:5; Ezek. 5:16; and to the deceit- 
ful and bitter words of an evil tongue, Psa. 
64:3; 120:4. 

ARTAXER'XES, great king, the name or 
title of several kings of Persia. I. In Ezra 
4:7-24, Smerdis the Magian, who usurped 
the throne after the death of Cambyses, 
B. C. 522, pretending to be Smerdis, the 
son of Cyrus, whom Cambyses had put to 
death. At the instigation of Rehum, etc., 
he stopped the rebuilding of the temple. 
He was murdered, after a reign of 8 
months, and was succeeded by Darius, son 
of Hystaspes. 

II. In Ezra 7, probably Artaxerxes Lon- 
gimanus, the son and successor of Xerxes, 
who ascended the throne B. C. 466, and 
died B. C. 427, after a mild reign of 39 
years. In the 7th year of his reign, B. C. 
459, Ezra led a 2d company of the Jewish 
exiles back to Jerusalem. In the 20th year, 
B. C. 446, Nehemiah was sent to Jerusalem 
as governor, Neh. 2:1; 5:14, etc. 

AR'TEMAS, the gift of Diana, a faithful 
minister, cooperating with Paul, Titus 3: 12. 
44 



ARTIL'LERY, or weapons; in 1 Sam. 
20:40, bow and arrows. 

AR'VAD, -wandering, a Phoenician city, 
on a small rocky island north of the mouth 
of the river Eleutherus, 22 miles north of 
Tripolis, now called Ruad, and in ruins. 
It lay in deep water 2 or 3 miles from the 
shore, with walls of huge bevelled stones, 
and was a stronger place than Tyre. The 
Arvadites also occupied the adjacent coast ; 
were descendants of Canaan, Gen. 10:18; 
1 Chr. 1:16; and were noted mariners, 
Ezek. 27:8, 11. 

A'SA, healing, the 3d king of Judah after 
Solomon, son and successor of Abijam. 
1 Kin. 15:8. He began to reign B. C. 956, 
and reigned 41 years at Jerusalem. The 
first part of his reign was comparatively 
peaceful and prosperous. He restored the 
pure worship of God ; expelled those who 
prostituted themselves in honor of their 
false gods; purified Jerusalem from the in- 
famous practices attending the worship of 
idols ; and deprived his mother of her office 
and dignity of queen, because she erected 
an idol to Astarte. In the nth year of his 
reign, God gave him the victory over the 
vast arm}- of the Cushite king Zerah; and 
the prophet Azariah encouraged him to go 
on in his work of reform. He convoked 
the nation, and renewed its covenant with 
Jehovah. And yet, when Baasha king of 
Israel opposed this reformation, he sought 
aid not from God, but from heathen Syria. 
In the latter part of his life, he became dis- 
eased in his feet ; and Scripture reproaches 
him with having had recourse to the physi- 
cians rather than to the Lord, 2 Chr. 16:12. 
Yet his reign was, on the whole, one of the 
happiest which Judah enjoyed, and the 
Bible repeatedly commends his piety as an 
example, 1 Kin. 22:43; 2 Chr. 20:32; 21:12. 
His funeral rites were celebrated with spe- 
cial magnificence. There %vas ill-will and 
strife between Asa and Baasha all their 
days, as between Rehoboam and Israel, 
1 Kin. 15:6, 16. 

AS'AHEL, a work of God, son of David's 
sister Zeruiah, and brother of Joab and 
Abishai ; one of David's 30 heroes, and ex- 
tremely swift of foot ; reluctantly killed by 
Abner at Gibeon, 2 Sam. 2:18, 23. 

Three others of this name are mentioned 
in 2 Chr. 17:8; 31:13; Ezra 10:15. 

A'SAPH, assembler, I., a celebrated mu- 
sician in David's time, a Levite, and one 
of the leaders of the temple music, 1 Chr. 
6:39; 15:17; 16:5; 25:1,2. This service 
appears to have been hereditary in his 



ASC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ASH 



family, Neh. 7:44; 11:22. He is also galled 
a seer, 2 Chr. 29:30; and his name is pre- 
fixed to 12 Psalms (50, 73-83), perhaps 
written for him or his family to sing. See 
Music. 

II. A recorder of king Hezekiah, 2 Kin. 
18:18; Isa. 36:3. 

III. Keeper of forests under Artaxerxes, 
though from his name he appears to have 
been a Jew, Neh. 2:8. 

ASCEN'SION, the visible ascent of Christ 
to heaven. When our Saviour had re- 
peatedly conversed with his apostles dur- 
ing 40 days after his resurrection, and 
afforded them infallible proofs of its real- 
ity, he led them out to the Mount of Olives, 
and thence rose to heaven in their sight, 
there to continue till he shall come again 
at the last day to judge the quick and the 
dead, Acts 1:9, 11. The ascension was 
demonstrated by the descent of the Holy 
Ghost, as had been promised, John 16 : 7-14 ; 
Acts 2. It was Christ's real human nature 
that ascended; and he thus triumphed glo- 
riously over death and hell, as head of his 
bod\- the Church. While he blessed his dis- 
ciples he was parted from them, the act a 
last pledge of his perpetual benediction ; 
and multitudes of the angelic host accom- 
panied and welcomed him, Psa. 24 : 9 ; 68 : 17. 
The consequences resulting from his as- 
cension are: the fulfilment of types and 
prophecies concerning it ; his appearance 
as the great High-priest in the presence of 
God for us ; his more open and full as- 
sumption of his kingly office ; his receiving 
gifts for men ; his opening the way to heav- 
en for his people, Heb. 10:19, 2 °'> an d as- 
suring his saints of their ascension to heav- 
en after the resurrection, John 14: 1, 2. 

ASCENT. See Akrabbim, Wall. 

AS'ENATH, servant of Neith, daughter 
of Potipherah, priest or prince of On ; given 
in marriage by Pharaoh to Joseph, as add- 
ing honor and strength to his high office. 
She was the mother of Ephraim and Ma- 
nasseh, Gen. 41:45; 46:20, B. C. 1715. 

AS'ER. See Asher. 

ASH, Isa. 44 : 14, conjectured to signify 
some variety of the pine. 

ASH'DOD, a stronghold, one of the 5 
chief cities of the Philistines, assigned to 
the tribe of Judah, but not conquered by 
them, Josh. 13:3; 15:47; 1 Sam. 5:1 ; 6:17 ; 
Xeh. 4:7. Here stood the temple of Da- 
gon ; and hither the ark was brought after 
the battle of Ebenezer, 1 Sam. 5:1. It was 
besieged by the Assyrian general Tartan, 
Isa. 20:1, and afterwards for 29 years by 



Psammeticus, Jer. 25:20. It was called by 
the Greeks Azotus, and belonged to Judaea 
in the time of Christ. Here Philip preached 
the gospel, Acts 8:40. It was a strongly 
fortified city, on an elevation half way from 
Gaza to Joppa?, and 3 miles from the Med- 
iterranean ; and is now a miserable village, 
called Esdud. 

ASH'DOTH PIS'GAH, springs of Pisgah, 
on the east side of the Dead Sea, Deut. 
3 :1 7l 4:49; Josh. 12:3; 13:20. 

ASH'ER, happy, the 8th son of Jacob and 
2d of Zilpah, Gen. 30:13; 35:26; own bro- 
ther of Gad. He had 4 sons and 1 daugh- 
ter, Num. 26:44-47. On entering Canaan 
his tribe was the 5th in order, numbering 
53,400. The portion of Asher lay along the 
seaboard, having Lebanon and Zidon on 
the north, Carmel and the tribe of Issachar 
on the south, including Dor, and Zebulun 
and Naphtali on the east. It was fruitful 
in grain, wine, oil, and minerals, Gen. 
49:20; Deut. 33:24, 25. Part of the Phoeni- 
cian coast was included, Josh. 19:25, 28; 
but the Asherites were unable to expel the 
Canaanites, and dwelt among them, Judg. 
1:31, 32, to the serious injury of their own 
piety and patriotism, Judg. 5:17, 18. They 
are honorably mentioned in the history of 
David, 1 Chr. 12:36, and of Hezekiah, 2 Chr. 
30:11. Anna the prophetess belonged to 
this tribe, Luke 2:36. 

ASH'ES. To repent in sackcloth and 
ashes, or to lie down among ashes, was an 
external sign of self-affliction for sin, or of 
grief under misfortune, Psa. 102:9. We 
find it adopted by Job, 2:8 ; by many Jews 
when in great fear, Esth. 4:3; and by the 
king of Nineveh, Jonah 3:6. The ashes of 
a red heifer were used in ceremonial puri- 
fication, Num. 19; Heb. 9:13. 

ASH'IMA, a deity adored by the men of 
Hamath settled in Samaria, 2 Kin. 17:30. 

ASH'KELON, see ASKELON. 

ASH'KENAZ, son of Gomer and grand- 
son of Japheth, Gen. 10:3; 1 Chr. 1:6. His 
descendants are named in Jer. 51:27 with 
Minni and Ararat, provinces of Armenia. 
Their land lay towards the Black Sea, and 
sent colonies into Europe, perhaps giving 
rise to the name Scandinavia. 

ASH'PENAZ, chief of the eunuchs of king 
Nebuchadnezzar, who had the charge of 
Daniel and his young companions, and 
was led to show r them favor at his own 
peril, Dan. 1:3-18. 

ASH'TAROTH, images of Astarte, a. city 
of Og, in Bashan, east of the Jordan ; with- 
in the half-tribe of Manasseh, Josh. 13:31, 

45 



ASH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ASS 



and a Levitical city, i Chr. 6:71, called also 
Beeshterah, Josh. 21:27. 

ASH'TEROTH KARNA'IM, two -horned 
Astarte, Gen. 14:5, an ancient city of the 
Rephaim, supposed to be found at the 
modern town Mezareib, on the Haj or pil- 
grim route to Mecca, some 50 miles south 
by west of Damascus. 




ASHTORETH, FROM A TYRIAN COIN. 

ASH'TORETH, plural ASH'TAROTH, 
called by the Greeks Astarte, a goddess of 
the Phoenicians, 2 Kin. 23 : 13, whose wor- 
ship was also introduced among the Israel- 
ites and Philistines, 1 Kin. 11:5, 33 ; 1 Sam. 
7:3; 31:10; and was very ancient and 
widely spread, Gen. 14:5. She is common- 
ly named in connection with Baal, Judg. 
2:13; 10:6; 1 Sam. 7:4; 12:10. Another 
Hebrew name for the same goddess is 
Asherah, the happy, the fortunate ; or more 
simply, fortune. This is commonly ren- 
dered in the English version " grove ;" but 
both these Hebrew names of Astarte often 
signify wooden images or statues of Astar- 
te, which are said to be set up, broken 
down, destroyed, etc. In connection with 
her worship there was much licentiousness. 
See 2 Kin. 21:7; 23:6. Compare Lev. 
19:29; Deut. 23:18. See Baal. Compare 
Judg. 3:7; 6:25; 1 Kin. 18:19; Jer. 7:18; 
8:2; 11:13; 44:17, 18; Ezek. 16. 

A'SIA. Asia Minor is the peninsula which 
lies between the Euxine or Black Sea and 
the eastern part of the Mediterranean, and 
formerly included the provinces of Phry- 
gia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Caria, Lycia, Lydia, 
Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Cappadocia, 
Galatia, Lycaonia, and Pisidia. Many Jews 
were scattered over these regions, as ap- 
pears from the history in Acts, and from 
Josephus. The writers of the New Testa- 
ment comprehend, under the name of Asia, 
perhaps (1) the whole of Asia Minor, Acts 
19:26, 27 ; but usually (2) only the western 
part of that country, the region of Ionia, 
iEolis, and Doris, of which Ephesus was 
46 



the capital, and which Strabo also calls 
Asia, Acts 2:9; 6:9; 16:6; 19:10,22. Cicero 
speaks of proconsular Asia as containing 
the provinces of Phrygia, Mysia, Caria, and 
Lydia. 

AS'KELON, migration, a strongly forti- 
fied city of the Philistines, between Ashdod 
and Gaza, on the Mediterranean. After 
the death of Joshua, the tribe of Judah 
took Askelon ; but it subsequently became 
one of the 5 governments belonging to the 
Philistines, Judg. 1 : 18 ; 1 Sam. 6:17. Sam- 
son went down there to slay and despoil 
30 men, Judg. 14:19. Christians were cru- 
elly persecuted there in the time of Julian, 
and it was occupied by king Richard dur- 
ing the Crusades. It is now a scene of 
desolation, Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9:5. 

ASNAP'PAR, leader, the Assyrian satrap, 
by whom the territory of the 10 tribes was 
peopled by emigrants from beyond the 
Euphrates, 2 Kin. 17:24; Ezra 4:10. Ezra 
styles him " great and noble ;" but no other 
trace of him is left. 

ASP, Hebrew pethen, a serpent, whose 
poison kills almost the instant it penetrates. 
It is mentioned in Deut. 32:33; Job 20:14, 
16; Psa. 58:4; 91:13; Isa. 11:8; Jer. 8:17; 
Rom. 3: 13. A traveller in the desert south 
of Judah says, " One day we saw in our 
path an asp, a foot long, coiled up in the 
attitude of springing. Our Arabs killed 
it, saying it was exceedingly venomous." 
There is no reason to suppose these ser- 
pents literally deaf; but they might act as 
if they were, refusing to follow the call and 
music of the serpent-charmer — as the co- 
bras do at this day in Egypt. 

The Hebrew pethen signifies distension, 
and is now generally taken to mean the 
haje or Egyptian hooded-snake, which like 
the Indian cobra-di-capello swells its neck 
when excited, and rises on its tail to strike. 
It is often met in ancient Egyptian sculp- 
tures under the name of Kneph. See Ser- 
pent. 

ASS, an animal well known for domestic 
uses, and frequently mentioned in Scrip- 
ture. They were not only used as beasts 
of burden, Gen. 49:14. and for ploughing, 
etc., but people of the first quality in Pales- 
tine rode on asses. Deborah describes the 
nobles as those who " ride on white asses," 
Judg. 5:10. Compare Judg. 10:4; 12:14. 
And thus our Lord rode in kingly triumph 
into Jerusalem, Zech. 9:9 ; Matt. 21:2. The 
Oriental asses, compared with those of 
Northern countries, are far more stately, 
active, and lively. Indeed, they were high- 



ASS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ASS 



ly prized, and were preferred for riding, 
especially the she-asses, on account of their 
sure-footedness. Hence we so often find 
mention of she-asses alone. 

The domestic ass was a faithful servant, 
Isa. 1:3, the mainstay of many a poor fam- 
ily, Job 24:3, and a valuable property of the 
wealthy, Gen. 49:11; Job 1:3. 



%, J*%4 




The wild ass is a well-known Oriental 
animal, often mentioned in Scripture, Gen. 
16:12; Job 39:5; Hos. 8:9, and is a much 
handsomer and more dignified animal than 
the common ass. These animals were an- 
ciently found in Palestine, Syria, Arabia 
Deserta, Mesopotamia, Phrygia, and Lyca- 
onia ; but they rarely occur in those regions 
at the present time, and seem to be almost 
entirely confined to Tartary, some parts of 
Persia and India, and Africa. Their hab- 
its greatly resemble those of the wild horse. 
They assemble in troops under the conduct 
of a leader or sentinel, and are extremely 
shy and vigilant. See Ishmael. 

ASSAY', to attempt, Job 4:2 ; Heb. 11:29. 

AS'SHUR, black. See Assyria. 

AS'SOS, a seaport in Mysia, on the Gulf 
of Adramyttium, opposite to and 7 miles 
north of the island of Lesbos ; and 20 miles 
south of Troas, though much farther by sea. 
Here Paul took ship for Mitylene, Acts 
20:13, 14. It is now a poor village, called 
Beiram. 

ASSU'RANCE OF Faith, Heb. 10:22, is a 
full and hearty conviction of the truth of 
the gospel of salvation by Christ's sacri- 
fice. Assurance of Hope, Heb. 6:11, is 
an abiding persuasion that we are children 
of God and heirs in Christ Jesus of eternal 
life. It must be inwrought in the soul by 
the Holy Spirit, Rom. 8:15,16; 1 Cor. 1 : 22 ; 
1 John 3:24; 4:13, but is greatly dependent 
on the measure of our penitence, faith. 



charity, etc., 1 John 2:3,5, 29; 3:14, 19, 24. 
Every believer ought to know that he is 
alive unto God \>y the conscious vigor and 
activity of his spiritual life in holy acts. 
One may have a prevailing assurance, and 
yet be at times harassed by doubts and 
fears ; but a confident assurance of salva- 
tion, without penitence, love, etc., and the 
witness of a consistent life, is fatal pre- 
sumption. 

ASSYR'IA, a celebrated country and em- 
pire, had its name from Asshur, or Assur, 
the 2d son of Shem, who went out from 
Babylon and settled in that region, Gen. 
10:11, 22, and appears from the recently 
discovered monuments to have been dei- 
fied by the later Assyrians. 

Assyria ancient and proper, lay east of 
the Tigris, between Armenia, Susiana, and 
Media. Six provinces were attributed to 
it by Ptolemy, covering nearly the region 
of the modern Kurdistan and the pashalic 
of Mosul. Of these provinces, Adiabene 
was the most fertile and important ; in it 
was situated Nineveh the capital ; and the 
term Assyria seems sometimes to have 
meant only this province. 

Generally, however, the word means the 
Kingdom of Assyria, including Babylonia 
and Mesopotamia, and extending to the 
Euphrates, which is therefore used hy Isa- 
iah as an image of this empire, Isa. 7:20; 
8:7. In the height of its power it held 
sway over a large part of Western Asia. 

After the overthrow of the Assyrian state, 
the name continued to be applied to those 
countries which had been formerly under 
its dominion, as to Babylonia, 2 Kin. 23:29; 
Jer. 2:18; and to Persia, Ezra 6:22, where 
Darius is also called king of Assyria. 

The early history of Assyria is involved 
in obscurity. The most ancient of the 
Assyrian ruins, recently disentombed, are 
at Kileh-Shergat, 60 miles south of Nine- 
veh, on the Tigris. This was anciently 
Asshur, and was the first seat of govern- 
ment, probably from 1273 B. C. to 930 B. C. 
The most famous of the early kings, not 
mentioned in the Bible, were Tiglath-pile- 
ser I. in the time of Samuel, and Sarda- 
napalus, whose son Shalmaneser I. came 
in conflict with Ben-hadad, Hazael, and 
Jehu. We know from the sacred narrative 
that Assyria was a powerful nation, and 
during the reign of the Jewish kings it was 
an object of perpetual dread. Pul, king of 
Assyria, invaded Israel in the reign of 
Menahem, about 769 B. C, 2 Kin. 15:19, 20. 
Tiglath-pileser II. assisted Ahaz against a 

47 



AST 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ATA 



confederate army formed of the Syrian 
forces in league with those of the 10 tribes, 
2 Kin. 16:1-10. Shalmaneser II. invaded 
Israel, conquered Hoshea, and made him 
a vassal, bound to pay a yearly tribute. 
Hoshea wishing, however, to throw off the 
yoke, attempted to form a league with 
Egypt, and refused the tribute. On ascer- 
taining this design of the Israelitish prince, 
the Assyrians again invaded Israel, re- 
duced Samaria, loaded its king with fetters, 
and transported the people of the land into 
Media, putting an end to the separate king- 
dom of the 10 tribes, 2 Kin. 17:5; 18 : 9, 
B. C. 721. The 3 tribes located east of Jor- 
dan had already been deported into Media 
by Tiglath-pileser, when he ravaged Israel 
to save Ahaz and the kingdom of Judah. 
Sargon intervened between Shalmaneser 
II. and Sennacherib; and this latter king 
came into Judah with a powerful army in 
the reign of Hezekiah, but was miracu- 
lously defeated, 2 Kin. 18:13; 19:35. Esar- 
haddon, his son and successor, ravaged 
Judah in the days of Manasseh, and car- 
ried the conquered sovereign in chains to 
Babylon. After this period the empire of 
Assyria, having stood over 1,000 years and 
flourished exceedingly for 500 years, began 
to wane. One of its last monarchs was 
Sardanapalus, Assur-bani-pal of the recent- 
ly discovered stone records ; and it was he, 
or perhaps his son Saracus, who on the eve 
of capture collected his wives and treasures 
in his palace, and setting fire to the build- 
ing perished in the flames. The kingdom 
fell, B. C. 625, into the hands of the Medes, 
and was divided between them and the 
Babylonians, and the very name of Assyria 
was thenceforth forgotten, Num. 24:24; 
Isa. 10:5-19; Nah. 3:19; Zeph. 2 : 13-15. 
Its capital, once the most powerful and re- 
nowned city of the Eastern world, and its 
other cities, perished from history ; but their 
remains, exhumed from the huge mounds 
that have protected them, signally attest 
the sacred records. See Nineveh, Calah. 
These sculptured remains concur with the 
Bible to depict a powerful, stern, and war- 
like race, familiar with many of the arts of 
civilized life, but barbarous, sensual, cruel, 
and idolatrous. 

ASTROL'OGERS, men who pretended to 
foretell future events by means of astro- 
nomical observations, Isa. 47:13. It was 
fancied that the stars and planets had an 
influence, for good or for evil, on human 
affairs, and that certain aspects and rela- 
tive positions of the heavenly bodies were 
48 



full of meaning to those who had skill to 
interpret them, Dan. 2:2; 4:7; 5:7, 11, 25. 
These superstitions were prevalent among 
the Chaldaeans, Assyrians, Egyptians, Phoe- 
nicians, and Arabians, and were closely 
connected with the worship of the sun, 
moon, and stars, Deut. 4:19; 17:3; 2 Kin. 
2 3 : 5> I2 J J er - J 9 : 1 3 ; Ezek. 8:16; Zeph. 1 : 5. 
They were thus idolatrous in their spirit, 
robbed God of his glory, and were highly 
offensive in his sight, Deut. 18 : 10. See Magi. 

ASTRON'OMY, the science of the heaven- 
ly bodies, was much studied in Asia in an- 
cient times. The Chaldaeans excelled in 
it. The Hebrews do not appear to have 
made great proficiency in it, though their 
climate and mode of life invited to the 
contemplation of the heavens. Revelation 
had taught them who created and governed 
all the worlds, Gen. 1, and the infinite pres- 
ence of the one living and true God filled 
the universe, to their minds, with a glory 
unknown to others, Psalm 19; Isa. 40:26; 
Amos 5 : 8. The Bible does not aim to teach 
the science of astronomy, but speaks of the 
sun, moon, and stars in the familiar lan- 
guage of mankind in all ages. The fol- 
lowing heavenly bodies are alluded to par- 
ticularly in Scripture: Venus, as morning 
star, Isa. 14:12; Rev. 2:28; Orion and the 
Pleiades, Job 9:9; 38:31; Amos 5:8; the 
Great Bear, called " Arcturus," Job 9:9; 
38:32; Draco, "the crooked serpent," Job 
26:13; Mazzaloth and Gemini, 2 Kin. 23:5; 
Acts 28: 11. The planets Jupiter and Venus 
were worshipped under various names as 
Baal and Ashtoreth, Gad and Meni, Isa. 
65:11. Mercury is named as Nebo, in Isa. 
46:1 ; Saturn as Chiun, in Amos 5:26; and 
Mars as Nergal, in 2 Kin. 17:30. See Idol- 
atry and Stars. 

ASUP'PIM, collections. The " house of 
Asuppim" was probably a storehouse in 
connection with the temple, 1 Chr. 26:15; 
in Neh. 12:25, "thresholds." 

ASYN'CRITUS, in comparable, Rom. 16: 14. 

A'TAD, thorn, a Canaanite, at whose 
threshing-floor a solemn mourning was 
held for a week over the remains of Jacob, 
on their way from Egypt to Hebron, Gen. 
50:10, 11. See Abel-Mizraim. 

AT'AROTH, crowns. Several places of 
this name occur in Scripture: one in the 
tribe of Judah, 1 Chr. 2:54; one or two in 
Ephraim, Josh. 16:2, 5, 7; 18:13; and one 
or two in Gad, Num. 32:3,34, 35- Rob- 
inson found traces of one of those in 
Ephraim, on a hill about 6 miles north by 
west from Bethel. 



ATH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ATH 



ATHALI'AH, afflicted by the Lord, a 
granddaughter of Omri, 2 Chr. 22:2, and 
daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, 2 Kin. 11 : 1. 
Strangely enough, she was chosen as the 
wife of Jehoram, son of the pious Jehosha- 
phat king of Judah. Her pernicious influ- 
ence drew into idolatry and crime both her 
husband and her son Ahaziah, 2 Chr. 21:6; 
22:3. After their premature death, she 
usurped the throne, and sought to secure 
herself in it by the murder of all the seed 
royal. Only Joash her grandson, then an 
infant, was saved by his aunt Jehosheba. 
Six years afterwards he was brought from 
his place of refuge, and crowned by the 
bold and faithful high-priest Jehoiada, who 
at the same time caused the blood-stained 
Athaliah to be put to death, 2 Kin. 11; 
2 Chr. 23 ; 884-878 B. C. 

A'THEISM is primarily a sin of the heart, 
rather than an error of the intellect. All 
men are by their fallen nature "without 
God (literally, atheists) in the world," Eph. 
2:12. When the unrenewed mind conies to 
view a just, holy, and almighty God, con- 



scious of its guilt, it spontaneously cries 
out, " Depart from us ; for we desire not 
the knowledge of thy ways," Job 21:14. 
" The fool hath said in his heart, There is 
no God," Psa. 14:1. This atheism of the 
heart, consciously or unconsciously, produ- 
ces most of the intellectual atheism in the 
world, as well as the practical atheism so 
universally shown by those who profess to 
believe in God, but act in many respects as 
though there was no God. 

In the common use of the word, all those 
are atheists who deny the existence of a 
personal, self-conscious, and infinite Spirit, 
the Creator and Ruler of the universe. The 
term includes Pantheists and Materialists, 
who find no God except matter and its 
forces, as well as those philosophers who 
affirm that there is no God whose existence 
can be known and proved to human rea- 
son, and those who say that he exists only 
in the thoughts of men. 

The Bible does not argue the existence of 
God: it assumes and declares it. Those who 
deny it are " without excuse," Rom. 1 :2o. 




THE ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS, AS IT WAS. 



ATH 'ENS, the city of Minerva, the chief 
city of Attica in Greece, said to have been 
founded by Cecrops, 1556 B. C, or 15 years 
after the birth of Moses. It was situated 
on the Saronic Gulf, 46 miles east of Cor- 
inth, and about 5 miles from the coast. 
The city *was in a plain extending to the 
sea on the southwest, where it had 3 ports, 
Piraeus being the chief, the passage to 
which was defended by long and broad 
walls. Several rocky hills rose in the 
4 



plain, the largest of which was the citadel, 
or Acropolis, 150 feet high. Around this 
the city was built, most of the buildings 
spreading towards the sea. The summit 
of the hill was nearly level, about 800 feet 
long and 400 wide. The only way to the 
Acropolis was through the Propylaea, a 
magnificent gateway at the western end, 
from which there was an ascent by marble 
steps to the summit of the hill, where stood, 
on the left, the temple of Pallas Athene 

49 



ATO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



AVE 



(Minerva), the protectress of the city. Un- 
der the same roof was the temple of Nep- 
tune. In the area, on a high pedestal, 
stood a bronze statue of Minerva 70 feet 
high. On the right arose the Parthenon, 
the glory of Athens, the noblest triumph of 
Grecian architecture. Its ruins, still sub- 
lime in decay, are the first object that at- 
tracts the traveller's eye. It was of the 
Doric order of architecture, built of beauti- 
ful white marble, and was about 100 feet 
wide, 226 feet deep, and 70 feet high. With- 
in the temple was a statue of Minerva, by 
Phidias, celebrated for its exquisite beauty. 
It was made of gold and ivory, and was 
nearly 40 feet high. A small valley lay be- 
tween the Acropolis and the hill, west by 
north, on which the high council held its 
sessions ; it also separated the Areopagus 
from the Pnyx on the west or southwest, a 
small rocky hill on which the general as- 
semblies of the people were held. Here 
the spot is yet pointed out from which the 
eminent orators addressed the people. It 
is cut in the natural rock. In this vicinity 
also was the agora, or market-place, Acts 
17:17, south of the Acropolis, with the 
heights of the Areopagus and the Pnyx on 
the east and northwest, and a 4th hill, that 
of the Museum, on the south. It was an 
open square surrounded by beautiful struc- 
tures ; while on every side altars, shrines, 
and temples were seen, some of them ex- 
ceedingly magnificent. This beautiful city 
was also celebrated for the military talents 
and the learning, eloquence, and polite- 
ness of its inhabitants. It was the very 
flower of ancient civilization ; its schools of 
philosophy were the most illustrious in the 
world, and its painters, sculptors, and archi- 
tects have never been surpassed. Yet no 
city was so "wholly given to idolatry." In 
New Testament times, from 140 B. C, it 
was a Roman city. The apostle Paul vis- 
ited it about A. D. 52, and among its proud 
philosophers preached Jesus and the res- 
urrection with fidelity and success, Acts 
17:15-34. See Areopagus. At present 
Athens has a population of about 48,000, 
chiefly devoted adherents of the Greek 
Church. It is the capital of the new king- 
dom of Greece. 

ATONE'MENT is the satisfaction offered 
to divine justice for the sins of mankind 
by the death of Jesus Christ ; by virtue of 
which all true penitents believing in Christ 
are reconciled to God, are freed from the 
penalty of their sins, and entitled to eter- 
nal life. The atonement by Jesus Christ is 
50 



the great distinguishing peculiarity of the 
gospel, and is presented in a great variety 
of terms and illustrations in both the Old 
Testament and the New. The ideas of 
expiation and of reconciliation are both 
included in it; and it is spoken of as a 
ransom, a purchase, a satisfaction, and a 
substitution. See Expiation, Redemp- 
tion, Sacrifices. The English word at- 
one-ment originally denoted the reconcili- 
ation of parties previously at variance. 
Rom. 5:11; 11:15. It is used in the Old 
Testament to translate a Hebrew word 
which means a covering, Psa. 32:1, 2; Acts 
5:30, 31 ; implying that by a divine propi- 
tiation the sinner is covered from the just 
anger of God. This is actually effected by 
the death of Christ ; while the ceremonial 
offerings of the Jewish Church only secured 
from impending temporal judgments, and 
typified the blood of Jesus Christ which 
" cleanseth us from all sin." See Propiti- 
ation. 

Atonement, Day of. See Expiation. 

ATTAL-I'A, a seaport in Pamphylia, at 
the mouth of the river Catarrhactes, visited 
by Paul and Barnabas on their way from 
Perga to Antioch, Acts 14:25. There is 
still a considerable town there, Satalia or 
Adalia, with extensive ruins in the vicinity. 

AUGUS'TUS, venerable, the title added 
by the Roman Senate to that of Caesar or 
emperor, and given B. C. 27 to C. J. C. Oc- 
tavianus, the first peacefully acknowledged 
emperor of Rome. This was 4 years after 
he gained imperial power by the decisive 
naval battle of Actium. Augustus was the 
emperor who appointed the enrolment, 
Luke 2:1, which obliged Joseph and the 
Virgin to go to Bethlehem, the place where 
the Messiah was to be born. He also closed 
the temple of Janus, in token of the rare 
occurrence, a universal peace; thus un- 
consciously celebrating the coming of the 
Prince of Peace. He died A. D. 14, having 
2 years before admitted Tiberius to a share 
in the government. 

In Acts 25:21, 25, Nero is meant. 

A'VA, a place from which Assyrians were 
sent to colonize Samaria in exchange for 
Jews, 2 Kin. 17:24, 31 ; apparently the same 
as Ivah and Ahava. 

A'VEN, ?iothi?igness ) or On, in Amos 1:5, 
seems to denote the region around Baal- 
bek, where was a famous idol temple for 
sun-worship. See Heliopolis, II. In Hos. 
10:8, Aven is the same as Beth-aven or 
Bethel. In Ezek. 30:17, it is Heliopolis 
in Egypt, which see. 



AVE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAA 



AVEN'GER. See Blood, Refuge. 

A'VIM, or A'vites, descendants of Ca- 
naan, Gen. 10:17, on the coast of Palestine 
from Gaza towards the river of Egypt, ex- 
pelled by invading Philistines or Caphto- 
rim, before the time of Moses, Deut. 2:23. 
Some yet remained in the time of Joshua, 
Josh. 13:3. They are conjectured to have 
been the same people with the Hivites, of 
whom traces were found in various parts 
•of Canaan, Gen. 34:2; Josh. 9:7; 11:3. 

AZARI'AH, whom the Lord helps, a king 
of Judah, 2 Kin. 15:1-7, in 2 Chr. 26 and 
elsewhere called Uzziah. He began to 
reign at 16 years of age, B. C. 806. The 
first part of his reign was prosperous and 
happy ; but afterwards, presuming to offer 
incense in the temple, he was smitten with 
leprosy, and continued a leper till his death, 
2 Chr. 26:16-23. 

This name was very common among the 
Jews, and was borne by many briefly re- 
ferred to in Scripture. Three of them were 
high-priests, 1 Chr. 6:9, 10; 2 Chr. 26:17-20; 
.31:10, 13, and one a prophet, 2 Chr. 15:1. 
See also Abednego. 

AZE'KAH, a town in the tribe of Judah, 
:about 15 miles southwest of Jerusalem, 
mentioned in the narratives of Joshua and 
Saul, Josh. 10:10; 1 Sam. 17:1; taken by 
Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 34:7, but afterwards 
repeopled by the Jews, Neh. 11:30. 

AZO'TUS. See Ashdod. 

AZ'ZAH, the same as Gaza. 

B. 

BA'AL, lord, I., in the Old Testament 
-denotes an idol of the Phoenicians, and 
particularly of the Tyrians, whose worship 
was also introduced with great solemnities 
among the Hebrews, and especially at Sa- 
maria, along with that of Astarte, Judg. 
6:25-32; 2 Kin. 10:18, 28. See Ashto- 
reth. The plural, Baalim, signifies ima- 
ges or statues of Baal, Judg. 2:11 ; 10:10, 
and sometimes the same god in other places 
and with other titles. The worship of Baal 
was very ancient and widespread; we find 
it among the Moabites in the time of Mo- 
ses, Num. 22:41; 25:3. Of its prevalence 
among the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, 
we have an evidence in the proper names 
of persons; as, among the former, Ethbaal, 
Jerubbaal ; and among the latter, Hanni- 
bal, Asdrubal, etc. Among the Babyloni- 
ans, the same idol was worshipped under 
the name of Bel, Isa. 46 : 1 ; Jer. 50 : 2 ; 
.51:44- There are traces of Baal-worship 



found in Northern Europe and the British 
Islands to this day, in the names of places 
and in superstitious practices. 




HEAD OF BAAL, FROM A TYRIAN COIN. 

Idolatry and astrology were associated 
in the religions of the East. Baal and As- 
tarte are regarded by some writers as rep^ 
resenting the sun and the moon ; by others, 
Jupiter and Venus, stars of good fortune ; 
and to symbolize the male and female re- 
productive forces in nature. The sun was 
an object of worship among these nations 
under his own name, as 2 Kin. 23:11. 

The temples and altars of Baal were gen- 
erally on eminences. Manasseh placed in 
the two courts of the temple at Jerusalem 
altars to all the host of heaven, and in par- 
ticular to Astarte, 2 Kin. 21:5, 7. Jeremiah 
threatens the Jews who had sacrificed to 
Baal on the house-top, Jer. 32^9; and Jo- 
siah destroyed the altars which Ahaz had 
erected on the terrace of his palace, 2 Kin. 
23:12. 

Human victims were offered to Baal, as 
they were also to the sun, Jer. 19:5. See 
Moloch. 

The children of Israel were prone to 
serve Baal. See Num. 25:3; Judg, 2:13; 
y.j. Under Samuel they put away their 
idols, 1 Sam. 7:4, and this continued under 
David and Solomon ; but under Ahab, 
whose wife Jezebel was a daughter of the 
Zidonian king Ethbaal, the worship of Baal 
was restored with great pomp, 1 Kin. 16:31 ; 
2 Kin. 11:18. 

Joined with other words, Baal signifies 
local idols. Baal-Berith, the " lord of the 
covenant," was a god of the Shechemites, 
Judg. 8:33; 9:4, 46. Baal-Peor, "the lord 
of Peor," was a filthy idol of the Moabites, 
Num. 25:3, 5; Hos. 9:10. Baal-Zebub, 

51 



BAA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAB 



" lord of flies," was a god of the Philistines 
at Ekron. See Beelzebub. 

II. The word Baal also occurs in many 
compound names of places and persons, 
usually having some reference to the idol. 

BA'ALAH, mistress, a town in the tribe 
of Simeon, Josh. 15:29; 19:3; 1 Chr. 13:6. 
The same as Kirjath-jearim. 

BA'ALATH, a town in the tribe of Dan, 
Josh. 19:44, not far from Bethhoron. It 
may be the Baalath rebuilt by Solomon, 
1 Kin. 9:18; 2 Chr. 8:6. 

BA'ALBEK. See Heliopolis, II. 

BAAL-GAD', a city in the valley of Leba- 
non, at the foot of Hermon ; the northern- 
most point which the conquests of Joshua 
reached, Josh. 11:17; 12 '-7', ^3-5- It was 
perhaps the same as Baal-hermon, near or 
a part of Mount Hermon. According to 
Schwarz and Robinson, it was the place 
afterwards called Banias. See C^esarea- 
Philippi. 

BAAL-HA'ZOR, where Absalom kept his 
flocks, 2 Sam. 13:23, was near Ephraim, 
some 8 miles east of Jerusalem. 

BA'ALI, Hos. 2.16, 17, means both my 
lord, that is, my husband, and my Baal ; 
and its use in the first sense was to be 
avoided, so as not to suggest the second 
sense. It also expressed more fear and 
less love and trust than the name Ishi, my 
man, i. e., husband. 

BA'ALIS, a proud lord, king of the Am- 
monites in the time of the captivity. He 
caused the assassination of Gedaliah, then 
governor of Judah, Jer. 40:14; 41:1-10. 
B.C. 588. 

BAAL-ME'ON, in Reuben, beyond the 
Jordan, near Nebo, Num. 32:38; 1 Chr. 
5:8; called also Beth-meon, Jer. 48:23, and 
Beth-baal-meon, Josh. 13 : 17. Its ruins are 2 
miles southeast of Heshbon. Ezekiel, 25:9, 
speaks of it as then a Moabitish town. 

BAAL-PERA'ZIM, place of breaches, a 
name given by David to the scene of a bat- 
tle with the Philistines, 2 Sam. 5:20; 1 Chr. 
14:11; Isa. 28:21. It was in the valley of 
Rephaim, not far southwest of Jerusalem. 

BAAL-ZE'BUB. See BEELZEBUB. 

BAAL-ZE'PHON, a town in Egypt, prob- 
ably near the modern Suez, location uncer- 
tain, Exod. 14:2; Num. 33:7. 

BA'ANAH, son of affliction, and Re'chab, 
sons of Rimraon, in the service of Ishbo- 
sheth the son of Saul. Thinking to obtain 
a reward from David, they secretly slew 
their master while reposing at noon, and 
carried his head to David at Hebron. They 
suffered, however, the punishment suitable 
52 



for those whose "feet are swift to shed 
blood," 2 Sam. 4:1-12. 

BA'ASHA, waster, son of a certain Ahi- 
jah, and commander of the armies of Na- 
dab, king of Israel. He killed his master 
treacherously at the siege of Gibbethon, 
and usurped the kingdom, B. C. 953, which 
he possessed 24 years. He exterminated 
the whole race of Jeroboam, as had been 
predicted, 1 Kin. 14:7-14; but by his bad 
conduct and idolatry incurred God's indig- 
nation, 1 Kin. 15; 16:1-7, 12. About the 
middle of his reign he made war on Asa, 
but was defeated by the aid of Ben-hadad 
I. of Damascus, 2 Chr. 16. God sent him a 
warning by the mouth of Jehu the prophet ; 
which was fulfilled in the extermination of 
his family 2 years after his own death. 

BA'BEL, confusion, the name of a city 
founded by Nimrod, in the plain of Shinar. 
See Babylon. Also of a lofty tower, be- 
gun by the descendants of Noah, among 
whom Nimrod was a leader, about 120 years 
after the flood ; so called because God there 
confounded the language of those who were 
employed in the undertaking, Gen. 10:10; 
-11:9. Their object was to concentrate the 
population and the dominion at that spot ; 
and as this was contrary to the divine pur- 
pose of replenishing the earth with inhab- 
itants, and betrayed an ungodly and per- 
haps idolatrous disposition, God frustrated 
their designs by miraculously giving to dif- 
ferent portions of the people different lan- 
guages, or different modes of pronuncia- 
tion and divergent dialects of the original 
language of man, thus causing them to dis- 
perse over the globe. Compare Acts 2 : 1-1 1 . 
The tower was apparently left incomplete, 
but in its vicinity arose afterwards the cel- 
ebrated city of Babylon. It has been sup- 
posed that the tower of Babel was after- 
wards finished, and called the tower of 
Belus, within the city of Babylon. Herod- 
otus visited this tower, and describes it as 
a square pyramid, measuring half a mile in 
circumference at the base, from which the 
tower rose in 8 stories, one above anoth- 
er, gradually decreasing to the summit, 
which was reached by a road winding up 
around the outside. This tow r er was used 
for astronomical purposes, but was chiefly 
devoted to the worship of Bel, whose tem- 
ple contained immense treasures, inclu- 
ding several statues of massive gold, one 
of which was 40 feet in height. Here were 
probably deposited the sacred golden ves- 
sels brought from Jerusalem, 2 Chr. 36:7; 
Jer. 51:44. Its ruins were generally sup- 



BAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAB 




RUINS AT BIRS-NIMRL'D. 



posed to be the present Birs - Nimrud, 6 
miles southwest of Hilleh, the modern Bab- 
ylon. 

This, however, many regard as the an- 
cient Borsippa; and its distance from the 
other great ruins, 10 miles, seems to put 
it beyond the limits of Babylon proper. 
It is nevertheless a majestic ruin, and its 
structure may be studied as a type of many 
other buildings of the same country and 
age. This temple-tower or pyramid is now 
an immense mound of sun-dried bricks, 
laid with bitumen in 7 square receding 
stages, the lowest 272 feet each side, and 
26 feet high ; the 2d stage 230 feet each 
side and 26 feet high, etc., reaching the 
height of 153 feet in all. It is over 2,000 
feet in circuit, and is a ruinous heap, shat- 
tered by violence, furrowed by storms, and 
strewn with fragments of brick, pottery, 
etc., fused and vitrified by some intense 
heat. On the top rises an irregular tower 
90 feet in circumference and 35 feet high, 
built of a fine brick — with which the whole 
mound appears to have been faced. The 
tower is rent asunder and mutilated at the 
top, and scathed as if by lightning — a mon- 
ument, as many believe, of the just wrath 
of God. See Nebuchadnezzar. 

BAB'YLON, I., a celebrated city situated 
on the Euphrates, the original foundation 
of which is described under the word Ba- 
bel, the capital of the Chaldaean kingdom. 
It lay in the vast and fertile plain of Shi- 
nar, watered by the Euphrates, which 
flowed through the city. Its walls are de- 
scribed as 50 miles in circumference, 300 



feet high, and 75 feet wide, Jer. 51:44-58. 
A deep trench ran parallel with the walls. 
In each of the 4 sides were 25 brazen gates, 
from which roads crossed to the opposite 
gates. On the squares thus formed, count- 
less houses and vast gardens were made. 
The temple of Belus has been described 
under Babel. Nebuchadnezzar's palace 
was in an enclosure 6 miles in circumfer- 
ence. Within this were also "the hanging 
gardens," an immense artificial mound 7^ 
feet high, sustained by arches upon arches, 
terraced off for trees and flowers, the wa- 
ter for which was drawn from the river by 
machinery concealed in the mound, Dan. 
4:29, 30. 

According to Berosus there were 11 Chal- 
daean kings in 224 years, terminating in 
1976 B. C. ; when Babylon fell under Elam- 
ite kings for 458 years, till 1518 B. C. Then 
followed Arab kings and a long period of 
Assyrian rivalry or rule, 2 Chr. 33:11, 
until 747 B. C. From this date, when Na- 
bonassar was king, Ptolemy the geograph- 
er gives a complete list of kings and the 
times of their reigns, the names and dates 
of which well agree with those compiled 
by Rawlinson and Smith from 3,000 com- 
mercial tablets, recently exhumed. The 
5th king in his list, Nardocempalus, 721 
B. C, is identified with Merodach-Baladan. 
Babylon was subjected to Sennacherib, 
king of Assyria, 702 B. C. ; and the name 
of Esar-haddon his son appears in the list 
as Asaridanus, B. C. 680. Nabopolassar, 
independent king of Babylon, appears in 
625 B. C, and Nebuchadnezzar his son 604 

53 



BAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAB 



B. C. ; the Egyptian invasion under Necho 
in 608 B. C. was repelled by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, who afterwards overran all the 
country to the Mediterranean, and ravaged 
Egypt itself. He was great in peace as 
well as in war, and was preeminent as a 
builder of temples and palaces. Evil-me- 
rodach his son, Ptolemy dates at 561 B. C, 
and Neriglissar his brother at 559 B. C, fol- 
lowed by Laborosoarchod son of the latter, 
who was the same year, 555 B. C, succeed- 
ed by Nabonnedus, father of Belshazzar. 

Under Nebuchadnezzar, Babylon reached 
the summit of her greatness and splendor. 
She was renowned for learning, especially 
in astronomy, Isa. 47:10; Dan. 1:4, and for 
skill in various arts, as the making of car- 
pets and cloths, of perfumes, jewelry, etc. 
Her location gave her to a great extent the 
control of the traffic, by the Euphrates and 
by caravans, between Central Asia and 
Arabia and Egypt. She. was "a city of 
merchants," Isa. 43:14; Ezek. 17:4; and 
into her iap flowed, either through con- 
quest or commerce, the wealth of almost all 
known lands, Hab. 1:6-10. Justly, there- 
fore, might the prophets call her " the 
great," Dan. 4:20; "the praise of the whole 
earth," Jer. 51 141 ; " the beauty of the Chal- 
dees' excellency," Isa. 13:19; "the lady of 
kingdoms," Isa. 47:5; but also "the ten- 
der and delicate," and "given to pleas- 
ures," Isa. 47:1, 8. Corruptness and licen- 
tiousness of manners and morals were car- 
ried to a frightful extreme. Bel, Nebo, 
Nergal, Merodach, Succoth-benoth, and 
other idols, were worshipped with rites in 
which impurity was made a matter of reli- 
gion. Well might we expect Jehovah to 
bring down vengeance on her crimes. In- 
deed, the woes denounced against Baby- 
lon by the prophets 170 years before con- 
stitute some of the most awfully splendid 
and sublime portions of the whole Bible, 
Isa. 13:1-22; 14:22; 21:9; 47; Jer. 25; 50; 
51, etc. 

The city did not long remain the capital 
of the world. Under the reign of Nebu- 
chadnezzar's grandson, Nabonnedus, and 
his son the Belshazzar of the Scriptures, it 
was besieged and taken by Cyrus. The 
accounts of Greek historians harmonize 
here with that of the Bible: that Cyrus 
made his successful assault on a night 
when the whole city, relying on the strength 
of the walls, had given themselves up to 
the riot and debauchery of a grand public 
festival, and the king and his nobles were 
revelling at a splendid entertainment. Cy- 
54 



rus had caused a canal, which ran west of 
the city, and carried off the superfluous 
water of the Euphrates into the lake of 
Nitocris, to be cleared out, in order to turn 
the river into it, which, by this means, was 
rendered so shallow that his soldiers were 
able to penetrate along its bed into the city, 
Dan. 5. 538 B. C. From this time its im- 
portance declined, for Cyrus made Susa the 
capital of his kingdom. It revolted against 
Darius Hystaspis, who again subdued it, 
broke down all its gates, and reduced its 
walls to the height of 50 cubits. According 
to Strabo, Xerxes destroyed the tower of 
Belus. Under the Persians, and under Al- 
exander's successors, Babylon continued 
to decline, especially after Seleucus Nica- 
tor had founded Seleucia, and made it his 
residence. A great portion of the inhab- 
itants of Babylon removed thither ; and in 
Strabo's time, that is, under Augustus,. 
Babylon had become so desolate that it 
might be called a vast desert, Jer. 50; 51. 
There was a town on its site until the 4th 
century, and many Jews dwelt there, 1 Pet. 
5:13. But from this time onward, Babylon 
ceases almost to be mentioned; even its 
ruins have not been discovered until with- 
in the last 2 centuries ; and it is only with- 
in the present century that these ruins 
have been traced and described. These 
consist of numerous mounds, usually of 



>k/*\ 








! 



A BABYLONIAN BRICK. 



brick, deeply furrowed and decayed by 
time, strewn with fragments of brick, bitu- 



BAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAB 




VIEW OF BABIL FROM THE WEST, WITH THE KASR. 



men, pottery, etc. One of these is de- 
scribed above. See Babel. Another, 4 
miles north by west of Hilleh, and called 
by the natives Kasr, the palace, is supposed 
to be the ruins of Nebuchadnezzar's famous 
palace. It is an irregular square, some 
8,000 feet in circuit ; no plan of the palace 
can be traced, but portions of the wall re- 
main — of a fine yellow, burnt brick, laid in 
lime cement. Not very far from this on the 
north is the great mound called Mujellibeh, 
or by the natives Babil, 600 feet long, 400 
wide, and 140 high. It was probably built 
in stages, is coated with a fine burnt brick 
laid in mortar, and is thought by George 
Smith to be the site of the ancient tem- 
ple of Belus, rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar. 
'From these mounds thousands of bricks 
have been dug, bearing arrow-headed in- 
scriptions as ancient as the time of Nebu- 
chadnezzar, whose name constantly occurs, 
and containing a full record of Babylonian 
kings down to the death of Darius Hys- 
taspis. South of the Kasr is another vast 
mound still more ancient, more than 10,000 
feet in circuit. It is called the Amram 
mound ; its bricks are inferior to those of 
the other two mounds, and the names upon 
them are anterior to Nebuchadnezzar. 
Many smaller mounds, embankments, etc., 
are spread over the plains around. The 
aspect of the whole region is dreary and 
forlorn. It is infested by noxious animals, 
and perhaps in no place under heaven is 



the contrast between ancient magnificence 
and present desolation greater than here. 
The awful prophecy of Isaiah, uttered more 
than a century before, has been most liter- 
ally fulfilled, Isa. 13; 14. 

The name of Babylon is used symboli- 
cally in Rev. 14:8; 16; 17; 18, to mark the 
idolatry, superstition, lewdness, luxury, 
and persecution of the people of God 
which characterized heathen Rome and 
modern Antichrist. No other city but 
Rome can be meant by "that great city 
that ruleth over the kings of the earth," 
sitting on its " 7 hills," " drunken with the 
blood of the martyrs of Jesus." Some 
thus interpret 1 Pet. 5:13; but this is only 
a fanciful conjecture. To use such an 
enigmatical name, in such a place, instead 
of the familiar Rome, would have been 
unnatural ; and there is no reason to doubt 
that the ancient Babylon is meant, since 
we know that Jews lived there at the time 
of Christ. See Peter. 

II. There was also a Babylon in Egypt, 
a fort not far from Heliopolis. Some sup- 
pose this to be the Babylon mentioned 
1 Pet. 5:13, but with no good reason. 

BABYLO'NIA, the province of which 
Babylon was the capital ; now the Babylo- 
nian or Arabian Irak, which constitutes 
the pashalic of Bagdad. This celebrated 
province included the tract of country lying 
on the river Euphrates, bounded north by 
Mesopotamia and Assyria, and south by 

55 



BAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAL 



the Persian Gulf. This gulf was indeed 
its only definite and natural boundary ; for 
towards the north, towards the east or Per- 
sia, and towards the west or desert Arabia, 
its limits were quite indefinite. Both in 
ancient and modern times, important tracts 
on the eastern bank of the Tigris, and on 
the western bank of the Euphrates, and 
still more on both banks of their united 
streams, were reckoned to Babylonia, or 
Irak el-Arab. 

The most ancient name of the country is 
Shinar, Gen. 10: 10 ; Dan. 1:2. Afterwards 
Babel, Babylon, and Babylonia became its 
common appellation, with which, at a later 
period, Chaldaea, or the land of the Chal- 
daeans, was used as synonymous, after this 
people had got the whole into their pos- 
session. 

Babylonia is an extensive plain, extend- 
ing some 400 miles northwest and south- 
east along the 2 rivers, and about 100 miles 
wide, interrupted by no hill or mountain, 
consisting of a fatty, brownish soil, and 
subject to the annual inundations of the 
Tigris and Euphrates, more especially of 
the latter, whose banks are lower than 
those of the Tigris. The Euphrates com- 
monly rises about 12 feet above its ordi- 
nary level, and continues at this height 
from the end of April till June. To pro- 
vide means for drawing off the superabun- 
dant water, and distributing it to those 
tracts which were in themselves less wa- 
tered, the whole land came to be divided 
up by a multitude of larger and smaller 
canals, which seem to be the " rivers of 
Babylon" spoken of in Psa. 137:1. Baby- 
lonia also contained several large lakes, 
partly the work of art and partly formed 
by the inundations of the 2 rivers. It was 
therefore a land abounding in water; and 
Jeremiah might well say of it that it 
" dwelt upon many waters." Its soil, when 
well cultivated, is of extraordinary fertil- 
ity; but now dry and waste lands alter- 
nate with still more desolate marshes, Isa. 
14:23; Jer. 51:13, 37, 42. 

The Babylonians belonged to the She- 
mitic branch of the descendants of Noah, 
and their language had an affinity with the 
Arabic and Hebrew, nearly resembling 
what is now called Chaldee. Yet the Bab- 
ylonian empire was apparently founded by 
Nimrod, a Cushite descendant of Noah, 20 
centuries before Christ, and then embraced 
the cities Babel, Erech, Ur, Accad, and Cal- 
neh, Gen. 10:10. See Nimrod. After the 
building of Nineveh by Ninus, 1237 B. C, 
56 



that city became the seat of power, and con- 
tinued so until about 606 B. C, when the 
Assyrian empire gave way to the Chaldaean, 
and Babylon reached its highest point in 
fame and power. Upon the return of the 
Jews from captivity, many still remained in 
Babylonia, and to their posterity the gospel 
was early conveyed. Peter wrote his 1st 
epistle there, 1 Pet.' 5:13. The Jews had 
thriving synagogues in Babylonia, and one 
of their Talmuds was there composed. 
See Babylon and Chald^eans. 

BA'CA, tears, or weeping, Psa. 84:6. It 
is not necessary to understand here that 
there was really a valley so called, any 
more than in Psa. 23:4 any one valley in 
Judaea is meant. Those who are permitted 
to make the usual pilgrimages to Jerusa- 
lem in order to worship Jehovah in the 
temple, love the ways which lead thither, 
even though rough and dreary; a vale of 
tears is to them as a well-watered country. 

BAD'GER, a small inoffensive animal, of 
the bear genus, which remains torpid all 
winter. It is an inhabitant of cold coun- 
tries, and is not found in Palestine. Hence 
many think the "badgers' skins" men- 
tioned Exod. 25:5; 26:14; Ezek. 16:10, and 
elsewhere, as being used for covering the 
tabernacle and for shoes, were the skins 
not of this animal, but of a species of seal 
found in the Red Sea, and called the du- 
gong. Burckhardt remarks that he "saw 
parts of the skin of a large fish, killed on 
the coast, which was an inch in thickness, 
and is employed by the Arabs instead of 
leather for sandals." Others, objecting to 
the dugong as ceremonially unclean, Lev. 
11 : 10-12, think the animal in question was 
of the antelope species, the skins of which 
the Jews had obtained in Egypt. 

BAG, Deut. 25:13; Luke 12:33. Eastern 
money was often sealed up in bags con- 
taining a certain sum, for which they passed 
current while the seal remained unbroken, 
2 Kin. 12: 10. The disciples had a common 
purse, for the poor, John 12:6. 

BAHU'RIM, young men, a town of Ben- 
jamin, near Jerusalem, on the road to the 
Jordan. It is several times mentioned in 
the history of David, 2 Sam. 3:16; 16:5; 
17:18. 

BA'JITH, a house, the site of an idol tem- 
ple in Moab, where the king offered vain 
supplications against the Assyrians, Isa. 
15:2; 16*12. 

BAKER. See Bread. 

BA'LAAM, lord of the people, a celebra- 
ted diviner, of the city Pethor, on the Eu- 



BAL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAL 



phrates, Num. 22:5. Balak, king of Moab, 
having seen the multitudes of Israel, and 
fearing they would overwhelm him as they 
had just done the Amorites, sent for Ba- 
laam, who was famous for his supposed 
supernatural powers, to come and curse 
them. Balaam, though eager for gain, was 
led to ask counsel of God, who forbade his 
going. Balak afterwards sent other depu- 
ties, whom Balaam finally accompanied 
without the approval of God, who sent an 
angel to meet and warn him in the way. 
Here occurred the miracle of Balaam's ass, 
which is spoken of throughout the Bible as 
a real occurrence and not a mere vision, 
Num. 22:22, 35; 2 Pet. 2:16. But instead 
of cursing, he was constrained by the Spirit 
of God to bless the children of Israel, in 
poetic strains of exceeding beauty and 
power. This he did a second and a third 
time, to the extreme mortification of Balak, 
who dismissed him in great anger. Balaam 
subsequently foretold what Israel should in 
future times do to the nations round about ; 
and after having advised Balak to engage 
Israel in idolatry and whoredom, that they 
might offend God and be forsaken by him, 
returned to his own land. His bad counsel 
was pursued ; the young women of Moab 
inveigled the Hebrews to the impure and 
idolatrous worship of Baal-Peor, for which 
24,000 Israelites were slain, Num. 25:1-9; 
31:16. 

Balaam was probably a descendant of 
Shem, and possessed many just ideas of 
the true God. He calls him " the Lord 
my God," Num. 22:18; and yet he seems 
to have been only an enchanter and false 
prophet, like many in the times of the kings 
of Israel, until he came in collision with 
the people of God. In this transaction he 
was made a bearer, against his own will, of 
the sublime messages of Jehovah ; yet his 
heart remained unchanged, and he died 
not "the death of the righteous,'' Num. 
31:8, but fighting against Israel, Josh. 13:22. 
His fearful doom warns us never to disre- 
gard the monitions of conscience, nor seek 
for gain in ways God does not approve, 
2 Pet. 2:15; Jude 11; Rev. 2:14. 

BA'LAK, waste, king of Moab when the 
Israelites were drawing near the promised 
land. Filled with terror lest they should 
attack and destroy him, as they had Sihon 
and Og, he entered into an alliance with 
the Midianities to war against them, and 
implored the soothsayer Balaam to come 
and curse them. His fears and his devi- 
ces were both in vain, Deut. 2:9; Judg. 



11:25. See Balaam. He found he had 
nothing to fear from Israel if at peace with 
them, and nothing to hope if at war with 
them, Rev. 2:14. 

BAL/ANCE, or scales, a dual word in 
Hebrew. Balances were very early in use, 
to weigh money, before coinage began, Gen. 
23:16; 43:21; Job 31:6. They are shown 
on Egyptian monuments. Stones early 
gave place to lead for weights, which were 
carried in a bag, Deut. 25:13, and God 
made it a matter of religion to have them 
just and equal, Lev. 19 : 36 ; Prov. 20 : 10. 
Bread sold by weight was a symbol of fam- 
ine, Lev. 26:26; Rev. 6:5. 

BALD'NESS. It was customary to cut 
off the hair, or to shave the head, as a to- 
ken of mourning, on the death of a rela- 
tive, Job 1:20; Jer. 16:6. This was forbid- 
den to the Israelites, being a heathen cus- 
tom, Deut. 14:1; yet it continued to mark 
the close of a Nazarite's vow, Num. 6:2, 
18 ; Acts 21 124. Baldness was treated with 
contempt, because it exposed a man to the 
suspicion of leprosy. The cry of the chil- 
dren at Bethel after Elisha, " Go up, thou 
bald-head," 2 Kin. 2:23, indicated great 
contempt for him as a prophet of the Lord, 
and at the same time a scoff at the miracle 
of Elijah's ascension. 




BALM, or more properly, Balsam, the 
gum from the balsam-tree, the Opobalsa- 
mum, anciently found in Judaea, and par- 
ticularly in Gilead, Jer. 8:22; 46:11. It 
was reckoned very valuable in the cure of 
external wounds. The true balsam-tree is 
an evergreen, a native of Southern Arabia 
and Abyssinia, and is about 14 feet high. 
It yields its gum in very small quantities. 

57 



BAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAR 



At the present day, this is collected chiefly 
in Arabia, between Mecca and Medina, and 
is therefore sometimes called the balm of 
Mecca. Its odor is exquisitely fragrant and 
pungent. It is very costly, and is still in 
the highest esteem among the Turks and 
other Oriental nations, both as a medicine 
and as a cosmetic, Gen. 37:25; Jer. 51:8; 
Ezek. 27:17. 

BA'MAH, plural BA'MOTH, high places, 
Ezek. 20:29. Bamoth-baal was a station 
of the Hebrews near the Anion, in the bor- 
der of Moab, Num. 21:20; 22:41; after- 
wards assigned to the tribe of Reuben, 
Josh. 13:17; Baal was worshipped there, 
and it was perhaps referred to in Isa. 15:2. 
See High Places. 

BAND, Acts 10:1, a military cohort, or 
regiment, commanded by a tribune. 

BANNER. See Abomination, Ensign. 

BANQUET. See EATING, FEASTS. 

BAP'TISM is the holy ordinance or sac- 
rament by which persons are admitted as 
members of the Christian community. It 
is administered in the name of the Fa- 
ther, the Son, and the Holy Ghost ; and is 
a visible and public profession of faith in 
Christ and his salvation, of vital union 
with him, of the obligation to live a new 
life according to his precepts and in his 
service, and of the expectation of sharing 
in his glorious and heavenly immortality. 
It is not by any means to be regarded as 
a regenerating ordinance, though signifi- 
cant of regeneration. It was established 
in the Christian church by Christ and his 
apostles, as 1 of the 2 only sacraments 
of his church, Matt. 28 : 19 ; John 3 : 22, 26 ; 
4:1, 2; Acts 8:12, 36; 16:33, and is bind- 
ing on his followers to the end of time, 
Mark 16: 16. The use of water in this ordi- 
nance is grounded in part on its qualities 
as the great element of purification, Psa. 
26:6; 51:2, 7; Isa. 1:18; Zech. 13:1; Acts 
22:16, and on the rites of the ancient dis- 
pensation, in which "water and blood" 
were the- divinely-appointed symbols of 
moral renovation and atonement, Lev. 16:4, 
16, 24. 

The proper subjects of baptism are true 
believers, and according to Paedobaptists 
their infant children, which Baptists deny ; 
and the mode, as the Baptists believe, is by 
immersion only, while Paedobaptists believe 
sprinkling or pouring equally valid. 

Baptism " with the Holy Ghost and 

with fire," Matt. 3:11; Luke 3:16, is 

perhaps best explained by a reference to 

Acts 1:5; 2:3,4; 10:45; 11:13. The bap- 

58 



tism of John, Matt. 3:11, required peni- 
tence, and faith in God's pardoning love, 
but preceded the outpouring of the Spirit 
with his special gifts, and the command to 
baptize in the name of the Trinity, Acts 
18:25, 26; 19: 1-6. 

In 1 Cor. 15:29, the question in other 
words may be, Why, when many suffer 
death for Christ's sake, do others still come 
forward and publicly confess Christ, thus 
taking the place of the dead? 

BARAB'BAS, son of Abba, a noted rob^ 
ber in Christ's time, who was imprisoned 
and awaiting death for sedition and mur- 
der, Acts 3:14. It w T as a custom of the 
Romans, for the sake of conciliating the 
Jews, to release one Jewish prisoner, whom 
they might choose, at the yearly Passover. 
Pilate desired thus to release Jesus, but 
the Jews demanded Barabbas, Matt. 27:16- 
26; Luke 23: 16-25. Thus we see that men 
can prefer a ruffian to the Lord of glory, 
and a destroyer of life to Him who heals 
our sicknesses and saves our souls by giv- 
ing his own life for ours. 

BA'RAK, lightning, the son of Abinoam, 
of Kedesh in the tribe of Naphtali. God 
summoned him, by means of Deborah the 
prophetess, to release Israel from the yoke 
of Jabin, king of North Canaan. Having 
first secured the attendance of the prophet- 
ess, he gathered 10,000 men, and stationed 
them on Mount Tabor, perhaps to avoid 
the enemies' 900 chariots of iron, Judg. 4:3. 
God fought for Israel in the battle which 
ensued, and the song of Deborah and Ba- 
rak, Judg. 5, chronicles their victory. Read- 
ing the inspired narrative on the spot, one 
is struck with a vivid sense of its truth and 
accuracy, finding the same places around 
him, with the old names, in the order re- 
quired by the history. Barak is enrolled 
among those illustrious for faith, Heb. 
11:32. See Kishon. 

BARBA'RIAN, a foreigner. According 
to the Greek idiom, all other nations, how- 
ever learned and polite they might be, were 
"barbarians." Hence Paul comprehends 
all mankind under the names of " Greeks 
and barbarians," Rom. 1:14. Luke calls 
the inhabitants of the island of Malta " bar- 
barians," they being of the Phcenician race, 
and speaking the dialect of Carthage, Acts 
28:2, 4. 

BAR-JE'SUS. See Elymas. 

BAR' LEY was sown in Palestine from 
November to February, and reaped at and 
after the Passover. The Hebrews fre- 
quently used barley-bread, 2 Sam. 17:28; 



BAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAR 



2 Kin. 4:42; John 6:9, though it was con- 
sidered inferior to wheat. Compare Num. 
5:15; J ud S- 7-13; Ez ek. 13:19. The mod- 
ern Arabs ridicule their enemies as " eaters 
of barley-bread." Barley also was much 
used as food for cattle, 1 Kin. 4:28. 

BARN. Garners, storehouses, and gran- 
aries are often spoken of in the Bible, Job 
39:12; Psa. 144:13; Matt. 3:12. They were 
receptacles for grain and other produce, 
rather than for hay, and were often under 
ground. In some parts of the East, domes- 
tic beasts are lodged on the ground floor 
of the owner's house, the family occupying 
the rooms above. 

BAR' NAB AS, son of exhortation, or Jo- 
ses, was a Levite of the isle of Cyprus, who 
sold all his property and laid the price of 
it at the apostles' feet, Acts 4 : 36, i>7- When 
Paul came to Jerusalem, 3 years after his 
conversion, about A. D. 38, Barnabas intro- 
duced him to the other apostles, Acts 9:26, 
27. Five years afterwards, the church at 
Jerusalem, being informed of the progress 
of the gospel at Antioch, sent Barnabas 
thither, who beheld with great joy the won- 
ders of the grace of God, Acts 1 1 : 20-24. 
He afterwards went to Tarsus, to seek 
Paul and bring him to Antioch, where they 
dwelt together 2 years, and great numbers 
were converted. They left Antioch A. D. 
45, to convey alms from this church to that 
at Jerusalem, and soon returned, bringing 
with them John Mark, Acts 1 1 : 28-30 ; 1 2 : 25. 
While they were at Antioch, A. D. 45, the 
Holy Ghost directed that they should be 
set apart for those labors to which he 
had appointed them, the planting of new 
churches among the Gentiles. Thus early 
in the Christian church was the missionary 
cause instituted: the Holy Ghost charging 
believers with the duty of consecrating 
chosen men to carry the gospel to the hea- 
then, of providing what was necessary for 
the work, and of watching over its pro- 
gress. They visited Cyprus and some cit- 
ies of Asia Minor, Acts 13:2-14, and after 3 
years returned to Antioch, gathered the 
church, and rehearsed all that God had 
done by them. In A. D. 50, he and Paul 
were appointed delegates from the Syrian 
churches to consult the apostles and elders 
at Jerusalem respecting certain questions 
raised by Jewish zealots ; and having ob- 
tained the judgment of the brethren at 
Jerusalem, they returned with it, accom- 
panied by Silas and Barnabas. At Anti- 
och he was led into dissimulation by Peter, 
and was, in consequence, reproved by Paul. 



While preparing for a second missionary 
tour, Paul and Barnabas, having a dispute 
relative to Mark, Barnabas' nephew, sep- 
arated, Paul going to Asia, and Barnabas 
with Mark to Cyprus, Acts 13-15; Gal. 
2:13. Nothing is known of his subsequent 
history. 

There is a spurious gospel, in Arabic, 
attributed to him, but written by some 
heretical Christian ; also another spurious 
work, probably of the 5th century, profess- 
ing to relate his labors in Cyprus and his 
death there ; and an epistle, treating main- 
ly of the connection of the Mosaic dispen- 
sation with the gospel, but evidently writ- 
ten by some other hand, though at a very 
early date, probably near the beginning of 
the 2d century. A complete copy of the 
original Greek was found by Dr. Tischen- 
dorf, appended to the Sinaitic MS. of the 
New Testament. Its value is that of an 
ancient witness, not of an inspired author- 
ity. Its language constantly accords with 
that of the New Testament. It shows no 
trace of pope, tradition, priests, masses, 
penances, confession, or purgatory — no 
word about prayers to angels, saints, or 
Mary. It distinctly recognizes the Chris- 
tian Sabbath: " Wherefore also we pass the 
8th day in rejoicing, wherein also Jesus 
rose from the dead, and having been man- 
ifested, he ascended into the heavens." 

BAR'REL, 1 Kin. 17:12; 18:33, the word 
in Hebrew usually translated pitcher. 

BAR'RENNESS was an affliction pecu- 
liarly lamented throughout the East, Gen. 
16:1; 30:1-23; 1 Sam. 1:6, 19; Isa. 47:9; 
49:21 ; Luke 1 :25, especially by the Jewish 
women, who remembered the promised 
Messiah, Gen. 3: 15, and hoped for the hon- 
or of his parentage. The strength of this 
feeling is evinced by the extraordinary and 
often unjustifiable measures it led them to 
adopt, Gen. 16:2 ; 19:31; 38:14; Deut. 25:5- 
10. Professed Christians are charged with 
barrenness, if they are destitute of the fruits 
of the Spirit, and do not abound in good 
works, Luke 13:6-9; 2 Pet. 1:8. 

BAR'SABAS, son of Saba. I. Joseph 
Barsabas, surnamed The Just, was one of 
Christ's early disciples, and probably 
among the 70. He was 1 of the 2 candi- 
dates for the vacancy left by Judas Iscariot 
in the apostleship, Acts 1. 

II. Judas Barsabas was "a prophet," 
or preacher of the gospel, and a distin- 
guished member of the Jerusalem church. 
He was deputed, with Silas, to accompany 
Paul and Barnabas in a mission of impor- 

59 



BAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAS 



tance to the Gentile converts in the Syrian 
churches, Acts 15:22-33. 

BARTHOLOMEW, son of Talmai, one of 
the 12 apostles, Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; 
Luke 6:14; Acts 1:13. He is named in 
connection with Philip, and seems to have 
been the same person whom John calls 
Nathanael, John 1:45-51, and mentions 
among the other apostles, John 21:2. See 
Apostle and Nathanael. 

BARTIM^'US, son of Timaeus, a blind 
man, to whom Christ gave sight, by the 
wayside near Jericho, Matt. 20 : 29-34 ; Mark 
10:46-52; Luke 18:35-43. There were 2 
healed, according to Matthew, although 
Mark and Luke only mention Bartimaeus. 
As to the time of the occurrence, we may 
suppose that Bartimaeus heard the ap- 
proach of Christ, Luke 18:35, and learned 
who he was on the first day; and encour- 
aged by the mercy of the Saviour to Zac- 
chaeus, and being joined by another blind 
man, called to him for help as he again 
passed by on his way to Jerusalem. The 
touching narrative of his steadfast faith, 
and Christ's ready compassion, should en- 
courage all to go boldly unto Jesus. 

BA'RUCH, blessed, the son of Neriah, of 
a distinguished family in the tribe of Ju- 
dah. He was the faithful friend of Jere- 
miah. About 605 B. C. he wrote down, 
from the lips of Jeremiah, all the divine 
messages to that prophet, and subsequent- 
ly read them to the people, and again to 
certain princes. These last took the book, 
and soon made known its contents to king 
Jehoiakim, who impiously destroyed it. 
Baruch wrote it down a 2d time as be- 
fore, with some additions, Jer. 36. He is 
supposed by some to have accompanied 
his brother Seraiah to Babylon, with the 
predictions of Jeremiah respecting that 
city, Jer. 51:59-64. He afterwards shared 
the persecutions of the prophet, was im- 
prisoned with him, and forced to go to 
Egypt with the rebellious Jews, Jer. 43. An 
apocryphal book is ascribed to him. 

Another Baruch is mentioned in Neh. 
11:5; and a 3d among the friends of Nehe- 
miah, Neh. 3:20; 10:6. 

BARZIL/LAI, of iron, I., of Meholah in 
Simeon ; father of Adriel, who married Me- 
rab the daughter of Saul, 1 Sam. 18:19; 
2 Sam. 21 :8. 

II. An aged and wealthy Gileadite, a 
friend of David when he was in exile dur- 
ing Absalom's rebellion. He sent a lib- 
eral supply of provisions, beds, and other 
conveniences for the use of the king's fol- 
60 



lowers, 2 Sam. 17:27; 19:32. On David's 
return, Barzillai accompanied him as far 
as Jordan, but declined, in consequence of 
his great age, to proceed to Jerusalem and 
receive the favors the king had intended 
for him. See Chimham. David, in his 
final charge to Solomon, enjoined upon 
him to show kindness to Barzillai's family, 
and to make them members of the royal 
household, 1 Kin. 2:7. 

III. A priest who married a daughter of 
the above, Ezra 2:61; Neh. 7:63. 

BA'SHAN, light soil, Num. 21:33, a rich 
hilly district lying east of the Jordan, and 
between the mountains of Lebanon on the 
north and those of Gilead on the south, 
Josh. 12:3-5. It covered the same terri- 
tory in general as the later Roman prov- 
inces : Gaulonitis, now faulan, bordering 
on the Upper Jordan towards Hermon ; 
Trachonitis, now el Lejah, the rocky tract 
on the east ; Batanaea, now Bathanyeh, on 
the southeast; and Auranitis, now Han- 
ran, on the south. Bashan is celebrated 
in Scripture for its stately oaks, Isa. 2:13, 
its fine breed of cattle, and its rich pas- 
turage : " Rams of the breed of Bashan," 
Deut. 32:14; "Rams, bulls, goats, all of 
them fatlings of Bashan," Ezek. 39 : 18. 
Travellers describe the interior as still 
abounding with verdant and fertile mead- 
ows, valleys traversed by refreshing 
streams, hills crowned with forests, and 
pastures offering an abundance to the 
flocks. The Hauran plain is still thickly 
strewn with ruins of towns and villages, 
built entirely in or of the native rock. 
Many of these, though unoccupied for ages, 
are well preserved ; and though built since 
the time of Christ, their numbers confirm 
the Bible statement that in the time of 
Joshua, Argob, one of its chief districts, 
contained 60 walled towns, Deut. 3:4, 5; 
Josh. 20:8; 21:27. Bashan was assigned, 
after the conquest of Og and his people, to 
the half- tribe of Manasseh, Josh. 12:4; 
13:29-31. Solomon drew supplies from 
this region, 1 Kin. 4:13. It was conquered 
by Hazael, but Joash recovered it, 2 Kin. 

10:33; *3- 2 5- 

BASH'EMATH, or Bas'kuath, fragrant, 
I., a daughter of Ishmael, and 3d wife of 
Esau ; mother of Reuel, and of 4 Edomite 
tribes, Gen. 36:2-4. She is also called 
Mahalath in Gen. 28 : 9. It may be that she 
dropped this name and took the other after 
the death of Bashemath or Adah, the daugh- 
ter of Elon and the 1st of Esau's wives, 
Gen. 26:34. 



BAT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BEA 



II. Bas'math, daughter of Solomon, and 
wife of Ahimaaz, i Kin. 4:15. 

BAT, classed among unclean fowls, in 
Lev. 11:19; Deut. 14:18, because of its so- 
called wings and its flying. These noisome 
animals still swarm in Eastern caverns, and 
find a congenial lurking-place in the ruins 
of heathen temples, Isa. 2:20. 

BATH, a Hebrew measure, containing 7 
or S gallons, liquid measure; and 3 or 4 
pecks, dry measure, 1 Kin. 7:26, 38; Isa. 
5: 10. See tables at the end of this book. 

BATHING. See WASHING. 

BATH-SHEBA. See below. 




BATTERING-RAM AND TOWER. 

BAT'TERING-RAM, a military engine fcr 
battering walls, 2 Sam. 20: 15. A long and 
solid beam, armed at one end with a metal- 
lic ram's-head, was suspended by the 
middle, and swung violently and re- 
peatedly against the walls of a city 
or castle, till a breach was made. It 
was sometimes in the lower part of a 
wooden tower built upon wheels and 
sheathed with skins, and was worked 
by more than 100 men ; while the up- 
per part of the tower was filled with 
archers and slingers, Ezek.4:2; 21 :22; 
26:9. See War. 

BATH'-SHEBA, daughter of the oath, 
the wife of Uriah, and probably grand- 
daughter of Ahithophel, which see ; ~ =m 
called Bathshua in 1 Chr. 3:5. Da- _ 
vid first committed adultery with her, -~^ 
then caused her husband to be slain, 
and afterwards took her to wife. 
These sins greatly displeased Jeho- 
vah, who sent the prophet Nathan to 
David, with the parable of the ewe lamb. 
David bitterly repented, but was yet pun- 
ished, 2 Sam. 11:12. Bath-sheba was the 
mother of Solomon, whose succession to 



the throne she took pains to secure, 1 Kin. 
1:15, and of 3 other sons, 1 Chr. 3:5. She 
is afterwards mentioned in the history of 
Adonijah, 1 Kin. 2: 13, in the title of Psa. 51, 
and among the ancestors of Christ, Matt. 
1:6. 

BATTLEMENT, a balustrade around the 
roofs of ancient houses, which were flat, 
and were much resorted to for fresh air, 
amusement, or retirement by day, and for 
sleep at night. The Mosaic law required 
a battlement for each house, Deut. 22:8, 
and the spirit of this rule is of very wide 
application. 

BAY-TREE. The laurel of North Africa 
and the south of Europe ; an evergreen 
tree, a wreath of which has been from time 
immemorial the sj-mbolical crown of poets 
and warriors. The word rendered " bay- 
tree " in Psa. 37:35 seems to mean simply 
a native tree, green and vigorous. 

BDEL'LIUM is commonly supposed to 
mean the aromatic gum of a tree growing 
near the Persian Gulf, etc. It is transpa- 
rent, and bitter to the taste, yet very fra- 
grant while burning, Gen. 2 : 12 ; Num. 
11:7. 

BEANS, as well as other leguminous 
plants, are still much used in Syria, 2 Sam. 
17:28. They blossom in January, and un- 
til March. Pliny alludes to their use with 
barlejr, etc., in bread, as in Ezek. 4:9. 

BEAR. That bears were common in Pal- 
estine appears from many passages in the 
Old Testament, 1 Sam. 17:34, 36, 37 ; 2 Sam. 




SYRIAN bear: ursus syriacus. 

17:8; 2 Kin. 2:24; Dan. 7:5; Amos 5:19. 
The species known in Syria resembles the 
common brown bear; it is still met in the 
recesses of Lebanon. To a sullen and fe- 

61 



BEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY, 



BED 



rocious disposition the bear joins immense 
strength, considerable sagacity, and the 
power of climbing trees. Her ferocity, 
especially when her young are injured, is 
proverbial. See 2 Sam. 17:8; Prov. 17:12; 
Isa. 11:7; 59:11; Hos. 13:8. 




ORIENTAL HEADS, WITH BEARDS. 

BEARD. The Hebrews regarded a thin, 
scanty beard as a great deformity ; while a 
long, full, flowing beard was esteemed the 
noblest ornament of personal beauty and 
dignity. A man's honor was lodged, as it 
were, in his beard. To insult it by word 
or act was the grossest indignity ; to take 
it respectfully in the right hand and kiss it 
was a mode of expressing high esteem and 
love permitted only to the nearest friends. 




BEARDS FROM EGYPTIAN PAINTINGS. 

It was cherished with great care, Psalm 
133:2; Dan. 10:3. To neglect, tear, or cut 
it indicated the deepest grief, Ezra 9:3; 
Isa. 15:2; Jer. 41:5; 48:37; while to be 
deprived of it was a mark of servility and 
infamy. Many would prefer death to such 
a mutilation. These facts explain many 
passages of Scripture: as the gross insult 
offered to David's ambassadors, 2 Sam. 
10:4-14; the zealous indignation of Nehe- 
miah, Neh. 13:25; the mode in which the 
feigned insanity of David was expressed, 
1 Sam. 21:13, and the grief of Mephibo- 
sheth, 2 Sam. 19:24; the treachery of Joab, 
62 



2 Sam. 20:9, and perhaps of Judas ; also 
several passages in the prophets, Isa. 7:20; 
50:6; Ezek. 5:1-5. The Assyrian monu- 
ments show us all their kings, warriors, 
priests, etc., with full beards, often dressed 
with elaborate care ; while eunuchs are 
depicted without beards. In Egypt, on the 
contrary, only captives and other foreign- 
ers are usually represented with beards 
and Herodotus says the Egyptians only 
let them grow as a sign of mourning 
hence Joseph, when released from prison 
shaved before going to Pharaoh, Gen. 41 : 14 
See Shaving. 

BEASTS. This w r ord, used in contradis- 
tinction to man, denotes all animals be- 
sides, Psa. 36:6; sometimes it means quad- 
rupeds, and not creeping things, Lev. 11:2- 
7 ; and sometimes domestic cattle, in dis- 
tinction from wild creatures, Gen. 1:25; 
45:17. They w r ere all brought to Adam to 
be named. Few are mentioned in the Bi- 
ble but such as lived in Palestine and the 
countries adjacent. Beasts suffer with man 
under the penalties of the fall, Gen. 3:14; 
Exod. 9:6; 13:15; Ezek. 38:20; Hos. 4:3. 
Yet various merciful provisions for them 
were made in the Jewish law, Exod. 20:10; 
23:11,12; Lev. 22:28; 25:7; Deut. 22:4,6, 
7; 25:4. Animals were classed in the law 
as clean or unclean, with a primary refer- 
ence to animal sacrifices, Gen. 7:2; Lev. 
11. See Clean. 

The word beasts is figuratively used to 
symbolize various kings and nations, Psa. 
74:14; Isa. 27:1; Ezek. 29:3; Dan. 758; 
Rev. 12; 13. It also describes the charac- 
ter of violent and brutal men, Psa. 22:12, 
16; 1 Cor. 15:32; 2 Pet. 2:12. One Hebrew 
word commonly rendered beast signifies 
living creatures. In Ezekiel's vision, Ezek. 
1, this is applied to human beings or their 
symbols. In the book of Revelation two 
distinct words are employed symbolically, 
both rendered "beast" in our version. 
One is applied to persecuting earthly pow- 
ers, Rev. 11:7; 13:1, etc.; the other to su- 
perhuman beings or their symbols, Rev. 
4:6, etc. This latter might be appropriate- 
ly rendered " living creature," as the cor- 
responding Hebrew word is in Ezekiel. 

BED, in the East, is, and was anciently, 
a divan, or broad low step around the 
sides of a room, like a low sofa, which an- 
swered the purpose of a lounge by day for 
reclining, and of a bed by night for sleep- 
ing, Exod. 8:3:2 Sam. 4:5-7, It was fur- 
nished with pillows, 1 Sam. 19:13. Some- 
times it was raised several steps above the 



BEE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BEE 




AN EASTERN DIVAN, OR BED. 



floor, 2 Kin. 1:4; Psa. 132:3. It was cov- 
ered very differently, and with more or 
less ornament, according to the rank of the 
owner of the house. The poor had but a 
simple mattress or sheep-skin, or a cloak 




EGYPTIAN BED, WITH HEAD-REST. 

or blanket, which also answered to wrap 
themselves in by day, Exod. 22:27; Deut. 
24:13. Hence it was easy for the persons 
whom Jesus healed to take up their beds 
and walk, Mark 4:21. Bedsteads, however, 
were not unknown, though unlike those of 
modern times. See Deut. 3:11; 1 Sam. 
19:15; Esth. 1:6; 7:8; Amos 6:4. The 
Jews only laid off their sandals and outer 
garments at night. The bed-chambers for 
the females were the most secluded rooms 
of the house, Exod. 8:3; 2 Kin. 6:12. 

BEE. Bees are mentioned in Deut. 1 : 44 ; 
Judg. 14:8; Psa. 118:12; Isa. 7:18, etc. 
Palestine abounded in "milk and honey." 
Many travellers speak of countless swarms, 



not only domesticated, but wild, Matt. 3:4, 
the latter often filling great cavities in the 
sides of cliffs, so that many natives get 
their living by the sale of this " honey out 
of the stony rock," Deut. 32 : 13 ; Psa. 81:16; 
Ezek. 27:17. On Isa. 7:18 see Hiss. 

BEEL'ZEBUB, " the prince of the dev- 
ils," Matt. 10:25; 12:24; Mark 3:22. This 
name is derived from Baal-zebub, an idol 
deity among the Ekronites, signifying lord 
of flies, fly-baal, as though to protect his 
worshippers from the torment of the gnats 
and flies with which that region was infest- 
ed, 2 Kin. 1:2, 3, 16. It is also sometimes 
written Beel-zebul, which signifies proba- 
bly the dung-god. The Jews seem to have 
applied this appellation to Satan, as being 
the author of all the pollutions and abomi- 
nations of idol-worship ; and Christ uses it 
as another name for Satan, Matt. 12:24-30; 
Mark 3 : 22-30 ; Luke 1 1 : 14-20. 

BE'ER, a well, I., a station of the He- 
brews in Moab, where God gave them 
water, Num. 21:16-18; Isa. 15:8. 

II. A town in Judah, according to Euse- 
bius and Jerome a few miles west of Jeru- 
salem, near Beth-shemesh. Jotham took 
refuge there from his brother Abimelech, 
Judg. 9:21. 

BEER'I. See Anah. 

BE'ER-LAHAI'-ROI, well of him living, 
and seeing me, a fountain on the southwest 
border of Canaan, where Hagar was visit- 
ed by an angel, and near which Isaac long 
resided, Gen. 16:7, 14; 24:62; 25:11. 

63 



BEE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY, 



BEH 



BEE'ROTH, wells, a city of Benjamin, 
near Gibeon, Josh. 9:17; 2 Sam. 4:2, 3. It 
is now El-Bireh, a village of 700 inhabi- 
tants, on a ridge 10 miles north of Jerusa- 
lem. It is the customary resting-place for 



travellers the 1st night after leaving Jeru- 
salem journeying north, and it is claimed 
that here the parents of Jesus missed him, 
as described in Luke 2:43-45, and turned 
back to Jerusalem. 




ANCIENT WELL OF BEER-SH 

BE'ER-SHE'BA, the well of 'the oath, Gen. 
21:31 ; 26:31, 32,, a city 28 miles southwest 
of Hebron, at the southern extremity of 
the Holy Land, while Dan lay at the north- 
ern, Judg. 20:1. 1 At Beer-sheba, Abraham, 
Isaac, and Jacob often dwelt, Gen. 21:31 ; 
22:19; 26:23; 28:10; 46:1. The town that 
rose here was first assigned to Judah, and 
then to Simeon, Josh. 15:28; 19:2. Here 
Samuel established his sons as judges, 
1 Sam. 8:2. Elijah rested here on his way 
to Horeb, 1 Kin. 19:3. It was a seat of 
idolatry in the time of Uzziah, Amos 5:5; 
8: 14. After the captivity, it was repeopled 
by the Jews, Neh. 11:27, 30, and continued 
a large village many centuries after the 
coming of Christ. Dr. Robinson found its 
site at Bir-es-Seba, on the border of the 
great desert south of Canaan — the ruins of 
a small straggling city, and 2 deep stone 
wells of excellent water, surrounded by 
stone troughs and bearing the marks of 
great antiquity, the curbstones being deep- 
ly grooved, as if fluted all around, by the 
action of ropes for many ages. 

BEESH'TERAH, a Levitical city, in Ma- 
64 



EBA— 12 FEET IN DIAMETER. 

nasseh, beyond the Jordan, Josh. 21 :27. It 
is also called Ashtaroth, 1 Chr. 6:71, and 
is probably a contraction of Beth-Ashta- 
roth, house of Astarte. 

BEE'TLE, in Lev. 11:22, a species of 
locust. 

BEEVES, cattle, including the larger an- 
telopes, Lev. 22:19. It is the old plural of 
beef. See Cattle. 

BEGGING. See Poor. 




HIPPOPOTAMUS, OR BEHEMOTH. 

BEHE'MOTH, beasts, elsewhere so trans- 
lated, but retained from the Hebrew for 
the huge amphibious animal described in 



BEK 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BEN 



Job 40 : 15-24. Commentators are now gen- 
erally agreed that it is the hippopotamus, 
or river-horse, now found only in the Nile 
and other great rivers of Africa. This is a 
very large, powerful, and unwieldy animal, 
which lives in the water, but comes out 
upon the banks to feed on grass, grain, 
green herbs, and branches of trees. The 
appearance of the hippopotamus on land 
is altogether uncouth, the body being ex- 
tremely large, flat, and round, the head 
large in proportion, and the legs short. 
The length of a male has been known to 
be 17 feet, the height 7 feet, and the cir- 
cumference 15 ; the head 3 feet and a half, 
and its girt 9 feet ; the mouth in width 
about 2 feet. The general color is brown- 
ish ; the ears small and pointed ; the eyes 
small and black ; the lips thick and broad ; 
the nostrils small. The armament of teeth 
in its mouth is truly formidable, particu- 
larly the tusks in the lower jaw, which are 
of a curved form, sometimes 2 feet in 
length, and weighing 6 pounds each. The 
tail is short and thick ; and the whole body 
is protected by a thick and tough hide, 
which swords and arrows cannot pene- 
trate. 

BE'KAH, cleft, a half-shekel ; in weight, 
5 pennyweights ; in money, 25 to 30 cents. 
This sum each Israelite over 20 years old 
was to pay as a yearly poll-tax for the tem- 
ple service, Exod. 30:13. 

BEL, the chief idol of the Babylonians. 
See Baal. 

BE'LA, a swallowing, Gen. 14. See Zoar. 

BE'LIAL, worthlessness. A man or son 
of Belial is a wicked, profligate, uncontrol- 
lable fellow, Judg. 19:22; 1 Sam. 2:12. It 
is not a proper name in the Old Testa- 
ment, but is abstract, and often is transla- 
ted wicked, as in Deut. 15:9; Psa. 101:3. 
In 2 Cor. 6:15, Belial is put for the lord of 
evil, Satan. 

BELIEF usually means not only cre- 
dence, but trust. "Ye trust in God; trust 
also in me," John 14:1. "Trust in the 
Lord Jesus Christ," etc., Acts 16:31. See 
Faith. 

BELLS. The direction in Exod. 28:33- 
35 reminded both the high-priest and all 
present to give their whole mind and heart 
to the worship of God. Small bells, cas- 
tanets, etc., were and are still much used 
in the East. In the latter days, every pos- 
session and pleasure of man shall conform 
to the will of God, Zech. 14:20. 

BELSHAZ'ZAR, prince of Bel, the last 
king of the Chaldees at Babylon, reigning 
5 



in conjunction with his father Nabonnedus 
at the time when that city was besieged by 
Cyrus, B. C, 538. Nabonnedus was close- 
ly shut up in Borsippa, a neighboring city; 
while in Babylon itself Belshazzar made 
an impious feast, at which he and his cour- 
tiers drank out of the sacred vessels which 
had been carried away from the temple at 
Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar his grand- 
father. He was terrified by the apparition 
of the hand which wrote upon the wall ; 
and in the same night was slain, and the 
city taken by the Medes and Persians un- 
der Darius and Cyrus, Dan. 5. The in- 
scriptions on some ancient cylinders found 
in the ruins of Mugheir remarkably con- 
firm and explain the Scripture narrative. 
We may thus also understand how Daniel 
was made " the jd ruler of the kingdom," 
and not the 2d, Dan. 5:29. See Babylon, 
Daniel, Mene. 

BELTESHAZ'ZAR, prince of Bel, the 
Chaldaean name given to Daniel at the 
court of Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. 1:7; 4:8. 
See Daniel. 

BEN, found in many Hebrew names, 
means son. 

BENAI'AH, built by the Lord, son of Je- 
hoiada a chief priest, 1 Chr. 27:5, and 
commander of David's body-guards. Sev- 
eral instances of his rare bravery are re- 
corded, 2 Sam. 8 : 18 ;• 23: 20-23. He adhered 
to Solomon when some favored the preten- 
sions of Adonijah, slew Joab at the com- 
mand of Solomon, and was made general of 
the army in his stead, 1 Kin. 1:36; 2:29-35. 

Eleven other Benaiahs are mentioned in 
the Old Testament, none of them known 
except from the verse or two where they 
are mentioned. 

BEN-AM'MI, son of my people, son of 
Lot and father of the Ammonites, Gen. 
19:36-38. 

BENEFACTOR, Luke 22:25; in Greek, 
Euergetes ; a title of honor given to several 
kings, as to Vespasian, and 2 of the Ptole- 
mies. 

BEN-HA'DAD, son of Hadad, I., a king 
of Damascene Syria, hired by Asa king of 
Judah to make war upon Baasha king of 
Israel, 1 Kin. 15:18-22. He ravaged a 
large part of Naphtali. From 1 Kin. 20:34 
it appears that he also gained some advan- 
tages in a war with Omri the father of 
Ahab. 

II. Son and successor of the preceding. 
In 2 successive years he raised large ar- 
mies, and made war upon Ahab king of 
Israel. He was utterly routed, by the aid 

65 



BEN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BET 



of Jehovah, God of the hills and the plains 
also, i Kin. 20. Ahab spared him, contrary 
to the command of God, and gave him con- 
ditions of peace. These do not seem to 
have been fulfilled ; for, 3 years after, Ahab 
renewed the war and was slain, 1 Kin. 22. 
After about 9 years, Ben-hadad again in- 
vaded Israel, and the prophet Elisha was 
instrumental in frustrating his plans, 2 Kin. 
6:8-23. But once more renewing the war, 
he laid siege to Samaria, and reduced it to 
extremities by famine. God sent a sudden 
panic upon his army by night, and they fled 
precipitately, 2 Kin. 6:27; 7:6; Prov. 28:1. 
Shortly before his death, Ben-hadad, being 
sick, sent Hazael to ask the prophet Eli- 
sha, then at Damascus, what the issue 
would be. The prophet answered that the 
disease was not mortal, and yet he would 
surely die ; a paradox which Hazael soon 
after solved by stifling his master in bed, 
2 Kin. 8:7-15. 890 B. C. See Hazael. 

III. Son of the Hazael just named. His 
father had greatly afflicted and oppressed 
Israel ; but he lost all that his father had 
gained, being thrice defeated by king Je- 
hoash, 2 Kin. 13; Amos 1:4. 

BEN'JAMIN, son of the right hand, the 
youngest son of Jacob and Rachel, Gen. 
35:16-18. Rachel died immediately after 
he was born, near Bethlehem, about 1730 
B. C, and with her last breath named him 
Ben-oni, son of my sorrow ; but Jacob 
called him Benjamin. He was a great 
comfort to his father, who saw in him the 
beloved wife he had buried, and Joseph 
whose loss he mourned. He could hardly 
be persuaded to let him go with his breth- 
ren to Egypt, Gen. 42 ; 43. The tribe of 
Benjamin was small at first, and was almost 
exterminated in the days of the Judges, 
Judg. 20, but afterwards greatly increased, 
2 Chr. 14:8; 17:17. It was valiant, Gen. 
49:27, and "beloved of the Lord," dwell- 
ing safely by him, Deut. 33:12; for its ter- 
ritory adjoined Judah and the Holy City on 
the south — having for its eastern boundary 
the Jordan, Ephraim on the north, and Dan 
on the west. Bethel, Gibeon, Ramah, and 
Jericho were some of its chief towns, and 
Jerusalem was within the border assigned 
to it — which contained about 250 square 
miles. At the revolt of the 10 tribes, Ben- 
jamin adhered to Judah ; and the 2 tribes 
were ever closely united, 1 Kin. 11:13; 
12:20; Ezra 4:1; 10:9. King Saul and Saul 
of Tarsus were both Benjamites, Phil. 3:5. 

BE'RA, king of Sodom in the days of 
Abraham, Gen. 14. B. C. 1913. 
66 



BERA'CHAH, blessing, a beautiful valley 
between Tekoa and Etham, where Jehosh- 
aphat and all Judah held a thanksgiving 
for their miraculous victory over the Moa- 
bites and Ammonites, 2 Chr. 20:26. It is 
still called Bereikut. 

BERNI'CE, or Bereni'ce, bringing vic- 
tory, eldest daughter of king Herod Agrip- 
pa I., and sister of the younger Agrippa, 
Acts 25:13, 23; 26:30. She was first mar- 
ried to her uncle Herod, king of Chalcis ; 
and after his death, in order to avoid the 
merited suspicion of incest with her bro- 
ther Agrippa, she became the wife of Pole- 
mon, king of Cilicia. This connection 
being soon dissolved, she returned to her 
brother, and afterwards became mistress 
of Vespasian and Titus. 

BERCE'A, a city of Macedonia, not far 
from Pella, towards the southwest, and near 
Mount Bermius. It was afterwards called 
Irenopolis, and is now called by the Turks 
Boor ; by others, Cara Veria. Paul preached 
the gospel here with success, on his 1st vis- 
it to Europe; the ingenuous Berceans ex- 
amined his doctrine by the Old Testament 
scriptures, and many believed, Acts 17:10, 
14; 20:4. It was the home of Sopater. 

BERO'THAI, a Syrian town, conquered 
by David, 2 Sam. 8:8 ; called Chun in 1 Chr. 
18:8. Perhaps the same as Berothah, which 
Furst and Mislin find in the modern Bey- 
rout ; but aside from the name, the indica- 
tions point to an inland site, or two, nearer 
Hamath and Damascus, Ezek. 47:16. 

BER'YL, the name of a precious stone of 
a sea-green color, found principally in In- 
dia, Exod. 28:20; Dan. 10:6; Rev. 21:20. 
The stone, however, meant in these passa- 
ges is rather the yellow topaz. 

BE'SOM, a broom. Before "the besom 
of destruction " the hosts of God's enemies 
are like the dust of the floor, Isa. 14:23. 

BE'SOR, cool, a brook flowing into the 
Mediterranean 5 miles south of Gaza, pass- 
ing by Aroer and Beer-sheba, 1 Sam. 30:9- 
21. It dries up in spring. 

BESTEAD', situated. " Hardly bestead," 
brought into distress, Isa. 8:21. 

BESTOW, in 2 Kin. 5:24; Luke 12:17, 
to lay away in safety. 

BE'TAH, confidence, or Tib'hath, a city 
of Syria-Zobah, taken by David, 2 Sam. 
8:8; 1 Chr. 18:8; perhaps the modern Tai- 
beh, between Aleppo and Tadmor. 

BETH, house, found in many names of 
places: sometimes the place or dwelling, 
and at others the temple. It becomes Beit 
in modern Arabic. 







BETHANY. 



BET 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BET 



BETH-AB'ARA, place of the ford, on the 
east bank of the Jordan, where John bap- 
tized, John i :28. It was perhaps the same 
as Beth-barah, where a ford was seized to 
intercept the Midianites defeated by Gid- 
eon, Judg. 7:24. This, however, was prob- 
ably in the region of Bethshean, while 
Beth-abara was more accessible to " Jeru- 
salem and all Judaea," perhaps opposite 
the north end of the plain of Jericho. Many 
of the best Greek manuscripts, and the 
Revised Version, have Bethany, also un- 
known, instead of Beth-abara. 

BETH' ANY , place of dales, a village beau- 
tifully situated on the east slope of Mount 
Olivet, about 2 miles east-southeast of Je- 
rusalem, on the road to Jericho. It was 
often visited by Christ, Matt. 21 : 17 ; Mark 
11: 1, 12; Luke 19:29. Here Martha and 
Mary dwelt, and Lazarus was raised from 
the dead, John 11 ; here Mary anointed 
the Lord against the day of his burying, 
John 12; hence he went on his triumphal 
entry into the holy city; here he spent sev- 
eral nights of the memorable week of his 
■death ; and from the midst of his disciples, 
near this village which he loved, he ascend- 
ed to heaven, Luke 24:50. Scarcely any 
place in that land has witnessed so many 
scenes of tender interest to the Christian. 
Its modern name, Aziriyeh, is derived from 
Lazarus. It is a poor village of 20 families. 

BETH - AR'BEL, probably afterwards 
called Arbela, now Irbid. One Arbela lay 
25 miles southeast of the Sea of Galilee; 
the other, now Irbid, was in Galilee, near 
Magdala. Here were some large and al- 
most inaccessible fortified caverns, in the 
sides of precipices, the resort of robbers in 
the time of Herod, who could only be 
reached by letting down soldiers in large 
boxes suspended by iron chains. Josephus 
afterwards fortified them against the Ro- 
mans. Shalmaneser seems to have taken 
this place in his war with Hoshea, Hos. 
10:14. 

BETH-A'VEN, house of vanity, or idols, 
a place and desert near Bethel on the east, 
Josh. 7:2; 18:12; 1 Sam. 13:5; 14:23; a 
name reproachfully used at times for Beth- 
el itself, after the golden calves were there 
•set up, Hos. 4:15; 10:5: Beth-el meaning 
the house of God. 

BETH-BA'RAH. See BETH-ABARA. 

BETH-CAR', house of the lamb, in Dan, 
west of Mizpeh ; noted for the defeat of the 
Philistines, and the Eben-ezer set up by 
Samuel, 1 Sam. 7:11. 

BETH-DA'GON, temple of Dagon, I., a 



place in the lowland of Judaea, towards 
Philistia, Josh. 18:41. 

II. In Asher, near the sea-coast, between 
Dor and Mount Carmel. 

Robinson found a 3d a few miles east 
of Nablus — traces of the worship of Da- 
gon, apparently left by Philistines, 1 Sam. 
i3 : 5-7; 29:1; 31:1- 

BETH'EL, house of God, a city west of 
Ai, on the confines of the tribes of Ephra- 
im and Benjamin, Gen. 12:8; 28:10-22, 
on the spot where Jacob slept and had 
his memorable dream, the name he then 
gave it superseding the old name Luz, 
Judg. 1:23. Thirty years after, he again 
pitched his tent there, and reconsecrated 
the spot in fulfilment of his vow, building 
an altar and a pillar, and receiving re- 
newed covenant promises from God, Gen. 
35:1-15; Hos. 12:4, 5. Here also he buried 
Deborah. It was captured by Joshua, and 
given to Benjamin, Josh. 12:9; 18:22. The 
Ephraimites, however, expelled the Ca- 
naanites, Judg. 1:22-26. Here the ark of 
the covenant, and probably the tabernacle, 
long remained, Judg. 20:26; 1 Sam. 10:3. 
Samuel held his court here in turn, 1 Sam. 
7:16. After Solomon, it became a seat of 
gross idolatry: Jeroboam choosing it as 
the place for one of his golden calves, from 
the sacredness previously attached to it, 
and as well situated to intercept those who 
would go to Jerusalem to worship, 1 Kin. 
12:20. The prophets were charged with 
messages against Bethel, 1 Kin. 13:1, 2; 
Jer. 48:13; Amos 3:14; 7:10. The 1st of 
these was fulfilled by Josiah, 2 Kin. 23:15; 
and the others in the later desolation of 
Bethel, where nothing but ruins can now 
be found. Its site was identified by Dr. 
Robinson, in the place now called Beitin. 
It is 12 miles north of Jerusalem, on the 
southern -side of a hill, with a narrow and 
fertile valley on the east, and the long- 
travelled road on the west. At the bottom 
of the hill are the remains of a vast stone 
reservoir, of an ancient Hebrew age. See 
Beth-aven. 

BETHES'DA, house of mercy, a pool near 
the temple in Jerusalem, with an open 
building over or near it, for the sick who 
came to try its healing efficacy, John 5:2. 
Tradition locates this pool in what is now 
a large dry reservoir, constructed to hold 
water — 360 feet long, 130 wide, and over 
75 deep — along the outside of the north 
wall of the temple area. Robinson, how- 
ever, shows the probability that this is but 
a portion of the trench which separated 

67 



BET 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BET 



Mount Moriah from the adjacent hill on the 
north. He suggests that the true Bethesda 
may perhaps be " The Fountain of the Vir- 
gin,'-' in the lower part of the valley of Je- 
hoshaphat, 850 feet south of the temple 
area. This pool is of great antiquity, and 
is fed from ancient reservoirs under the 
temple. Two flights of steps, 16 and 13 in 
number, with a platform of 12 feet between 
them, lead down to the pool; this'is 15 feet 
long, and 5 or 6 feet wide. Its waters rise 
and fall at irregular intervals, and flow 
down by a subterranean channel to the 
pool of Siloam. It is supposed to be the 
"king's pool" of Neh. 2:14. Bethesda, 
even if known and accessible to us, has 
lost its healing power ; but the fountain 
Christ has opened for sin, guilt, and death 
is nigh to all and of never-failing virtue. 
John 5:4, ascribing the troubling of the 
water to an angel, is omitted in the Revised 
Version, as an interpolation. See Siloam. 
BETH-HAC'CEREM, house of the vine- 
yard, conjectured to be the Frank Moun- 
tain, between Tekoa and Bethlehem, a 
height on which a beacon was to be set up 
on the approach of the Babylonians, Neh. 
3:14; Jer. 6:1. This is a solitary conical 



hill, on which the Crusaders had a strong; 
fortress. 

BETH-HOG'LAH, partridge-house, a town, 
of Benjamin, on the border of Judah, Josh. 
15:6; 18:19, 21; now Ain Hajla, 3 miles^ 
from the mouth of the Jordan, on the way 
to Jericho. See Abel-mizraim. 

BETH-HO'RON, house of the hollow, now 
Beit-ur, the name common to 2 towns in. 
the northwest corner of Benjamin, still dis- 
tinguished as the Upper and the Lower, 
Josh. 10:10, 11 ; 16:3,5; 21:22; iChr. 7:24. 
These lay on 2 ridges, with valleys on each; 
side ; Beth-horon the Nether being separa- 
ted from the Upper by a small valley, and. 
a rocky and rough pass up the ridge on 
which Upper Beth-horon stood, about 12 
miles from Jerusalem, and on the usual 
route to the sea-coast. Down this pass- 
Joshua drove the Amorites, and here Paul, 
passed by night on his way to Antipatris, 
Josh. 10:1-11; Acts 23:31, 32. 

BETH-JESH'IMOTH, place of deserts, a. 
city of Reuben, taken from the Moabites, 
Num. 33:49; Josh. 12:3; 13:20; but reta- 
ken by them after the captivity, Ezek. 25:9- 
It lay not far east of the mouth of the Jor- 
dan. 




BETH'LEHEM, house of bread, I., a very 

old and celebrated city, the birthplace of 

David and of Christ. It was in the tribe of 

Judah, 5 miles south by west of Jerusalem, 

68 



in a fertile region. This also gave it its an- 
cient name, Ephrath, fruitful, Gen. 35:16; 
48:7; Ruth 1:2; Mic. 5:2. It was beauti- 
fully situated on the east end of an oblong. 



BET 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BET 



ridge a mile long, running east and west, 
2,700 feet above the level of the sea, and 
affording a fine view in every direction. 
The hills around it were terraced, and 
clothed with vines, fig-trees, and almonds ; 
.and the valleys bore rich crops of grain. 
It was fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:6, 
but was comparatively an unimportant 
place, Mic. 5:1, and is not mentioned by 
Joshua or Nehemiah among the cities of 
Judah. Its memory is delightfully associ- 
ated with the names of Boaz and Ruth ; it 
is celebrated as the birthplace and city of 
David, 1 Sam. 17:12, 15; 20:6; 2 Sam. 
23:14-17, though little is said of it during 
his reign, and it is seldom mentioned in 
later Old Testament history, 2 Chr. 11:6; 
Ezra 2:21; Neh. 7:26. But above all, it is 
hallowed as the place where the Redeemer 
was born. Over that lovely spot the gui- 
ding star hovered ; there the Eastern sages 
worshipped the King of kings, and there, 
-where David watched his flock and praised 
God, were heard the songs of the angelic 
riost at the Saviour's birth, Luke 2:8. Beth- 
lehem is now called Beit-lahm, and contains 
about 3,000 inhabitants, almost exclusively 
nominal Greek Christians. In the eastern 
suburbs stands the " Church of the Nativ- 
ity," adjoining the Latin Convent, and said 
to have been built by the emperor Justin- 
ian, on the site of Constantine's earlier and 
inferior church. Twenty feet beneath it is 
the cave, now lined with Italian marble, 
where the monks show you the very spot 
where Christ was born, and that where his 
manger stood. But there is little ground 
for the tradition ; and the cave is a deep 
and steep underground vault, and too dis- 
tant from the town. The " well of Bethle- 
hem " which David longed for, 2 Sam. 
23 : 15, is " by the gate " on the south side — 
a cistern of sweet water. Half a mile north 
is the spot pointed out by tradition as 
Rachel's tomb, Gen. 35:16-20; and about 2 
miles southwest are the great reservoirs 
•described under Solomon's Pools. 

II. A place in Zebulun, Josh. 19:15; Judg. 
12:10, in distinction from which the city of 
David was often called Bethlehem-Judah. 
It is now a miserable village, 6 miles west 
of Nazareth. 

BETH-NIM'RAH, house of sweet water, 
Num. 32 : 3, 36 ; Josh. 13:27, and Nimrim, Isa. 
15:6; Jer. 48:34; a fortified town in Gad, a 
little east of the Jordan, on a water-course 
leading, from near Ramoth-Gilead, south- 
west into that river, above Jericho. Its lo- 
cation would answer well for Beth-abara. 



BETH-PE'OR, temple of Peor, a town of 
Moab, on the east of the Jordan opposite 
Jericho, in the limits assigned to Reuben, 
and conquered from the Amorites, Josh. 
13:20. It was infamous for the worship of 
Baal-Peor. In the adjacent valley Moses 
rehearsed the law to Israel, and was bur- 
ied, Deut. 4:44-46; 34:6. 

BETH'PHA-GE, place of figs, a little vil- 
lage on the eastern slope of the Mount of 
Olives, near to Bethany, Matt. 21:1; Mark 
11: 1 ; Luke 19:29. 

BETHSA'IDA, place of fishing, I., a city 
in Galilee, on the west shore of the Lake 
of Gennesareth, a little north of Caperna- 
um; it was the birthplace of the apostles 
Philip, Andrew, and Peter, John 1 : 44 ; 
12:21, and was often visited by our Lord, 
Matt. 11:21; Mark 6:45; 8:22. Robinson 
locates it at a copious fountain less than a 
mile north of Khan Minyeh, at a village 
called Ain Et-Tabighah. 

II. A city in Gaulonitis, north of the same 
lake, and east of the Jordan. Near this 
place Christ fed the 5,000, John 6:3, 10. It 
lay on a gentle hill near the Jordan, sep- 
arated from the Sea of Galilee by a plain 

3 miles wide, of surpassing fertility, Luke 
9:10. Compare Matt. 14: 13-22; Mark6:3i- 
45 ; 8 : 22. This town was enlarged by Phil- 
ip, tetrarch of that region, Luke 3:1, and 
called Julias in honor of Julia, the daugh- 
ter of Augustus. It is now little but ruins. 

BETH-SHE'AN, or BETH-SHAN, house oj 
rest, afterwards Scythopolis, was situated 
on the route from Jerusalem to Damascus, 

4 miles west of the Jordan, at the extrem- 
ity of the valley of Jezreel, an arm of the 
great plain of Esdraelon, running down 
from it to the valley of the Jordan in a 
southeasterly direction. It stood on the 
brow, just where the former valley drops 
down by a rather steep descent to the level 
of the latter. A brook flows by it, from the 
fountain near Jezreel, alluded to in 1 Sam. 
29:1. Beth-shean was assigned to Manas- 
seh, though not at once subdued, Josh. 
17:11, 16; Judg. 1:27. The dead body of 
Saul was fastened to its walls by the Phil- 
istines, 1 Sam. 31:10, 12; 2 Sam. 21:12; 
1 Kin. 4:12. It is now called Beisan, and 
is about 24 miles south of Tiberias. It con- 
tains 70 or 80 houses. The ruins of the 
ancient city show it to have been nearly 3 
miles in circuit. 

BETH-SHE'MESH, house of the sun, I., 
a city of Judah given to the priests, Josh. 
21:16; 1 Chr. 6:59; 1 Sam. 6:15. It lay 15 
miles west of Jerusalem, near the border 

69 



BET 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BIB 



of Dan and of the Philistines, Josh. 15:10; 

1 Sam. 6:12; 2 Chr. 28:18. Probably the 
same as Ir-shemesh, Josh. 19:41. It is 
memorable for a battle between Judah and 
Israel, in which Amaziah was defeated, 

2 Kin. 14:12-14; and for the return of the 
ark from Ekron by the Philistines, and the 
punishment of those who then profaned it, 
1 Sam. 6. Some commentators suppose the 
numbers in verse 19 should be translated 
"threescore and ten men, even fifty out of 
one thousand," or 1 in 20 of the men of 
the city. Its site is identified, and is now 
called 'Ain-Shems. 

II. A celebrated city in Egypt, Jer. 43:13. 
See Heliopolis. 

There were also 2 other towns of this 
name, in Issachar and Naphtali, Josh. 
19:22, 38, suggesting the widespread wor- 
ship of the sun by the Canaanites. 

BETH-SHIT'TAH, home of the acacia, 
near the Jordan ; site not identified, Judg. 
7:22. 

BETH-TAP'PUAH, place of apples, in Ju- 
dah, near Hebron, Josh. 15:53; 1 Chr. 2:43; 
now Teffuh, 5 miles west of Hebron. 

BETHU'EL, man of God, son of Abra- 
ham's brother Nahor, and father of Laban 
and Rebekah, Gen. 22:22, 23; 24:50. 

BETH-ZUR', house of rock, a city in the 
hill country of Judah, near Hebron, Josh. 
15 : 58. It was fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 
11:7, and assisted in rebuilding Jerusalem, 
Neh. 3:16. It was famous in the wars of 
the Maccabees. Josephus calls it one of 
the strongest fortresses in Judaea ; and its 
site has been identified by Robinson at 
Beit-sur, a height commanding the road 
from Hebron and the south to Jerusalem. 

BETROTH'ING,the engagement of a man 
and woman to marry each other at a future 
time. Parents anciently often betrothed 
their daughters without their consent, and 
even while very young, as is still the case 
in Oriental countries. Sometimes a writ- 
ten contract was made, in which the bride- 
groom bound himself to give a certain sum 
as a portion to his bride. The marriage 
was not completed until the bride was at 
least 12 years old; yet the betrothal could 
be dissolved only by divorce or death, 
Matt. 1:18-25; Luke 1:27. God speaks of 
betrothing his people to himself in tender 
affection, and pledging his word that all 
his gracious promises shall be fulfilled to 
them, Jer. 2:2; Hos. 2 : 19, 20. Of this, min- 
isters are the instruments, through the 
preaching of the gospel, 2 Cor. 11:2. Hence 
the following word, 
70 



BEU'LAH, ma?-ried, a term applied to the 
Israel of God, in Isa. 62:4, to signify his 
intimate and vital union with them. 

BEWRAY', disclose, Prov. 27:16; Matt. 
26:73; or betray, Isa. 16:3. 

BEZAL'E-EL, in the shadow of God, an 
artificer endued by God with special skilL 
for constructing and adorning the taberna- 
cle, Exod. 31 :2 ; 35:30. Aholiab, employed 
under his direction, was specially skilful in 
all textile fabrics, as Bazaleel was in met- 
als, wood, and stone, Exod. 37:1 to 38:23. 

BE'ZEK, lightning, a city of the Canaan- 
ites, of which Adoni-bezek was king. The 
account of its capture by Judah is in Judg. 
1 : 1-8. Here Saul reviewed his forces be- 
fore going to raise the siege of Jabesh-Gil- 
ead, 1 Sam. 11:8; though the natural un- 
derstanding of this narrative would imply 
another Bezek, nearer to Jabesh-Gilead. 

BE'ZER, gold ore, a city of refuge, in the 
plain country of Reuben beyond Jordan. 
Its exact site is not known, Deut. 4:43; 
Josh. 20:8; 21:36. 

BIBLE, the Book, by way of distinction^ 
The book of all books. It is also called 
Scripture, or The Scriptures, that is, the 
writings, Acts 8:32; 2 Tim. 3:16. It com- 
prises the Old and New Testaments, or 
more properly, Covenants, Exod. 24 : 7 ; 
Matt. 26:28. The former was written most- 
ly in Hebrew, and was the Bible of the an- 
cient Jewish Church ; a few chapters of 
Daniel and Ezra only Avere written in Chal- 
dee. The latter was wholly written in 
Greek, which was the language most gen- 
erally understood in Judaea and the adja- 
cent countries first visited by the gospel. 
The entire Bible is the rule of faith to all 
Christians, and not the New Testament 
alone ; though this is of especial value as 
unfolding the history and doctrines of our 
divine Redeemer, and his holy institu- 
tions. The fact that God gave the inspired 
writings to men in the languages most 
familiar to the mass of the people who re- 
ceived them, proves that he intended they 
should be read not by the learned alone,, 
but by all the people, and in their own 
spoken language. 

The Old Testament contains 39 books. 
Josephus and the church fathers mention a 
division into 22 books, corresponding with 
the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet. 
But we have no sufficient evidence that 
such a division prevailed among the Jews 
themselves. They arranged the books of 
the Old Testament in 3 divisions, called, 
the Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms or 



BIB 



BIBLE DICTIOxNARY. 



BIB 



Writings, that is, the Holy Writings, Matt. 
11:13; Luke 24:44. The Law embraces 
the 5 books of Moses. These are divided 
into convenient sections to be read through 
once a year in their synagogues. The 2d 
division, the Prophets, is subdivided into 
the former prophets, namely, the histori- 
cal books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and 
Kings ; and the later, that is, the prophets 
proper, with the exception of the book of 
Daniel. The later prophets are once more 
distributed into the greater — Isaiah, Jere- 
miah (not including Lamentations), and 
Ezekiel; and the less — the 12 minor proph- 
ets. Selections from both the earlier and 
the later prophets are read in the syna- 
gogues along with the sections of the Law ; 
but these do not embrace the whole of the 
prophets, and the arrangement of them dif- 
fers among different divisions of the Jews. 
The Holy Writings (Hagiographa) em- 
brace all the remaining books of the Old 
Testament, namely (according to the Ma- 
soretic arrangement), Psalms, Proverbs, 
Job, Solomon's Song, Ruth, Lamentations, 
Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehe- 
miah, Chronicles. In the arrangement of 
the Old Testament books now prevalent, 
the historical books come first, then the 
devotional and didactic, and lastly the pro- 
phetical. The Jews ascribe to Ezra the 
honor of arranging and completing the 
canon of the Old Testament books, being 
inspired for this work by the Spirit of God, 
and aided by Nehemiah and other learned 
and pious Jews of his day. The New Tes- 
tament writings, 27 in number, were re- 
ceived each one by itself from the hands of 
the apostles, and were, as their inspired 
works, gradually collected into 1 volume 
to the exclusion of all others. 

The division into chapters and verses 
was not made until comparatively modern 
times, though there appears to have been a 
more ancient separation into short sections 
or paragraphs. The chapters now used 
were arranged probably by Cardinal Hugo, 
about the year 1240. The division into 
verses was made in the Old Testament in 
1450, and recognized in the Hebrew Con- 
cordance of Rabbi Nathan. The arrange- 
ment of the verses of the New Testament 
as we now have them was perfected in the 
Latin Vulgate, an edition of which with 
verses was published by Robert Stephens, 
a learned French printer, in 1551. He also 
modified and completed the division of the 
Old Testament into verses, in an edition of 
the whole Bible, the Vulgate, in 1555. This 



division into verses, and even into chap- 
ters, having regard more to convenience of 
reference than to the meaning, must often 
be disregarded in reading in order to get 
the true sense. 

The genuineness, authenticity, and di- 
vine origin of the Scriptures cannot be 
here discussed. The reader is referred to 
the treatises of Bogue, Gregory, Keith, 
Mcllvaine, Nelson, Spring, Garbett, Bar- 
rows, Christlieb, Tischendorf, etc., pub- 
lished by the American Tract Society. 

The first well-known English translation 
of the New Testament was that of Wick- 
liffe, made about 1370, before the invention 
of printing, though others had been made, 
one as early as king Alfred, of parts of the 
Bible into Saxon. In the time of Edward 
I., 1250, it required the earnings of a day- 
laborer for 15 years to purchase a manu- 
script copy of the entire Bible. Now, a 
printed copy may be had for the earnings 
of a few hours. The first printed English 
Testament was that of Tyndale, in 1526, 
which was afterwards followed by his trans- 
lation of the Pentateuch. The first com- 
plete English Bible is that of Miles Cover- 
dale, in 1535, printed probably at Antwerp. 
Matthew's Bible — so called, but supposed 
to be the work, or compilation chiefly, of 
John Rogers the martyr — appeared in 1537. 
Whittingham and some other prelates, who 
resided at Geneva during the bloody reign 
of Mary, published there another edition 
in 1560, hence called the Geneva Bible. At 
the accession of queen Elizabeth, a new 
revision was made, which appeared in 1568, 
and is called the Bishops' Bible. This con- 
tinued in use till our present English ver- 
sion, made by order of James I., was pub- 
lished in 161 1. The first copy of this was 
made by 47 of the most learned men in 
England, divided into 6 companies. This 
copy was then revised by a committee of 
12, or 2 from each of the 6 companies; 
and then again by 2 others. The work of 
translation and revision occupied between 
4 and 5 years; and the faithful, clear, and 
vigorous standard Bible thus secured is an 
enduring monument of the learning, wis- 
dom, and fidelity of the translators. 

The zeal of Protestants in circulating 
Bibles in English compelled the Romanists 
to have somewhat to show ; and they issued 
a version of the New Testament at Rheims 
in 1582, and of the Old Testament at Douay 
in 1609. Their present Bible, on the basis 
of the Douay version, adopts largely the 
language of king James' Bible, but is in 



BIB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BIR 



the main a reproduction of the Latin Vul- I 
gate. 

The new Anglo-American revised ver- 
sion (R. V. in this volume) was the work of 
a Committee of eminent British scholars of 
the Church of England, appointed by the 
Convocation of Canterbury in May, 1870, 
and an associate Committee of American 
scholars organized in 1871. There were 
some 80 active members in all. The object 
was, not to make a new translation, but to 
improve the Authorized Version by remov- 
ing errors and solecisms, and by embody- 
ing the best results of all the Biblical stud- 
ies since 161 1, and the verifications of the 
original Hebrew and Greek texts, now 
brought so near to perfection. The New 
Testament appeared in 1881, and was ea- 
gerly hailed by all classes in Christendom. 
It is acknowledged by scholars as a great 
advance towards a perfect version of the 
Word of God. A large part of its changes 
were anticipated by learned men, and 
many mere are fully approved, while not 
a few blemishes remain. It is as yet too 
early to judge whether it will in its present 
form supersede the familiar and beloved 
Authorized Version in the hearts and 
homes of the people. The Revised Ver- 
sion of the Old Testament is now in press. 

One of the most remarkable movements 
of modern times, and that which holds out 
the greatest promise of good for the com- 
ing triumphs of the Redeemer's kingdom, 
and the temporal as well as spiritual wel- 
fare of future generations, is the mighty 
effort which is making to circulate the 
holy Scriptures, not only in Christian, but 
also in heathen lands. In the year 1804, 
the British and Foreign Bible Society was 
formed ; and the success which has attend- 
ed its labors has by far exceeded the most 
sanguine expectations of its founders and 
supporters. " Their voice has gone out 
through all the earth, and their words to 
the end of the world." During the first 80 
years of this society, it printed or assisted 
in printing the Scriptures in 240 languages 
or dialects, in many of which they had never 
before been printed, and issued upwards 
of 100,000,000 copies of the sacred writings, 
in whole or in part. Other similar associa- 
tions have followed nobly this glorious ex- 
ample ; and of these none has labored with 
more effect than the American Bible Soci- 
ety, which was formed in 1816, and has 
now, 1886, issued over 46,000,000 Bibles, 
New Testaments, and Portions. In all 
languages and by all known organized 
72 



Bible Societies, over 190,000,000 have been 
issued since 1804. 

BIER. See Burial. 

BIG'THAN, fortune-given, a eunuch or 
chamberlain at the court of Ahasuerus, 
whose conspiracy against that king was 
frustrated by the vigilance of Mordecai, 
Esth. 2:21 ; 6:2. About 455 B. C. 

BIL'DAD, son of strife, a descendant of 
Abraham by Keturah, Gen. 25: 1, 2. Shuah 
and his brethren were located in Arabia 
Petraea ; and thus Bildad the Shuhite was 
a neighbor and friend of Job, and came to 
condole with him in his affliction, Job 2:11; 
8 ; 18 ; 25. His chief topics are the sudden- 
ness, swiftness, and terribleness of God's 
wrath upon hypocrites and oppressors. 

BIL'HAH, faltering, the handmaid of 
Rachel, given by her to her husband Jacob 
when herself childless, that she might be- 
come a mother through her handmaid. 
Bilhah was the mother of Dan and Naph- 
tali, Gen. 30:1-8. See Reuben. 

BIRDS, like other animals, were divided 
by Moses into clean and unclean ; the for- 
mer might be eaten, the latter not. The 
general ground of distinction is, that those 
which feed on grain or seeds are clean ; 
while those which devour flesh, fish, or 
carrion are unclean. Turtle-doves, young 
pigeons, and perhaps some other kinds of 
birds, were prescribed in the Mosaic law 
as offerings, Lev. 5:7-10; 14:4-7; Luke 
2:24. 

There is great difficulty in accurately 
determining the different species of birds 
prohibited in Lev. 11:13-19; Deut. 14:11- 
20, and the proper version of the Hebrew 
names. The information we have respect- 
ing them may be found under the names 
by which they are translated in our Bible. 

Moses, to inculcate humanity on the 
Israelites, ordered them, if they found a 
bird's nest, not to take the dam with the 
young, but to suffer the old one to fly away, 
and to take the young only, Deut. 22:6, 7; 
and in Psa. 84:3 there is an affecting allu- 
sion to the safety and happiness of the 
birds who built their nests within the tem- 
ple courts, thus putting themselves under 
the protection of God. 

Cages for singing-birds are alluded to in 
Jer . 5 : 27 ; snares in Prov. 7 : 23 ; Eccl. 9:12; 
and migration in Jer. 8:7. Birds of prep- 
are emblems of destroying hosts, Isa. 46 : 1 1 ; 
Jer. 12:9; Ezek. 32:4; Rev. 19:17-19; and 
the Lord comes to the defence of his peo- 
ple with the swiftness of the eagle, Isa. 
3 I: 5- 



BIR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BLA 



BIRTH. See Children. 

BIRTH'DAY. The anniversary of one's 
oirth was celebrated in very early times, 
Gen. 40:20; Job 1:4, 13, 18, and often with 
no little pomp. There is no mention, how- 
ever, of such celebrations among the Jews, 
except in Herod's case, Matt. 14:6; and 
this may have been partly in honor of his 
accession.- See Hos. 7:5. 

BIRTH'RIGHT, the privilege of the first- 
born son. Among the Hebrews, as indeed 
among most other nations, the firstborn 
enjoyed special privileges; and wherever 
polygamy was tolerated, it was highly ne- 
cessary to fix them, Deut. 21 : 15-17. Besides 
the father's chief blessing, Gen. 27, and va- 
rious minor advantages, the firstborn son 
was, first, specially consecrated to the Lord, 
Ex. 13:11-16; 22:29; and the firstborn son 
•of a high priest was to succeed his father 
in that office. Among the sons of Jacob, 
Reuben the firstborn forfeited this right of 
the firstborn, Gen. 35:22; 49:3, 4, and God 
gave it to Levi, Num. 3:12, 13; 8:18. Sec- 
ondly, the firstborn Avas entitled to a share 
of his father's estate twice as large as any 
of the other brethren received, Deut. 21:17. 
Compare Elisha's request of the departing 
Elijah, 2 Kin. 2:9. Thirdly, he succeeded 
to the official dignities and rights of his 
father, 2 Chr. 21 13. In some of these priv- 
ileges there is an allusion to Him who is 
"the firstborn among many brethren," 
Rom. 8:29; Col. 1:18; Heb. 1:2-6. Uni- 
versal dominion is His, and an everlasting 
priesthood. See Firstborn. 

BISH'OP, overseer, one who has the 
-charge and direction of anything. The 
most common acceptation of the word 
episcopos in the New Testament is that 
which occurs in Acts 20:28; Phil. 1:1, 
where it signifies the pastor of a church, 
and is equivalent to presbuteros, presbyter 
or elder, 1 Tim. 5:17; 1 Pet. 5:1, 2. Peter 
•calls Jesus Christ "the Shepherd and Bish- 
op of your souls," 1 Pet. 2:25. Paul de- 
scribes the qualities requisite in bishops, 
1 Tim. 3:2; Tit. 1:5, 7, etc.; Christ himself 
is their great exemplar. 

BITHI'AH, daughter of the Lord, daugh- 
ter of a Pharaoh, married to Mered, of the 
tribe of Judah, 1 Chr. 4: 18. 

BITH'RON, ravine, the region between 
Mahanaim and the Jordan, with a narrow 
valley running down to a ford, 2 Sam. 
2:29. 

BITHYN'IA, 1 Pet. 1:1, a province in the 
northern part of Asia Minor, on the shore 
•of the Black Sea, having Paphlagonia on 
4 



the east, Phrygia and Galatia on the south, 
and Mysia on the southwest. It was di- 
rectly opposite to Constantinople. It is 
famous as being one of the provinces to 
which the apostle Peter addressed his 1st 
epistle ; also as having been under the gov- 
ernment of Pliny, who, in a letter to the 
emperor Trajan, makes honorable mention 
of the number, character, and customs of 
the persecuted Christians there, about A. D. 
106; also for the holding of the most cele- 
brated council of the Christian church in 
the city of Nicaea, its metropolis, about 
A. D. 325. When Paul attempted to go 
into Bithynia, the Spirit suffered him not, 
Acts 16:7. 




BIT'TERN, a fowl about the size of a 
heron, and of the same genus. Nineveh 
and Babylon become a possession for "the 
bittern" and other wild birds, Isa. 14:23; 
34:11 ; Zeph. 2: 14. It is found among the 
marshes of Western Asia, resorting to ru- 
ined buildings, and uttering a peculiar 
harsh cry before and after its evening flight. 
The R.V. reads "porcupine," for "bittern." 

BITU'MEN. See PITCH. 

BLACK, a symbol of affliction and gloom, 
Job 30:30; Jer. 14:2. 

BLAINS, Exod. 9:8-10, burning ulcerous 
eruptions, miraculously caused by the 
ashes which Moses threw up among the 
Egyptians. It was the 6th plague, and is 
called in Deut. 28:27, 35, "the botch of 
Egypt," perhaps the black leprosy. If 

73 



BLA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BLI 



these ashes came from the brick-kilns 
where the Hebrews had toiled, the pains 
which the Egyptians suffered would natu- 
rally remind them of those which they had 
inflicted. 

BLAS'PHEMY. A man is guilty of blas- 
phemy when he speaks of God, or his at- 
tributes, injuriously ; when he calumnious- 
ly ascribes such qualities to Him as do not 
belong to Him, or robs Him of those which 
do, Psa. 74:18; Isa. 52:5; Rom. 2:24. The 
law sentenced blasphemers to death by 
stoning, Lev. 24:12-16; and on this charge 
both Christ and Stephen were condemned. 
In a lower sense, men are said to be blas- 
phemed when abused by calumnious and 
reviling words, 1 Kin. 21:10; Acts 6:11. 

Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, 
Matt. 12:31, 32; Mark 3:28; Luke 12:10. 
This sin was committed by the Pharisees 
when they, in violation of their own con- 
victions, wilfully and maliciously ascribed 
the miracles of the Son of God and the 
work of the Holy Spirit to the evil one. It 
is often inquired whether this was the " sin 
unto death" spoken of 1 John 5:16, and 
whether it is committed in these days. 
However these questions may be answered, 
certain it is that when one can ridicule re- 
ligion and its ordinances, when he can 
make sport of the work of the Holy Ghost 
in the human heart, when he can persist 
in a wilful disbelief of the gospel, and cast 
contempt upon Christianity and " the min- 
istration of the Spirit," he is going to a 
fearful extremity of guilt, and provoking 
the final withdrawment of divine grace. 
While on the other hand the vilest blas- 
phemer, who feels the relentings of godly 
sorrow for his sins, and the desire to con- 
fess them at the Saviour's feet, may be sure 
of realizing the truth of Christ's word, 
" Him that cometh unto me I will in no 
wise cast out." 

BLAST'ING. See Winds. 

BLAS'TUS, sprout, a chamberlain of Her- 
od Agrippa, bribed to favor the men of 
Tyre and Sidon, Acts 12:20. 

BLEM'ISHES, imperfections or deformi- 
ties which unfitted men for the priesthood, 
and animals for sacrifice, enumerated in 
Lev. 21:18-20; 22:20-24. The great High- 
priest of our profession offered himself 
without spot to God. 

BLESS'ING. When God blesses, he be- 
stows that efficacy which renders his bless- 
ing effectual. His blessings are either tem- 
poral or spiritual, bodily or mental ; but in 
everything they really convey the good 
74 



which they import, Num. 6 : 23-27. The 
blessings of men to other men, unless they 
be inspired prophecies, as in Gen. 32 ; 49 ; 
Deut. 2>2>y or official benedictions, Num. 
6:23-27; Deut. 21:5, are only good wishes,, 
and as it were a prayer to the Author of all 
good for the welfare of the subjects of them. 
Blessing, on the part of man towards God, 
is an act of adoring praise, or thanksgiving 
for all his mercies, Psa. 103:1, or for some 
special mercy — as for food, for which thanks, 
are rendered to God, or for any other good, 
Psa. 116:13; 1 Cor. 10:16. See Saluta- 
tion. 

BLIND'NESS. This distressing malady 
is very prevalent in the East, where many 
physical causes unite to injure the eyes : 
the sun is hot, and in the atmosphere floats 
a very fine dust, which enters and frets the 
eye ; insects also are very numerous, and 
both foster and convey eye-maladies. The 
armies of France and England, while in 
Egypt, suffered severely from ophthalmic 
diseases. Blindness is perpetuated as a 
contagious disease by the filthy habits of 
the natives. It is of frequent occurrence 
also on the coast of Syria, one-tenth of the 
population of Jaffa having lost one eye or 
both. In ancient times, the eyes of persons 
hated or feared were often torn out, Judg. 
16:21; 1 Sam. 11:2; 2 Kin. 25:7. Blind- 
ness was sometimes inflicted as a punish- 
ment, Gen. 19:11; Acts 13:11; was often 
threatened as a penalty, Deut. 28:28; and 
was sometimes miraculously sent, and re- 
moved, 2 Kin. 6:18-20; Acts 9:9, 18. The 
Jews were enjoined by the humane laws of 
Moses to show all kindness and considera- 
tion to the blind, Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18. 
No one affected with this infirmity could 
officiate as priest, Lev. 21 : 18. 

Our Saviour miraculously cured many 
cases of blindness, both that caused by 
disease and that which had existed from 
birth. In these latter cases there was a. 
double miracle; for not only was the or- 
gan of sight restored, but also the faculty 
of using it, which is usually gained only by 
long experience, Mark 8:22-25. The an- 
ointing with clay, Matt. 9:29; John 9:6, 
cannot have had any healing effect. The 
healing was wholly miraculous, Christ first 
imparting faith in his divine power and 
love, and then enabling the sightless orbs 
to struggle into vision in their eagerness 
to behold the Lord. 

" Blindness " is often used for ignorance 
and error, especially our sinful want of 
discernment as to spiritual things, Isa. 



BLO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BOA 



42:18-20; Matt. 15:14; 2 Cor. 4:4. The 
abuse of God's mercy increases this blind- 
ness, John 12:40. Blessed are the eyes 
that find their sight in striving to behold 
the Redeemer. 

BLOOD. The life of all animals was re- 
garded as especially in the blood, Gen. 9:4; 
Deut. 12:23, which was hence a sacred and 
essential part of the sacrifices offered to 
God, Heb. 9:22. It was solemnly sprin- 
kled upon the altar and the mercy-seat, 
" for it is the blood that maketh atonement 
for the soul," Lev. 17 — the life of the vic- 
tim for the life of the sinner. It was there- 
fore most sacredly associated with the 
blood of the Lamb of God, which " clean- 
seth us from all sin, "John 19:34; Eph. 1:7; 

1 John 1:7. This is the blood shed on Cal- 
vary to ratify and seal Christ's covenant 
for the redemption of sinners, Matt. 26:28; 
Heb. 13:20. See Covenant. Hence the 
strict prohibition of the Israelites to eat 
blood, or any meat in which blood re- 
mained ; a prohibition renewed in Acts 
15:29. In direct opposition to this are the 
heathen customs of drinking the blood of 
animals and even of men — of eating raw 
flesh, with the blood, and even fresh cut 
from the living animal, 1 Sam. 14:32; Psa. 
16:4; Ezek. 33:25. 

Besides the ordinary meaning of the word 
blood, it often signifies the guilt of murder, 

2 Sam. 3:28; Matt. 27:25; also relationship 
or consanguinity. " Not of blood," in John 
1 : 13, means, not by virtue of descent from 
Abraham, or any pious ancestry. " Flesh 
and blood " are placed in contrast with a 
spiritual nature, Matt. 16:17, the glorified 
body, 1 Cor. 15:50, and evil spirits, Eph. 
6:12. The cause "between blood and 
blood," Deut. 17:8, was one where life was 
depending on the judgment rendered. 

BLOOD-AVEN'GER. The sacredness of 
human life, and the justice of punishing a 
murderer by death, are grounded on the 
fact that man was made in the image of 
God, Gen. 9 : 6. Among the Arabs, the near- 
est male relative of a murdered person 
was to pursue the homicide until by force 
or craft he put him to death. The law of 
Moses expressly forbade the acceptance of 
any ransom for a life forfeited to justice by 
taking the life of another, Num. 35:31 ; but 
it interfered between an accused person 
and his pursuer, by providing a sanctu- 
ary — at the altar of God and in the 6 cities 
of refuge — where the accused might be safe 
until it was proved that he had committed 
the act wilfully or accidentally, Josh. 20:6, 



9. In the former case, he was at once 
given up to his pursuer for death, Exod. 
21:14; 1 Kin. 2:29, 34. In the latter case, 
he might dwell with safety in the city of 
refuge ; but should he go elsewhere before 
the death of the high-priest, he was liable 
to be slain by the avenger of blood, Num. 
35:25-28. See Refuge. 

The " issue of blood " was often a chronic 
disease, Luke 8:43 ; and the " bloody flux," 
in Acts 28:8, was the dysentery. 

BLUE. See Purple. 

BOANER'GES, sons of thunder, a name 
given by our Saviour to James and John 
the sons of Zebedee, Mark 3 : 17, on account 
of their power as preachers, or of the traits 
shown in Matt. 20:20-23 ; Luke 9: 53, 54. 




a t&yllllllll.f 



BOAR. The wild boar is considered as 
the parent stock of the common hog. He 
is a furious and formidable animal. The 
tusks are larger and stronger than in the 
tame herds. The color is iron-gray, incli- 
ning to black. His snout is long, and his 
ears are short. Wild boars are found on 
Mount Carmel, and near the Sea of Tibe- 
rias. The destructive ravages of the ani- 
mal are referred to in Psa. 80:13. See 
Swine. 

BO'AZ, alacrity, Ruth 2 : 1, a wealthy Beth- 
lehemite, a descendant of Judah, through 
whom is traced the regular succession of 
Jewish kings, Matt. 1:5. His conduct in 
the case of Ruth proves him to have been a 
man of fine spirit and of strict integrity. 
He admitted the claim which Ruth had 
upon him as a near kinsman, under the 
Levitical law married the poor gleaner, 
and thus became one of the ancestors of 
David, and also of David's Son and Lord. 
He Avas the father of Obed, Obed was the 
father of Jesse, and Jesse of David. The 
whole narrative is a beautiful picture of 
the simplicity of the age, when artificial 
courtesies had not usurped the place of 
natural and sincere expressions of love. 

Boaz was also the name of one of the 2 
brazen pillars which Solomon erected in 

75 



BOC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BOO 



the porch of the temple, the other being 
called Jachix. These columns with their 
chapiters were about 35 feet high, 1 Kin. 
7:15, 16, 21. 

BO'CHIM, weepings, a place near Gilgal, 
where the angel of the Lord reproved Is- 
rael for their remissness, Judg. 2:1-5. 

BODY, Matt. 26:26. "This represents 
my body." See Gen. 41:26. Christ did 
not offer his body to be eaten ; he was 
still alive. " Body of this death," Rom. 
7:24, ma5' allude to a practice of ancient 
tyrants — binding a corpse to a criminal, J§j 
to torment, infect, and consume him. 

BOLLED, Exod. 9:31, swollen out 
ready to" blossom. 

BOND, BOND'AGE. See SLAVE. 

BOOK, means primarily any writing, 
Isa. 29:11, 12; a bill of divorce, accusa- 
tion, or sale, a letter, a register, or a vol- 
ume. 

Several sorts of materials were anciently 
used in making books. Plates of lead or 
copper, the bark of trees, brick, stone, and 
wood were originally employed to engrave 
such things and documents upon as men 
desired to transmit to posterity, Deut. 27 : 2, 
3 ; Job 19 : 23, 24. God's laws were writ- 
ten on stone tablets. Words cut in stone 
were sometimes filled in with melted lead, 
Job 19:24. Inscriptions were also made on 
tiles and bricks, which were afterwards 
hardened by fire. Many of these are found 
in the ruins of Babylon. See Babylon, 
Nebuchadnezzar. Thus in excavating 
at Koyunjik a royal Library was found, the 
floor covered to the depth of a foot or more 
with terra-cotta tablets, stamped on both 
sides with minute Assyrian characters. 
These were all numbered, and constituted 
regular treatises on history, astronomy, 
astrology, law, religion, language, mathe- 
matics, etc. — a full encyclopaedia "for the 
use of the people." In forming these Li- 
braries Assyria seems to have followed the 
lead and copied the books of Babylonia, 
where the ancient Accadian language was 
used and cuneiform characters, translating 
the books with the aid of grammars and 
dictionaries still in part extant. These 
unique Libraries pour a flood of light on 
the history, science, and daily life of those 
days. They give legends of the creation 
and the deluge, mention the division of 
time into weeks, months, and years, the 
day of rest, and the dates of many events 
recorded in the Bible, and strikingly con- 
firm its antiquity and truth. They show 
that a certain knowledge of God and di- 
76 



vine things was then common among man- 
kind. Nothing has yet been found in them 
implying a beginning of authentic history 
earlier than about 2400 B. C. The divine 
providence is wonderfully shown in the 
use and the preservation of these " books 
in stones." 




ANCIENT books, pens, and inkstand. 

In later days tablets of box-wood and of 
ivory were common among the ancients: 
when they were of wood only, they w r ere 
often coated over with wax, which received 
the writing inscribed on them with the 
point of a style, or iron pen, Jer. 17:13; 
and what was written might be effaced by 
the broad end of the style, Luke 1 :63. Af- 
terwards, the leaves of the palm-tree were 
used instead of w r ooden tablets, and also 
the finest and thinnest bark of trees ; hence 
the word liber, which denotes the inner 
bark of trees, signifies also a book. As 
these barks were rolled up, to be more 
readily carried about, the united rolls were 
called volumen, a volume ; a name given 
likewise to rolls of paper or of parchment. 
The ancients wrote likewise on linen. But 
the oldest material commonly employed 
for writing upon appears to have been the 
papyrus, a reed very common in Egypt and 
other places, and still found in Sicily and 
Chaldaea. From this comes our word pa- 
per. At a later period, parchment from 
skins was invented in Pergamos, and was 
there used for rolls ox volumes, Psa. 40:7; 
Zech. 5:1; 2 Tim. 4:13; 2 John 12. The 
pen for writing on these soft materials was 
a small brush, or. a reed split at the end, 
Jer. 36:23. The ink was prepared with 
lampblack, coal of ivory, various gums, 
etc., and the writing was sometimes perma- 
nently fixed by fire. Scribes carried their 
inkhorns hanging to their girdles, Ezek. 
9:2. The making of paper from linen, in 
its modern form, was first known in Europe 
about A. D. 1300. The art of printing was 
introduced about 150 years later. See Lan- 
guage. 



BOO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BOR 



An ancient book, therefore, had the ap- 
pearance of a thick roll of some paper-like 
substance, Ezek. 2:9, written usually in 




CASE HOLDING THE PENTATEUCH ROLLS. 

parallel columns on one side only, and read 
by gradually unrolling it by means of 2 
small rollers, one at the beginning and the 
other at the end of the volume, Isa. 34:4; 
Luke 4:17-20. The Avriting was without 
separation into words or sentences, and in 
capital letters only. A roll was sometimes 
sealed, being first tied or wrapped about 
with a cord, on which the wax was dropped, 
and stamped by a signet, Isa. 29:11; Dan. 
12:4; Rev. 5:1-3. 

That writing was practised very early, 
may be inferred from allusions to the art 



in Gen. 5:1 ; Exod. 17:14; Job 9:25; 19:23,- 
31 :35. The Egyptians were accustomed to 
it from the earliest known ages. 

Ancient writers, instead of writing their 
books with their own hand, often employed 
amanuenses. St. Paul notes it as a par- 
ticular circumstance, in the Epistle to the 
Galatians, that he had written it with his 
own hand, Gal. 6:11. To other letters he 
only affixed his salutation with his own 
hand, 1 Cor. 16:21; Col. 4:18; 2 Thess. 
3:17. The amanuensis who wrote the 
Epistle to the Romans has mentioned him- 
self at the close, Rom. 16 : 22. See Letter, 
Ephesus. 

Book of the Generation is used, in 
Gen. 5:1; Matt. 1 : 1, in the sense of a gen- 
eological record. See Generation. 

Book of the wars of the Lord, 
Num. 21 : 14, was probably a sort of mili- 
tary journal, formed of detached odes. 

The book of Jasher, 2 Sam. 1:18, may 
perhaps have been a collection of national 
ballads, one of the forms most used for 
perpetuating history in ancient times. 

The books of the Chronicles of the 
kings of Judah and Israel were apparently 
national annals, 1 Kin. 14:19, 29. 

Book of Life, or of the Living, Psa. 
69:28, perhaps refers to the custom of prin- 
ces, of keeping a list of persons in their 
service, etc. So God is represented as in- 
scribing the names, acts, and destinies of 
men in volumes ; and the volume of those 
who are chosen to salvation is " the book 
of life," Phil. 4:3. 

BOOTH, a shelter, made usually of poles, 
fixed upright in the ground, and covered 
over with green boughs, Gen. 33:17; Job 
27: 18. The great Feast of Tabernacles, or 
booths, had its name from the circumstance 
that the Jews were directed by their law to 
dwell in booths during the 7 days of this 
feast, Lev. 23:40-42; Neh. 8:14. See Tab- 
ernacle and Garden. 

BOO'TY. Spoils taken in war were to be 
shared equally by those who fought and 
those who guarded the camp, Num. 31 :27- 
32. The Lord's portion was first deducted 
from the whole; and in after times the 
king appropriated a large part to himself. 

BOR'ROW. The Hebrews are said to 
have " borrowed " of the Egyptians, Exod. 
3:22; 12:35. The original word denotes 
simply asked. As they were known to be 
taking a final leave of Egypt, it is plain 
that the Egyptians did not expect the things 
asked for to be returned. They asked for 
them by divine direction, and they un- 

77 



BOS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BOW 



■doubtedly received much less than a fair 
•compensation for their many years of hard 
service. 

BO'SOM. The Orientals wore long, wide, 
•and loose garments; and when about to 
carry anything that their hands would not 
•contain, they used a fold in the bosom of 
their robe above the girdle, Luke 6:38. 
See Girdle and Garments. The expres- 
sion naturally came to be used even when 
the article was too large to be so carried. 
Thus in Isa. 65:6, 7, " measure their work 
into their bosom." Our Saviour is said to 
■carry his lambs in his bosom, which beauti- 
fully represents his tender care and watch- 
fulness over them, Isa. 40:11. See Abra- 
ham's Bosom, Eating. In Prov. 19:24; 
26: 15, the word is mis-translated "bosom" 
which is rendered "dish" in 2 Kin. 21:13, 
•and " pan " in 2 Chr. 35 : 13. 

BOS'SES, the thickest and strongest 
parts, the projecting points, of shields, Job 
15:26. 




goat-skin water bottles. 

BOT'TLE. The engraving shows the 
form of an ancient goat-skin bottle, out of 
which a water-carrier is offering to sell a 
draught of water. After the skin has been 
stripped off from a goat or kid, and prop- 
erly dressed and tanned, the places where 
the legs had been are closed up ; and where 
the neck was is the opening left for re- 
ceiving and discharging the contents of the 
bottle. These were readily borne upon 
the shoulder, Gen. 21:14. See also Josh. 
9:4, 13; Jer. 13:12. They were liable to be 
much injured by exposure to heat and 
smoke, Psa. 119:83, and to lose their con- 
tents by evaporation under the hot sun on 
a journey, and were often oiled on the out- 
side as a safeguard. 

By receiving the liquor poured into it, a 
skin bottle must be greatly swelled and 
distended ; and still more, if the liquor be 
wine, by its fermentation while advancing 
to ripeness. Hence the propriety of put- 
ting new wine into new bottles, which being 
73 



in the prime of their strength, may resist 
the expansion of their contents, and pre- 




EGYPTIAN BOTTLES, ETC. 

serve the wine to maturity; while old bot- 
tles may, without danger, contain old wine, 
whose fermentation is already past, Matt. 
9:17; Luke 5:38; Job 32:19. 

Such bottles, or skins, are still univer- 
sally employed in travelling in the East, 
as well as by the public water-carriers, and 
for domestic uses. They were made, for 
storage in wine-cellars, of the hides of oxen 
or camels. But the smaller ones, of goat 
or kid skins, were more generally used for 
water as well as wine. The ancients, how- 
ever, were acquainted with the art of ma- 
king earthenware, and had a variety of 
elegant bottles, vials, and vases for domes- 
tic and toilet purposes, made of the pre- 
cious metals, of stone, glass, porcelain, and 
alabaster, Isa. 30:14; Jer. 19:1, 10, 11; Lam. 
4:2. See Cruse, Vine, Tears. 

BOW, a weapon much used in ancient 
times, both for hunting and for war. It 
was made of wood, horn, or steel, Gen. 
27:3; Psa. 18:34; and the foot was some- 
times used in bending it. It was carried 
in a case when not used, Hab. 3:9. The 
Benjamites were celebrated for their skill 
in the use of this weapon, 1 Chr. 12:2; 
2 Chr. 14:8; 17:17. See Arms. Thephrase, 
"a deceitful bow," to which the people of 
Israel are compared, Psa. 78:57; Hos. 7:16, 
means an ill-made or twisted bow, which 
does not shoot the arrow as it is aimed. In 
2 Sam. 1:18, the words "the use of" are 
not in the Hebrew. The use of the bow 
in war had long been common among the 



BOW 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BRA 



Jews, Gen. 48:22 ; and to " teach them the 
bow " is by some supposed to mean, teach 
them the song of the bow, the lamentation 
over Saul and Jonathan, which follows; so 
called from the mention of the weapon in 
verse 22, as the first 5 books in the Bible 
take their title in Hebrew from some of 
the first words in each. See Arrow. 

BOWELS are often put by the Hebrew 
writers for the inner man, just as we often 
use the word heart as the seat of mercy, 
tenderness, compassion, etc., 1 Kin. 3:26; 
lsa. 63:15; Jer. 31:20; Col. 3:12; 1 John 
3:17; and in many cases the Hebrew or 
Greek word is so translated in our Bible, 
as it should have been in others, by " heart," 
"affections," etc., Col. 3:12; Phile. 7, 12, 
20 ; 1 John 3: 17. 

BOWING. See Salutations. 

BOX, in 2 Kin. 9; 1, 3, means flask, or bot- 
tle, as in 1 Sam. 10:1 it is a vial. See Ala- 
baster. 

BOX-TREE, a well-known beautiful ever- 
green, growing in many parts of Europe 
and Asia. Its wood is highly prized by 
engravers. The Hebrew word is employed 
in lsa. 41:19; 60:13; and Ezek. 27:6, and 
probably denotes the box, though it is 
thought by many to have been a species of 
cedar. It is used as an emblem of the abi- 
ding grace and prosperity of the church of 
God. 

BOZ'RAH, inclosure, I., Gen. 36:33, a city 
of Edom, lsa. 34:6; 63:1, and the region 
around it, Jer. 49:13, 22. It is associated 
with Teman, and with the Red Sea, Jer. 
49:20-22; Amos 1:12. Its site is found in 
the modern El-Busaireh, midway between 
Kir Moab and Mount Hor, south by east of 
the Dead Sea. This is a village of about 
50 houses, on a hill crowned by a small 
castle. The ruins are those of a consider- 
able city. 

II. Bozrah of Moab, Jer. 48:24, may be 
the same place with Bezer. It is found 
by Porter in Buzrah, 60 miles south of Da- 
mascus, now a petty village amid vast 
ruins of temples, towers, and dwellings, 
mostly of the Roman period, but some ap- 
parently of the ages before Joshua. 

BRACE'LET, properly an ornamental 
circlet for the wrist, or for the arm above 
the elbow ; but one term so rendered 
sometimes signifies an ornament worn on 
the leg, Num. 31:50; 133.3:16,19. Armlets 
were worn even by men, Song 5:14, some- 
times as a badge of royalty, 2 Sam. 1 : 10. 
In the Nineveh sculptures the Assyrian 
iings have armlets on the arms and brace- 



lets on the wrists, of elegant forms and 
apparently set with jewels. Bracelets were 
of a great variety of materials and forms ; 
were usually large, and often of great 
value, Gen. 24:22. 

The women of Syria and Arabia at this 
day wear rings above their ankles, to 
which are fastened many other lesser rings, 
which make a tinkling noise, like little 
bells, when they walk, lsa. 3:16. These 
rings are of gold, silver, copper, glass, or 
even of varnished earth, according to the 
condition of the wearer. The princesses 
wear large hollow rings of gold, within 
which are inclosed little pebbles, that tin- 
kle. Modern Hindoo ladies wear a profu- 
sion of armlets, sometimes of the most 
costly materials, and forming their chief 
wealth. See Rings. 

BRAM'BLES. See THISTLES. 

BRANCH. As trees denote, in figura- 
tive language, great men and princes, so 
branches, boughs, and plants denote their 
offspring. Christ is called "the Branch," 
the " Rod out of the stem of Jesse," and 
the "Branch out of his roots," lsa. 11 :i; 
53:2; Zech. 3:8; 6:12; being a royal de- 
scendant of the princely house of David, 
Jer. 23:5 ; 33:15. The word branch also il- 
lustrates the union of believers with Christ, 
John 15:5, 6. It is used in Ezek. 8:17 as a 
symbol of idolatrous worship, probably in 
allusion to the carrying of fragrant boughs 
in honor of idols. 

BRASS is early and frequently mentioned 
in the English Bible, Gen. 4:22; but there 
is little doubt that copper is intended, brass 
being a mixed metal — copper and zinc. 
Compare Deut. 8:9; Job 28:2. The an- 
cients knew nothing of that particular 
compound, though well acquainted with 
bronze — copper and tin — of which arms, 
mirrors, and ornaments were made. Cop- 
per was used for many purposes about the 
temple, Lev. 6 : 28 ; Num. 16 : 39 ; 2 Chr. 
4:16, 18; for filters, Judg. 16:21; 2 Kin. 
25:7; for armor, 1 Sam. 17:5, 6, 38; for 
musical instruments, 1 Chr. 15:19; and for 
money, Matt. 10:9. "Brass" is used to 
describe drought, insensibility, baseness, 
and obstinacy in sin, Lev. 26:19; Deut. 
28:23; lsa. 48:4; Jer. 6:28; Ezek. 22:18. 
It is also a symbol of strength, Psa. 107:16; 
Dan. 2:39; Zech. 6:1. See Copper. 

BRA'VERY, lsa. 3 : 18, brilliance or finery. 

BRAWLER, a noisy, quarrelsome fel- 
low, Tit. 3:2. 

BRAVING. See Mortar. 

BRA'ZEN SEA. See Sea. 

79 



BRA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BRE 



BRA'ZEN SER'PENT, an image in brass 
prepared by Moses, resembling the fiery- 
serpents so destructive to Israel in the des- 
ert, and set up in the midst of the camp in 
the view of all, that whosoever would evince 
penitence, faith, and obedience by looking 
to it might live, Num. 21 : 6-9. Our Saviour 
has shown us that this was typical of him- 
self and of salvation through him — a gra- 
tuitous salvation, free to all, on the easy 
terms of faith and obedience, John 3:14, 15. 
The scene of this great salvation was a lit- 
tle south of Mount Hor, on the west side, 
Num. 21:4; 33: 38-41 . Much labor has been 
spent in the effort to find some reason why 
the serpent — the symbol of wisdom, and 
also of evil — was set up as a type of Christ : 
but the brazen serpent appears to have 
been chosen simply as in the likeness of 
the fiery serpents ; and it was " lifted up " 
in view of all, as Christ on the cross is 
freely offered to all mankind. The brazen 
serpent was long preserved, as a memorial 
of the gracious miracle wrought in connec- 
tion with it ; but being regarded as an ob- 
ject of worship, it was broken to pieces by 
king Hezekiah, as Nehushtan — a mere 
piece of brass, 2 Kin. 18:4. 

BREACH'ES, Judg. 5:17, harbors. 

BREACH OF PROMISE, Num. 14:34, the 
results of God's indignant turning away 
from men. 

BREAD, a word which in Scripture is 
often put for food in general, Gen. 3:19; 
18:5; 28:20; Exod. 2:20; Lev. 11:3. Man- 
na is called bread from heaven, Exod. 16:4. 
Bread, in the proper and literal sense, usu- 
ally means cakes made of wheaten flour, 
Gen. 18:6; barley being used chiefly by the 
poor and for feeding horses. The wheat 
was ground daily, in small stone mills ; the 
flour was made into dough in a wooden 
trough, and subsequently leavened, if there 
was time, Exod. 12:34; Hos. 7:4. It was 
then made into cakes, and baked. 

The ancient Hebrews had several ways 
of making bread : they often baked it un- 
der the ashes and embers upon the earth, 
Gen. 18 : 6, upon round copper or iron 
plates, or in pans or stoves made on pur- 
pose. The Arabians and other Oriental 
nations, among whom wood is scarce, often 
bake their bread between 2 fires made of 
cow-dung, which burns slowly. The bread 
is good, if eaten the same day, but the crust 
is black and burnt, and retains a smell of 
the fuel used in baking it. This explains 
Ezek. 4:9, 15. A "cake not turned" would 
be ruined by the neglect, Hos. 7:8. 
80 



The Hebrews, in common with other 
Eastern people, had a kind of oven {tan- 
noor), which is like a large urn, open at the 
top, in which they made a fire. When it 
was well heated, they mingled flour in wa- 
ter, and this paste they applied to the out- 
side of the urn. Such bread is baked very 
quickly, and is taken off in thin pieces, like 
our wafers, Lev. 2. Bread was also baked 
in cavities sunk in the ground, or the floor 
of the tent, and well lined with compost or 
cement. A fire was built on the floor of 
this oven ; and the sides being sufficiently 
heated, thin cakes were adroitly stuck upon 
them, and soon baked. Domestic bread- 
making was women's work throughout, 
1 Sam. 8:13; Matt. 24:41, but in the large 
towns there were public ov^ns, and bakers 
by trade, who were wont to occupy the 
same street; as is still customary in the 
East, as among us, with men of every trade, 
Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4. Pharaoh had his 
chief baker, Gen. 40:2. 

The Hebrews did not cut their bread, 
but broke it, Lam. 4:4, hence the expres- 
sion so usual in Scripture, of " breaking 
bread," to signify taking a repast. In the 
institution of the Lord's Supper, our Sa- 
viour broke the bread which he had conse- 
crated; whence "to break bread," and 
"breaking of bread," are used for celebra- 
ting the Lord's Supper. See under Eating. 

" Cast thy bread upon the waters," Eccl. 
11 : 1, maybe merely an exhortation to gen- 
erous and trustful charity, or may also con- 
tain an allusion to the custom of sowing rice 
or grain on a soil overflowed for the time 
with water, as in the valley of the Nile. 




THE TABLE OF SHOW-BREAD. 

Show-bread, Heb. bread of presence, 
was bread offered every Sabbath day on 
the golden table which stood before God 
in the holy place, Exod. 25:30; 12 cakes of 
unleavened bread, offered with salt and 
frankincense, Lev. 2:13; 24:5-9. The old 
cakes remained till replaced by the new; 



BRE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BRI 



hence the name, "the continual bread," 
Num. 4:7, and the "hallowed bread," 
1 Sam. 21:4-6. The show-bread could be 
lawfully eaten by none but the priests ; 
nevertheless, David having received some 
of these loaves from the high-priest Ahim- 
elech, ate of them without scruple in his 
necessity, 1 Sam. 21:1-6; and our Saviour 
quotes his example to justify the disciples, 
who had bruised ears of corn, and were 
eating them on the Sabbath day, Matt. 
12:1-4. The table of show-bread from 
Herod's temple seems to have been faith- 
fully copied on the Arch of Titus at Rome. 
See Candlestick. 




BREASTPLATE, or " breastplate of judg- 
ment," Exod. 28:15, 30, a piece of embroi- 
dery, about 10 inches square, Exod. 28:15- 
40, of very rich work, which the high-priest 
wore on his breast. It was made of 2 pie- 
ces of the same rich embroidered stuff of 
which the ephod was made, having a front 
and a lining, and forming a kind of purse 
or bag. The front was set with 12 precious 
stones, on each of which was engraved the 
name of one of the tribes, and the high-priest 
thus bore " the judgment of the children of 
Israel upon his heart before the Lord" — a 
" memorial " of their acceptance through 
his atoning sacrifices. According to Jose- 
phus and the Seventy, these jewels were 
the Urim and Thummim. Probably they 
still exist somewhere — symbols of the eter- 
nal fidelity of God. They were placed in 4 
rows, in the order of their encampment in 
the wilderness, Num. 10:14-27, and divi- 
ded from each other by the little golden 
squares or partitions in which they were 
set. At each corner was a gold ring an- 
swering to a ring upon the ephod, these 4 
6 



pairs of rings serving to hold the breast- 
plate in its place on the front of the ephod, 
by means of 4 blue ribbons, one at each 
corner. See also Arms and Armor. 

BREATHED on them, John 20:22, com- 
municating the Holy Spirit. Compare Gen. 
2:7. 

BREECH'ES, Exod. 28:42, short drawers 
worn by the priests. 

BRICKS were usually made of clay dried 
and hardened in the sun, Gen. 11:3, though 
brick-kilns were sometimes used, 2 Sam. 
12:31; Isa. 65:3; Jer. 43:9: Nah. 3:14. The 
tower of Babel was constructed of brick, 
cemented with bitumen. The bricks or 
tiles used were often a foot square and 3% 
inches thick; and great numbers of them 
are found, both in Babylonia and Egypt, 
impressed with some royal or priestly 
stamp. See Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar, 
Egypt, etc. 

Brick-making was the labor in which the 
Hebrews in Egypt were most oppressed. 




On the monuments of Egypt all the parts 
of this hard and ancient task-work are 
painted — the carrying, tempering, and 
moulding of the clay, and the drying and 
piling of the bricks — all done by foreigners 




BRICK-MAKING, UNDER A TASKMASTER. 

under the orders of taskmasters. Many 
bricks bear the stamp of Thothmes III., 

81 



BRI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BUL 



contemporary with the Hebrews in Egypt. 
The straw was probably mixed with the 
clay to compact it. See Wilkinson's " An- 
cient Egyptians." 

BRIDE and BRIDE'GROOM. See Mar- 
riage and Solomon's Song. 

BRI'ERS. See Thistles. 

BRIG'ANDINE, a coat of mail, Jer. 46:4; 
51:3. See Arms. 

BRIM'STONE, or sulphur, a mineral sub- 
stance, highly inflammable, and burning 
with a suffocating smell. Sodom and the 
other cities of the plain were destroyed 
"by brimstone and fire," Gen. 19:24; Deut. 
29 : 23 ; and this awful catastrophe is often 
used in Scripture as an emblem of the 
temporal and eternal judgments of God 
upon the wicked, Job 18:15; Psa. 11:6; Isa. 
3° '-33', 34 : 9! Rev. 21:8. Crude brimstone 
or sulphur is found by Arabs and travel- 
lers, washed ashore around the Dead Sea, 
in pieces sometimes as large as apples. 

BRING on the way, sometimes to ac- 
company one part way on his journey, and 
sometimes also to provide him the means 
for his journey, Gen. 18:16; 2 Cor. 1:16; 
Tit. 3:13. 

BROID'ERED, i Tim. 2:9, braided or 
plaited. 

BROOK. See River. 

BROTH'ER signifies in Scripture the son 
of the same parent or parents, Matt. 1:2; 
Luke 6:14; a near kinsman, Gen. 13:8; 
14:16; one of the same stock or country, 
Matt. 5:47; Acts 3:22; Heb. 7:5; a fellow- 
man, an equal, Matt. 5:23; 7:^; one be- 
loved, 2 Sam. 1:26; Christians, as sons of 
God, Acts 9:30; 11:29, and as disciples of 
Christ, Matt. 25:40. It is a favorite He- 
brew idiom to express some close resem- 
blance : Job says, " I am a brother to drag- 
ons," Job 30:29. In Matt. 12:46-50; 13:55, 
56; Mark 3:31-35; 6:3; John 2:12; 7:3; 
Acts 1 : 14, the brothers of Christ are so 
mentioned, in connection with his mother 
and sisters, as almost to require us to be- 
lieve they were children of Joseph and 
Mary, younger than Jesus. Christ's neigh- 
bors at Nazareth say of him and his fam- 
ily, " Is not this the carpenter's son? is not 
his mother called Mary ? and his brethren 
James and Joses and Simon and Judas? 
and his sisters, are they not all with us ?" 
Matt. 13:55, 56. The expressions in Luke 
2:7, "her firstborn son," and in Matt. 1:25, 
" knew her not till she had brought forth 
her firstborn son," and the fact that they 
lived together probably 30 year<=, most natu- 
rally imply that they afterwards had other 
82 



children. The theory that these " breth- 
ren " of Christ were identical with his cous- 
ins, the sons of Mary a sister of the Virgin 
Mary and Alphaeus, has many difficulties ; 
the "brethren" of Christ are always asso- 
ciated with his mother — 10 times — not with 
the other woman ; they did not believe on 
him till after his death, John 7:5 (compare 
Psa. 69:8), whereas his cousins were 2 of 
them probably apostles, and the " brethren 
of Christ" are plainly distinguished from 
the apostles, Acts 1:13,14; 1 Cor. 9:5; Jude 
17. So once, when his disciples, including 
his cousins, were standing around him, his 
mother and brethren came to see him, Matt. 
12 : 46-50. If these were cousins, Christ 
must have said, " Who is my mother and 
who are my cousins ? . . . Whosoever shall 
do the will of my Father in heaven, the 
same is my cousin, and sister, and mo- 
ther." Equally absurd is it to substitute 
"cousins" for "brethren" in Matt. 13 
above quoted. Christ's brothers are men- 
tioned 15 times, and, the term used is al- 
ways adelphos, brother ; never anepsios, 
cousin, nor sungenes, kinsman. Against 
these arguments, the tradition of the early 
Fathers, who soon began to regard mar- 
riage as a defilement, are of little account ; 
also " the brethren" and the cousins bear- 
ing the same names, for the names were 
very common, and might well recur in 2 
related families; and the objection that 
Christ on the cross gave his mother into 
John's care is removed by the facts that he 
is supposed to have had means, and that 
Christ's brothers had been unbelievers. 

BRUIT, rumor, Jer. 10:22; Nah. 3:19. 

BUCKLER. See Shield. 

BUF'FET, to strike or beat with the fist, 
Matt. 26:67; 1 Cor. 4:11; 1 Pet. 2:20. 

BUL, in 1 Kin. 6:58, the 8th month, usu- 
ally called Marcheshvan, which see. Sol- 
omon's temple was finished in Bui. 

BULLS of Bashan, pasturing in a fertile 
region and with but few keepers, became 
strong and fierce, and might "compass 
about " an intruder, and trample him un- 
der foot. They are symbols of powerful, 
fierce, and numerous foes, Psa. 22:12; 
68:30; Isa. 34:7. See Ox. 

BUL'RUSH, or papy'rus, a reed formerly 
growing on the banks of the Nile, and now 
in Palestine around the Upper Jordan, and 
in Abyssinia, in marshy ground, Job 8:11, 
to the height of 10 or 12 feet, Isa. 35:7- The 
stalks are pliable, and capable of being 
interwoven very closely, as in the construc- 
tion of arks, Exod. 2:3, 5, and vessels of 



BUR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BUR 



larger dimensions, Isa. 18:2. Boats of this 
material were very common in Egypt. 





The inner bark of this plant, platted and 
•cemented together, furnished a writing 
material, whence our word paper ; and 
the pith was sometimes used for food. See 
Book. 

BUR'DEN, a weight or load, on body or 
soul ; often used figuratively, to denote 
.afflictions, failings, sins, Psa. 38:4; 55:22; 
Gal. 6:2; services under the law, Matt. 
23:4; official responsibilities, Exod. 18:22; 
Deut. 1:12; and especially prophetic mes- 
sages, not always of a threatening charac- 
ter, Isa. 19:1. In this last sense the He- 
brew word may be rendered " oracle," 
"divine declaration," or "prophecy," as 
in Prov. 30:1; 31:1. See Jer. 23:33-40. 

BUR'IAL. The Hebrews were at all 
times very careful in the burial of their 
dead, Gen. 25:9; 35:29. To be deprived 
of entombment or burial was thought one 
of the greatest marks of dishonor or causes 
•of unhappiness, Eccl. 6:3; Jer. 22:18, 19; 
it being denied to none, not even to ene- 
mies, Deut. 21:23; x Kin. 11:15. Good 
men made it a part of their piety to inter 
the dead. Indeed, how shocking must the 
sight of unburied corpses have been to the 
Jews, when their land was thought to be 
polluted if the dead were in any manner 
-exposed to view, 2 Sam. 21:14; and when 



the very touch of a dead body, or of any- 
thing that had touched a dead body, was 
esteemed a defilement, and required a cer- 
emonial ablution, Num. 19:11-22. 

Only 3 cases of burning the bodies of 
the dead occur in Scripture : the family of 
Achan, after they were stoned, Josh. 7:24, 
25, the mangled remains of Saul and his 
sons, 1 Sam. 31:12, and perhaps the victims 
of some plague, Amos 6:10. It was cus- 
tomary for the nearest relatives to close the 
eyes of the dying, and give them the part- 
ing kiss, and then to commence the wail- 
ing for the dead, Gen. 46:4; 50:1; in this 
wailing, which continued at intervals until 
after the burial, they were joined by other 
relatives and friends, John 11:19, whose 
loud and shrill lamentations are referred 
to in Mark 5:38. It is also a custom still 
prevailing in the East to hire wailing wo- 
men, Jer. 9:17; Amos 5:16, who praised 
the deceased, Acts 9:39, and by doleful 
cries and frantic gestures, aided at times 
by melancholy tones of music, Matt. 9 : 23, 
strove to express the deepest grief, Ezek. 
24:17, 18. 

Immediately after death the body was 
washed, and laid out in a convenient room, 
Acts 9 : 37-39, and sometimes anointed, 
Matt. 26: 12; it was wrapped in many folds 
of linen, with spices, and the head bound 
about with a napkin, Matt. 27:59; and 
each limb and finger wrapped separately, 
John 11:44, as the mummies of Egypt are 
found to have been. Unless the body was 
to be embalmed,, the burial took place 
very soon, on account both of the heat of 
the climate and of the ceremonial unclean- 
ness incurred. Rarely did 24 hours elapse 
between death and burial, Acts 5:6, 10; 
and in Jerusalem to-day burial, as a gen- 
eral rule, is not delayed more than 3 or 4 
hours. The body being shrouded, was 
placed upon a bier — a board resting on a 
simple handbarrow borne by men — to be 
conveyed to the tomb, 2 Sam. 3:31; Luke 
7:14. Sometimes a more costly bier or 
bed was used, 2 Chr. 16:14; an d the bod- 
ies of kings and some others may have 
been laid in coffins of wood, or stone sar- 
cophagi, Gen. 50:26; 2 Kin. 13:21. The 
relatives attended the bier to the tomb, 
which was usually without the city; and 
spices and aromatic woods were often 
burned at the burial, 2 Chr. 16:14. A ban- 
quet sometimes followed the funeral, Jer. 
16:7, 8; and during subsequent days the 
bereaved friends were wont to go to the 
grave from time to time, to weep and to 

83 



BUR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



C^ES 



adorn the place with fresh flowers, John 
11:31, a custom observed even at this day. 
See Embalming, Mourning, Sepulchre. 

BURN'ING. This most cruel mode of 
execution was anciently common, and was 
not unknown to the Hebrews. See Gen. 
38:24; Lev. 20:14; 21:9; Jer. 29:22; Dan. 3:6. 

BURNT-OFFERINGS. See SACRIFICE. 

BUSH' EL, used in the New Testament 
to express the Greek modius, which was 
about a peck by our measure. 

BUTLER, a court-officer in charge of the 
wines, etc., of Eastern monarchs, in con- 
stant attendance, obliged to taste their 
wines before giving them out, as a pledge 
that no poison was mixed with them, but 
usually confided in, and often of much in- 
fluence. Pharaoh's chief butler in Egypt, 
Gen. 40; 41, Rabshakeh with Sennacherib, 
Isa. 36, and Nehemiah with Artaxerxes, 
Neh. 1 ; 2, are examples. 

BUT'TER. The Hebrew word usually 
rendered butter denotes, properly, sour or 
curdled milk, Gen. 18:8; Judg. 5:25; Job 
20:17, a favorite beverage in the East to 
the present day. Yet butter must have 
been known to the Hebrews. Though usu- 
ally liquid in those hot climates, it is much 
used by the Arabs and Syrians of our own 
times, and is made by pouring the milk 
into the common goat-skin bottle, suspend- 
ing this from the tent-poles, and swinging 
it to and fro with a jerk, until the process 
is completed. Still it is not certain that 
the Hebrew word rendered butter ever de- 
notes that article. Even in Prov. 30:33 we 
may render, " The pressing of milk bring- 
eth forth cheese;" elsewhere the render- 
ing "curd," or "curdled milk," would be 
appropriate; and in Job 29:6; Psa. 55:21; 
Isa. 7:15, 22, "cream." 

BUZ, despised, 2d son of Nahor and Mil- 
cah, and ancestor of the Buzites, who lived 
in Mesopotamia or Ram, and afterwards 
perhaps in Arabia Deserta, Gen. 22:21; 
Job 32:2; Jer. 25:23. 

BY-AND-BY, Matt. 13 : 21 ; Mark 6 : 25 ; 
Luke 17:7; 21:9, means immediately. 

C. 

CAB, a Hebrew measure, the 6th part of 
a seah, and the 18th part of an ephah. A 
cab contained 3 and one-third pints of our 
wine measure, and 2 and five-sixths pints 
of our corn measure, 2 Kin. 6:25. 

CA'BUL, probably displeasing, I., a name 
given by Hiram king of Tyre to a district 
in Northwestern Galilee containing 20 cit- 
84 



ies, which Solomon gave him for his help 
in building the temple, 1 Kin. 9:13; the 
term implying his dissatisfaction with the 
gift. 

II. A city of Asher, 8 or 9 miles east of 
Akka or Acre, Josh. 19:27. 

CiE'SAR, originally the surname of the 
Julian family at Rome. After being digni- 
fied in the person of Julius Caesar, it be- 
came the usual appellation of those of his 
family who ascended the throne. The last 
of these was Nero, but the name was still 
retained by his successors as a sort of title 
belonging to the imperial dignity. The 
emperors alluded to by this title in the 
New Testament are Augustus, Luke 2:1; 
Ttberius, Luke 3:1; 20:22; Claudius, 
Acts 11:28; and Nero, Acts 25:8; Phil. 
4:22. Caligula, who succeeded Tiberius, 
is not mentioned. 

CflSSARE'A, often called Caesarea of Pal- 
estine, on the coast of the Mediterranean 
Sea, 60 miles from Jerusalem, between 
Joppa and Tyre, Acts 10:23, 2 4J 21:8. 
It was anciently a small place, called the 
Tower of Strato, but was rebuilt with great 
splendor, and strongly fortified by Herod 
the Great, who formed a harbor by con- 
structing a vast semicircular breakwater, 
adorned the city with many stately build- 
ings, and named it Caesarea, in honor of 
Augustus. It was inhabited chiefly by 
Greeks, and Herod established in it quin- 
quennial games in honor of the emperor. 
This city was the capital of Judaea during 
the reign of Herod the Great and of Herod 
Agrippa I., and was also the seat of the 
Roman power while Judaea was governed 
as a province of the empire. It was sub- 
ject to frequent commotions between the 
Greeks, Romans, and Jews, so that on one 
occasion 20,000 persons are said to have 
fallen in one day. 

It is noted in gospel history as the resi- 
dence of Philip the evangelist, Acts 8 : 40 ; 
21:8; and of Cornelius the centurion, the 
firstfruits from the Gentiles, Acts 10 ; 11 : 1- 
18. Here Herod Agrippa was smitten by 
the angel of God, Acts 12:20-23. Paul sev- 
eral times visited it, Acts 9:30; 18:22; 21:8, 
16; here he appeared before Felix, who 
trembled under his appeals, Acts 23 : 23 ; 24 ; 
here he was imprisoned for 2 years ; and 
after pleading before Festus and Agrippa, 
he sailed hence for imperial Rome, Acts 
25:26; 27:1. It was the birthplace and 
home of Eusebius the church historian, 
early in the 4th century. It is now called 
Kaiseriyeh, and is only a heap of ruins ten- 



CJES 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAL 



anted by snakes, scorpions, lizards, wild 
boars, and jackals. 

CSSARE'A-PHILIP'PI, a city 3 or 4 miles 
east of Dan, near the eastern source of the 
Jordan; anciently called Paneas, now Ba- 
nias, from an adjacent grotto dedicated to 
Pan, from which one of the sources of the 
Jordan flowed. It stood where the moun- 
tains southwest of Hermon join the plain 
above Lake Huleh, on an elevated plateau 
surrounded by ravines and water-courses, 
and its walls were thick and strong. It 
was enlarged and embellished by Philip 
the tetrarch of Trachonitis, and called 
Caesarea in honor of Tiberius Caesar ; and 
the name Philippi was added to distin- 
guish it from. Caesarea on the Mediterra- 
nean. Our Saviour visited this place short- 
ly before his transfiguration, Matt. 16:13- 
28; Mark 8:27-38; Luke 9:18, 27. After 
the destruction of Jerusalem, Titus here 
made the captive Jews fight and kill each 
other in gladiatorial shows. In the time of 
the Crusades it underwent many changes, 
and is now a paltry village amid extensive 
ruins, among which is a vast castle on the 
high ground, parts of which date back far 
into Old Testament times. 

CA'IAPHAS, depression, high-priest of 
the Jews, A. D. 25 to 36. He was a Saddu- 
cee, and a bitter enemy of Christ. At his 
palace the priests, etc., met after the resur- 
rection of Lazarus to plot the death of the 
Saviour, lest all the people should believe 
on him. On one of these occasions, John 
11:47-54, he counselled the death of Christ 
for the political salvation of the nation; 
and his words were, unconsciously to him, 
an inspired prediction of the salvation of a 
lost world. These plots against Christ, 
Matt. 26:1-5; Mark 14:1; Luke 22:2, led 
to his seizure, and he was brought first be- 
fore Annas, formerly high-priest, who sent 
him to Caiaphas his son-in-law. See An- 
nas. Caiaphas examined Christ before the 
assembling of the Sanhedrin, after which 
the trial went on, and Christ was con- 
demned, mocked, and transferred to Pilate 
for sentence and execution, Matt. 26:57-68; 
Mark 14 : 53-72 ; Luke 22 : 54-71 ; John 18 : 13- 
27. Not content with procuring the death 
of the Saviour, Caiaphas and his friends 
violently persecuted his followers, Acts 
4:1-6; 5:17, t,2- But a few years after the 
ascension of Christ, and soon after the 
degradation of Pilate, Caiaphas also was 
deposed from office by the Roman procon- 
sul Vitellius. Like Balaam of the Old Tes- 
tament, he is a melancholy instance of light 



resisted, privilege, station, and opportunity 
abused, and prophetic words concerning 
Christ joined with a life of infidelity and 
crime and a fearful death. 

CAIN, possession, the firstborn of the hu- 
man race, Gen. 4:1, an agriculturist, and 
the first murderer. See Abel. His crime 
was committed against the warnings of 
God, and he despised the call of God to 
confession and penitence, Gen. 4:6-9. His 
punishment included an increase of physi- 
cal wants and hardships, distress of con- 
science, banishment from society, and loss 
of God's manifested presence and favor, 
Gen. 4:16. But God mingled mercy with 
judgment, and appointed for Cain some 
sign to assure him that he should not suffer 
the death-penalty he had incurred at the 
hand of man, for God only was his judge. 
He withdrew into the land of Nod, east of 
Eden, and built a fixed abode, which he 
named Enoch, after one of his sons, Heb. 
11:4; 1 John 3:12; Jude 11. 

CAI'NAN, possessor, or Kenan, I., son of 
Enos, and father of Mahalaleel, Gen. 5:9; 
1 Chr. 1:2. He lived to be 910 years old. 

II. Son of Arphaxad and father of Salah, 
Luke 3:36. This Cainan, however, is not 
named in the 3 Old Testament genealo- 
gies, Gen. 10:24; 11:12; 1 Chr. 1:24, nor 
in most ancient versions, but occurs in the 
Septuagint in the above two passages in 
Genesis, and was perhaps copied thence 
by Luke. 

CAKE. See Bread. 

CA'LAH, old age, a very ancient city of 
Assyria, built by Asshur or by Nimrod, 
Gen. 10:11, 12. It was at some distance 
from Nineveh, and Resen lay between 
them. It is thought by Porter and Kalisch 
to be the place now called Kaleh-Sherghat, 
on the west bank of the Tigris, 60 miles 
south of Nineveh. Here have been dis- 
entombed some of the oldest Assyrian 
monuments yet found, the name of Asshur 
being among the inscriptions. It was the 
capital of the Assyrian kingdom many 
years, before Nineveh. 

CAL'AMUS. See Cane. 

CA'LEB, a dog, I., son of Jephunneh, of 
the tribe of Judah, who was sent, with one 
man from each of the other tribes, to search 
out the promised land, Num. 13 ; 14. B. C. 
1491. Of all the 12, Caleb and Joshua acted 
the part of true and faithful men ; and they 
only, of all the men of war of Israel, were 
permitted to enter Canaan, Num. 14:6-24, 
38 ; 26:65. He was one of the princes ap- 
pointed to divide the conquered territory 

85 



CAL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAL 



among the tribes, Num. 34:19. Hebron 
was given to him as a reward of his fidel- 
ity, according to the promise of God, Deut. 
I: 36; Josh. 14. Though 85 years old, he 
still retained his vigor, and soon drove out 
the Anakim from his inheritance. He gave 
a portion also with his daughter Achsah to 
Othniel his nephew, who had earned the 
reward by his valor in the capture of De- 
bir, Josh. 15 : 13-19 ; 21 : 12. This region was 
for some time called by his name, 1 Sam. 
30:14, and lay between Hebron and Car- 
mel in the south of Judah. 

II. A son of Hur, whose children peo- 
pled the country about Bethlehem, etc., 
1 Chr. 2:50-55. 

CALF, the young of the cow, a clean ani- 
mal much used in sacrifice ; hence the ex- 
pression, " So will we render the calves of 
our lips," Hos. 14:2., i. e., offer as sacrifices 
the prayers and praises of our lips, Heb. 
13: 15. The stall-fed or fatted calf was con- 
sidered the choicest .animal food, Gen. 
18:7; 1 Sam. 28:24; Amos 6:4; Luke 15:23. 

In Jer. 34: 18, " they cut the calf in twain, 
and passed between the parts thereof," 
there is an allusion to an ancient mode of 
ratifying a covenant ; the parties thus sig- 
nifying their willingness to be themselves 
cut in pieces if unfaithful, Gen. 15:9-18. 

The golden calf worshipped by the 
Jews at Mount Sinai, while Moses was ab- 
sent in the mount, was cast by Aaron from 
the earrings of the people. It was in imi- 
tation probably of the idol Mnevis, wor- 
shipped in On, Egypt, as a gilded calf. It 
was a hollow figure perhaps, or a wooden 
figure coated over with gold. This calf 
they intended as a symbol of Jehovah, 
Exod. 32:5, and its story is a most signifi- 
cant admonition to worship God in spirit 
and beware of all material forms and 
" aids to devotion," however plausible. Its 
worship was attended with degrading ob- 
scenities, and was punished by the death 
of 3,000 men. 

The golden calves of Jeroboam were 
erected by him, one at each extreme of his 
kingdom, that the 10 tribes might be pre- 
vented from resorting to Jerusalem to wor- 
ship, and thus coalescing with the men of 
Judah, 1 Kin. 12:26-29. Thus the people 
"forgot God their Saviour," and sank into 
gross idolatry. Jeroboam may not have 
intended to institute a new religion, but to 
adapt the old to his political exigencies — 
making the calves as symbols of Jehovah, 
whose prophets his priests still claimed to 
be, 1 Kin. 22:6. Yet Jeroboam is scarcely 
86 



ever mentioned in Scripture without the 
brand upon him, " who made Israel to sin," 
2 Kin. 17:21. The prophet Hosea fre- 
quently alludes to the calf at Bethel, to the 
folly and guilt of its worshippers, and to 
the day when both idol and people should 
be broken in pieces by the Assyrians. 

CALL ON THE NAME OF THE LORD, 

means to pray to him as God, Gen. 12:8; 
Psa. 79:6; 105:1. This is its meaning also 
when Christ is spoken of — he is worshipped 
as Jehovah, Acts 2:21; 7:59; Rom. 10:12; 
1 Cor. 1:2. In Gen. 4:26 organized public 
worship is intended. 

In some passages a person is " called " 
thus and so, to intimate emphatically that 
he is, and is to be acknowledged, what he 
is called, Isa. 9:6; 56:7; Matt. 1:25. A di- 
vine " call " signifies the designation of 
individuals or nations to certain functions,, 
privileges, or penalties, Exod. 31:2; Isa. 
22:20; 42:6; also the invitation of the gos- 
pel to sinners, Matt. 9:13; 11:28; 22:3, 4; 
Rom. 8:28-30; 2 Tim. 1:9. 

CAL'NEH, called Calno, Isa. 10:9, and 
Canneh, Ezek. 27:23, one of Nimrod's cit- 
ies, Gen. 10:10, afterwards called Ctesi- 
phon ; it lay on the east bank of the Tigris 
opposite Seleucia, 20 miles below Bagdad. 
Ctesiphon was a winter residence of the 
Parthian kings. Nothing now remains but 
the ruins of a palace and mounds of rub- 
bish. Rawlinson, however, locates Calneh 
at Niffer, on the east bank of the Euphra- 
tes, 60 miles southeast of Babylon — the site 
of some place of importance. 

CAL'VARY, Luke 23:33, or Gol'gotha, 
the latter being the Hebrew term, place of 
a skull, the place where our Saviour was 
crucified, near by Jerusalem, John 19:20, 
but outside of its walls, Matt. 27:33; Mark 
15:22; John 19:17; Heb. 13:12. In the 
same place was a private garden, and a 
tomb in which the body of Christ lay un- 
til the resurrection, John 19:41, 42. The 
expression "Mount Calvary" has no evi- 
dence to support it beyond what is implied 
in the name Golgotha, which might well 
be given to a slight elevation shaped like 
the top of a skull, and the probability that 
such a place would be chosen for the cruci- 
fixion. It is very doubtful whether the true 
localities of Calvary and the tomb are those 
covered by the present " Church of the 
Holy Sepulchre," a vast structure north of 
Mount Zion and within the modern city, 
built on the site which was fixed under the 
empress Helena, A. D. 335, by tradition and 
a pretended miracle. Some Biblical geog- 



CAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAM 



raphers adhere to this location; but Rob- 
inson and many others strongly oppose it, 
on the ground of the weakness of the tra- 
dition, and the difficulty of supposing that 
this place lay outside of the ancient walls. 
See Jerusalem. Dr. Fisk, while visiting 
the spot under the natural desire to iden- 
tify the scene of these most sacred events, 
felt it to be just possible, and that was all, 
that the spot shown him might be the ac- 
tual scene of the crucifixion ; that the rock 
shown him might be a part of the rock 
riven by the earthquake ; that the stone 
column he saw, half concealed by iron- 
work, might have been that to which our 
Lord was bound when scourged ; that the 
small fragment of rude stone seen by the 
light of a small taper, through a kind of 
iron filagree, might have been the stone on 
which he sat to be crowned with thorns ; 
that the spot overhung with lamps, and 
covered with a white marble sarcophagus, 
with a kind of domed structure in the cen- 
tre, might have been the place of our Lord's 
burial and resurrection : but when he saw 
the near juxtaposition of all these things, 
and knew that in order to provide for the 
structure of the church the site had to be 
cut down and levelled ; when he reflected 
that on the very spot a heathen temple had 
stood, till removed by the empress Helena 
to make room for this church ; and, more- 
over, when he considered the superstitious 
purpose all these things were to serve, and 
the spirit of that church which thus para- 
ded these objects of curiosity, he could not 
bring himself to feel that they were what 
they professed to be. 

Let us be thankful that though the exact 
scene of Christ's death is now unknown, 
there can be no doubt as to the fact. " He 
died, and was buried, and the third day 
rose again, according to the Scriptures." 
Then the old ritual passed away, Satan 
was despoiled, man was redeemed, God 
reconciled, and heaven opened to all be- 
lievers. 

CAMBY'SES. See Ahasuerus, II. 

CAM'EL, carrier, a beast of burden very 
common in the East, where it is called " the 
land-ship," and " the carrier of the desert." 
It is 6 or 7 feet high, and is exceedingly 
strong, tough, and enduring of labor. The 
feet are constructed with a tough elastic 
sole, which prevents the animal from sink- 
ing in the sand ; and on all sorts of ground 
it is very sure-footed. The Arabian spe- 
cies, most commonly referred to in Scrip- 
ture, has but one hump on the back; while 



the Bactrian camel, found in Central Asia, 
has two. While the animal is well fed, 




THE SWIFT CAMEL, OR DROMEDARY. 

these humps swell with accumulated fat, 
which is gradually absorbed under scarcity 
and toil, to supply the lack of food. The 
dromedary is a lighter and swifter vari- 
ety, otherwise not distinguishable from the 
common camel, Isa. 60:6; Jer. 2:23. It 
cannot travel more than 8 or 9 miles an 
hour, but can maintain this speed hour 
after hour. Within the cavity of the cam- 
el's stomach is a sort of paunch, provided 
with membranous cells to contain an extra 
provision of water ; the supply with which 
this is filled will last for many days while 
he traverses the desert. His food is coarse 
leaves, twigs, thistles, which he prefers to 
the tenderest grass, and on which he per- 
forms the longest journeys. But generally, 
on a march, about a pound weight of dates, 
beans, or barley will serve for 24 hours. 
The camel kneels to receive its load, which 
varies from 500 to 1,000 or 1,200 pounds. 
Meanwhile it is wont to utter loud cries or 
growls of anger and impatience. Though 
generally docile, it is often obstinate and 
stupid, and at times ferocious ; the young 
are as dull and ungainly as the old. The 
ordinary camel's average rate of travel is 
about 2 and one-third miles an hour ; and 
it jogs on with a sullen pertinacity hour 
after hour without fatigue, seeming as fresh 
at night as in the morning. No other ani- 
mal could endure the severe and continual 
hardships of the camel, his rough usage, 
his coarse and scanty food. The Arabians 
well say of him, "Job's beast is a monu- 
ment of God's mercy." 
This useful animal has been much era- 

87 



CAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAN 



ployed in the East from a very early peri- 
od, Gen. 12:16; Exod. 9:3. The merchants 
of those sultry climes have found it the 
only means of exchanging the products of 
different lands, and from time immemorial 
long caravans have traversed year after 
year the almost pathless deserts, Gen. 
37:25. The number of one's camels was a 
token of his wealth. Job had 3,000, and 
the Midianites' camels were like the sand 
of the sea, Jud. 7:12; 1 Chr. 5:21 ; Job 1:3. 
Rebekah came to Isaac riding upon a cam- 
el, Gen. 24:64 ; the queen of Sheba brought 
them to Solomon, and Hazael to Elisha, 
laden with the choicest gifts, 1 Kin. 10:2; 
2 Kin. 8:9; the Cushites had them in abun- 
dance, 2 Chr. 14:15; and they were even 
made serviceable in war, 1 Sam. 30:17. 
The camel was to the Hebrews an unclean 
animal, as it does not fully divide the hoof, 
Lev. 11:4; yet its milk has ever been to 
the Arabs an important article of food, and 
is highly prized as a cooling and healthy 
drink. Indeed, no animal is more useful 
to the Arabs, while living or after death. 
Its flesh is coarse-grained but palatable, 
especially when young and well fed. Out 
of its hair they manufacture carpets, tent 
cloth, and large sacks for corn. Of its skin 
they make huge water-bottles and leather 
sacks, also sandals, ropes, and thongs. Its 
dung, dried in the sun, serves them for 
fuel. 

Camels' hair was woven into cloth in 
the East, some of it exceedingly fine and 
soft, but usually coarse and rough, used for 
making the coats of shepherds and camel- 
drivers, and for covering tents. It was 
this that John the Baptist wore, and not 
"soft raiment," Matt. 3:4; 11:8. Modern 
dervishes wear garments of this kind ; and 
this appears to be meant in 2 Kin. 1:8; 
Zech. 13:4. 

The expression, " It is easier for a camel 
to go through the eye of a needle," etc., 
Matt. 19:24, was a proverb to describe an 
impossibility. The same phrase occurs 
in the Koran ; and a similar one in the 
Talmud, respecting an elephant's going 
through a needle's eye. See also the prov- 
erb in Matt. 23:24, which illustrates the 
hypocrisy of the Pharisees by the custom 
of passing wine through a strainer. The 
old versions of the New Testament, instead 
of "strain at" a gnat, have "strain out" 
which conveys the true meaning. 

CAMP, ENCAMP'MENTS, 2 Kin. 6:8; 
Rev. 20:9. These terms usually refer to 
the movements of the Israelites between 



Egypt and Canaan ; and many passages of 
the Levitical law relate to things done 
" within " or " without the camp," Lev. 
10:4,5; I 4 : 3J 2 4 :I 4- Compare John 19:17, 
20; Heb. 13:11-13. The whole body of the 
people consisted of 600,000 fighting men, 
besides women and children, Num. 1:2; 
and was disposed into 4 battalions, so ar- 
ranged as to inclose the tabernacle in a 
square, and each under one general stand- 
ard. In the tabernacle was the ark, with 
the pillar of cloud and fire over it, and the 
priests' tents around it, Num. 2 ; 3. The 
mode in which this vast mass of people 
was arranged, with the most perfect order, 
cleanliness, and subordination, must excite 
general surprise. Balaam, standing on 
the heights of Moab, viewed the imposing 
spectacle with admiration and awe. " How 
goodly are thy tents, O Jacob ! the Lord 
his God is with him," Num. 23 ; 24. 

The order appointed for the removal of 
the hosts of Israel from one encampment 
to another is detailed in Num. 9 ; 10. The 
names of 41 encampments are given in 
Num. 33 ; from the first in Rameses, in the 
month April, B. C. 1491, to the last on the 
brink of the Jordan 40 years later. See 
Exodus and Wanderings. 

Travellers in the desert chose a spot of 
rising ground, and by a spring of water if 
possible, and were wont to pitch their tents 
in the centre of a circle formed by their 
camels and baggage, which served as a 
barrier against an assault. A similar mode 
of encamping was practised by large cara- 
vans, and by armies, 1 Sam. 17:20; 26:5, 
margin. 

CAM'PHIRE, in Sol. Song 1:14; 4:13, is 
not the gum camphor of our apothecaries, 
but the cyprus-flower as it is sometimes 
called, the Lawsonia Alba of botanists, the 
Henna of the Arabs, a whitish fragrant 
flower, hanging in clusters like grapes, on 
a bush 4 to 6 feet high. Oriental ladies 
make use of the dried and powdered leaves 
to give their nails, feet, and hands a red- 
dish orange tinge. The nails of Egyptian 
mummies are found thus dyed. See Eye- 
lids. The flowers of the el-Henna are 
fragrant; and being disposed in clusters, 
the females of Egypt are fond of carrying 
it in their bosoms. 

CA'NA, the birthplace of Nathanael, the 
city in which our Lord performed his first 
miracle, and from which he soon after sent 
a miraculous healing " down " to the noble- 
man's son at Capernaum, 18 miles off, John 
2:1-11; 4:46-54; 21:2. It was called Cana 



CAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAN 



of Galilee, now Kana-el-Jelil, and lay 8 
miles north of Nazareth. This is Robin- 
son's view. The commonly received site, 
Kefr Kenna, is nearer Nazareth. Cana is 
now in ruins. 

CA'NAAN, low, I., the 4th son of Ham, 
and grandson of Noah, Gen. 9:18. His 
numerous posterity seem to have occupied 
Zidon first, and thence spread into Syria 
and Canaan, Gen. 10:15-19; 1 Chr. 1:13-16. 
The Jews believe that he was implicated 
with his father in the dishonor done to 
Noah, Gen. 9:20-27, which was the occa- 
sion of the curse under which he and his 
posterity suffered, Josh. 9:23, 27; 2 Chr. 
8:7,8. 

II. The land peopled by Canaan and his 
posterity, and afterwards given to the He- 
brews. This country has at different peri- 
ods been called by various names, either 
from its inhabitants or some circumstances 
connected with its history. (1.) "The land 
of Canaan," from Canaan, the son of Ham, 
who divided it among his 11 sons, each of 
whom became the head of a numerous 
tribe, and ultimately of a distinct people, 
Gen. 10:15-20; 11:31. This did not at first 
include any land east of the Jordan, Num. 
32:26-32. (2.) "The land of Promise," 
Heb. 11:9, from the promise given to Abra- 
ham that his posterity should possess it, 
Gen. 12:7; 13:15. These being termed 
Hebrews, the region in which they dwelt 
was called (3.) " The land of the Hebrews," 
Gen. 40:15; and (4.) " The land of Israel," 
from the Israelites, or posterity of Jacob, 
having settled there. This name is of fre- 
quent occurrence in the Old Testament. 
It comprehends all that tract of ground on 
each side of the Jordan which God gave for 
an inheritance to the Hebrews. At a later 
age, this term was often restricted to the 
territory of the 10 tribes, Ezek. 27 : 17. 
(5.) "The land of Judah." This at first 
comprised only the region which was allot- 
ted to the tribe of Judah. After the sepa- 
ration of the 10 tribes, the land which be- 
longed to Judah and Benjamin, who formed 
a separate kingdom, was distinguished by 
the appellation of " the land of Judah," or 
Judaea ; which latter name the whole coun- 
try retained during the existence of the 2d 
temple, and under the dominion of the 
Romans. (6.) " The Holy Land." This 
name appears to have been used by the 
Hebrews after the Babylonish captivity, 
Zech. 2:13. (7.) "Palestine," Exod. 15:14, 
a name derived from the Philistines, who 
migrated from Egypt, and having expelled 



the aboriginal inhabitants, settled on the 
borders of the Mediterranean. Their name 
was subsequently given to the whole coun- 
try, though they in fact possessed only a 
small part of it. By heathen writers, the 
Holy Land has been variously termed Pal- 
estine, Syria, and Phoenicia. Its popula- 
tion in its most prosperous days was 4 or 5 
millions; now one and a half millions. 

Canaan was bounded on the west by the 
Mediterranean Sea, north by Mount Leba- 
non and Syria, east by Arabia Deserta, 
and south by Edom and the desert of Zin 
and Paran. Its extreme length was about 
180 miles, and its average width about 60 ; 
and it contained 10,000 square miles — more 
or less, at different periods. It general 
form and dimensions Coleman has well 
compared to those of the State of New 
Hampshire. At the period of David, vast 
tributary regions were for a time annexed 
to the Holy Land. These included the bor- 
dering nations on the east, far into Arabia 
Deserta; thence north to Tiphsah on the 
Euphrates, with all Syria between Leba- 
non and the Euphrates. On the south it 
included Edom, and reached the Red Sea 
at Ezion-geber. 

The land of Canaan has been variously 
divided. Under Joshua it was apportioned 
out to the 12 tribes. Under Rehoboam it 
was divided into the 2 kingdoms of Israel 
and Judah. It afterwards fell into the 
hands of the Babylonians, the Greeks, the 
Syrians, and the Romans. During the time 
of our Saviour, it was under the dominion 
of the last-mentioned people, and was divi- 
ded into 5 provinces : Galilee, Samaria, 
Judaea, Peraea, and Idumaea. Peraea was 
again divided into 7 cantons : Abilene, Tra- 
chonitis, Ituraea, Gaulonitis, Batanaea, Pe- 
raea, and Decapolis. At present, Palestine 
is subject to the sultan of Turkey, under 
whom the pashas of Acre and Gaza govern 
the sea-coast, and the pasha of Damascus 
the interior of the country. 

The surface of the land of Canaan is 
beautifully diversified with mountains and 
plains, rivers and valleys. The principal 
mountains are Lebanon, Carmel, Tabor, 
Gilead, Hermon, the Mount of Olives, etc. 
The plain of the Mediterranean, of Esdrae- 
lon, and of Jericho, are celebrated as the 
scenes of many important events. The 
chief streams are the Jordan, the Leontes, 
the Arnon, the Sihor, the Jabbok, and the 
Kishon. The lakes are the Asphaltites or 
Dead Sea, the Lake of Tiberias or Sea of 
Galilee, and Lake Merom. These are 

89 



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elsewhere described, each in its own 
place. 

The general features of the country may 
here be briefly described. The northern 
boundary is at the lofty mountains of Leb- 
anon and Hermon, some peaks of which 
are 10,000 feet high. Around the base of 
Mount Hermon are the various sources of 
the Jordan. This river, passing through 
Lake Merom and the Sea of Galilee, flows 
south with innumerable windings into the 
Dead Sea. Its valley is deeply sunk, and 
from its source to the Dead Sea it has a 
descent of 2,000 feet. See Arabah and 
Jordan. The country between the Jordan 
valley and the Mediterranean Sea is in 
general an elevated table-land, broken up 
by many hills, and by numerous deep val- 
leys through which the wintry torrents 
flow into Jordan and the sea. The table- 
land of Galilee may be 900 or 1,000 feet 
above the Mediterranean. In Lower Gali- 
lee we find the great and beautiful plain of 
Esdraelon, extending from Mount Carmel 
and Acre on the west to Tabor and Gilboa, 
with branches, to the Jordan, on the east. 
From this plain the land again rises towards 
the south, Mount Gerizim being 2,849 f eet , 
Jerusalem 2,593, and Hebron 3,040 above 
the sea. On the sea-coast, below Mount 
Carmel, a fertile plain is found ; towards 
the south it becomes gradually wider, and 
expands at last into the great desert of 
Paran. From this plain of the sea-coast 
the ascent to the high land of the interior is 
by a succession of natural terraces ; while 
the descent to the Jordan, the Dead Sea, 
and Edom is abrupt and precipitous. The 
country beyond the Jordan is mountainous ; 
a rich grazing land, with many fertile val- 
leys. Still farther east is the high and des- 
olate plateau of Arabia Deserta. 

The soil and climate of Canaan were 
highly favorable. The heat was not ex- 
treme except in the deep river beds and 
on the sea-coast ; and the climate was in 
general mild and healthful. The varia- 
tions of sunshine, clouds, and rain, which 
with us extend throughout the year, are in 
Palestine confined chiefly to the winter or 
rainy season. The autumnal rains usually 
commence in the latter part of October, 
and soon after the first showers wheat and 
barley are sowed. Rain falls more heavily 
in December, and continues, though with 
less frequency, until April. From May to 
October no rain falls. The cold of winter 
is not severe, and the ground does not 
freeze. Snows a foot or more deep some- 
QO 



times occur, and there are frequent hail- 
storms in winter. The barley harvest is 
about a fortnight earlier than the wheat, 
and both are earlier in the plains than on 
the high land ; altogether the grain harvest 
extends from April to June. The first 
grapes ripen in July, but the vintage is not 
over till September. In this month and 
October the heat is great; the ground be- 
comes dry and parched ; verdure has long 
before disappeared ; pools and cisterns be- 
gin to dry up ; and all nature, animate and 
inanimate, looks forward with longing for 
the return of the rainy season. 

The soil of Canaan was highly produc- 
tive. The prevailing rock is a chalky 
limestone, abounding in caverns. It read- 
ily formed, and was covered with, a rich 
mould, which produced, in the various 
elevations and climates so remarkably 
grouped together in that small region of 
the world, an unequalled variety of the 
fruits of the ground. Olives, figs, vines, 
and pomegranates grew in abundance ; the 
hills were clothed with flocks and herds, 
and the valleys were covered with corn. 
The land of promise was currently de- 
scribed as "flowing with milk and honey.'' 
Yet the glowing description given by Mo- 
ses, Deut. 8:7-9, and the statements of his- 
tory as to the vast population formerly 
occupying it, are in striking contrast with 
its present aspect of barrenness and deso- 
lation. See Census. The curse brought 
down by the unbelief of the Jews still 
blights their unhappy land. Long ages of 
warfare and misrule have despoiled and 
depopulated it. Its hills, once terraced to 
the summit, and covered with luxuriant 
grain, vines, olives, and figs, are now bare 
rocks. Its early and latter rains, once 
preserved in reservoirs, and conducted by 
winding channels to water the ground in 
the season of drought, now flow off un- 
heeded to the sea. The land, stripped of 
its forests, lies open to the sun — which now 
scorches where it once fertilized. And yet 
some parts of Palestine still show an aston- 
ishing fertility; and wherever the soil is 
cultivated, it yields a hundred-fold. In- 
dian corn grows there 11 feet high, and 
grapes are still produced that almost rival 
the clusters of Eshcol. Intelligent travel- 
lers agree in confirming the statements of 
Scripture as to its ancient fertility. See 
Hebrews, Jud^a. 

Conquest of Canaan. Various argu- 
ments have been adduced to justify the 
conquest of Canaan, and the extermina- 



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tion of its inhabitants by the Israelites ; as 
that the land had been allotted to Shem 
and his sons after the flood, and the sons 
of Ham were usurpers ; that they first as- 
saulted the Jews ; that Abraham had taken 
possession of the land ages before ; that the 
Canaanites Avere akin to the Egyptians, 
and implicated in their guilt and punish- 
ment as oppressors of the Hebrews. What- 
ever justice there may be in any of these 
reasons, they are not those which the Bible 
assigns. The only true warrant of the Jews 
was, the special command of the Lord of 
all. They were impressively taught that 
the wickedness of those nations was the 
reason of their punishment, w T hich the for- 
bearance of God had long delayed, and 
which was designed as a warning to them 
and all mankind against idolatry and its 
kindred sins. It was these sins the Jews 
were to abhor and exterminate ; they were 
to act as agents of God's justice, and not 
for the gratification of their own avarice, 
anger, or lust, the spoil in many cases 
being doomed to destruction. They were 
led into Canaan by a miracle; the first 
city in their way was captured by a mir- 
acle ; and God's hand was often seen in 
their aid. The narrative of the conquest 
is given in Deut. 1-4 ; Joshua ; and Judges 
1. The Canaanites were not wholly de- 
stroyed. Many of them escaped to other 
lands ; and fragments of almost all the na- 
tions remained in Judaea, subject to the 
Israelites, but snares to their feet and 
thorns in their sides. It must be observed, 
also, that full notice was previously given 
them to quit their forfeited possessions ; a 
solemn writ of ejectment had been issued 
by the great Proprietor, and if they resist- 
ed, they incurred the consequences. 

CA'NAANITES, Gen. 10:18, 19, the de- 
scendants of Canaan. They were descend- 
ants of Ham, while Abraham and his kins- 
men were Shemites ; yet the language of 
each seems to have been understood by 
the others. Their first habitation was in 
the land of Canaan, where they multiplied 
extremely, and by trade and war acquired 
great riches, and sent out colonies all over 
the islands and coasts of the Mediterrane- 
an. When the measure of their idolatries 
and abominations was completed, God de- 
livered their country into the hands of the 
Israelites, who conquered it under Joshua. 
See the previous article. The following 
are the principal tribes mentioned. 

1. The Hivites dwelt in the northern 
part of the country, at the foot of Mount 



Hermon, or Anti-Lebanon, according to 
Josh. 11:3, where it is related that they, 
along with the united forces of Northern 
Canaan, were defeated by Joshua. They 
were not, however, entirely driven out of 
their possessions, Judg. 3:3; 2 Sam. 24:7; 

1 Kin. 9:20. There were also Hivites in 
Middle Palestine, Gen. 34:2; Josh. 9:1, 7; 
11:19. See Hivites. 

2. The Canaanites, in a restricted sense, 
inhabited the Jordan valley and the plains 
west of the Jordan and on the coast of the 
Mediterranean Sea, Num. 13 : 29 ; Josh. 
11:3; 13:2,3. 

3. The Girgashites dwelt between the 
Canaanites and the Jebusites ; as may be 
inferred from the order in which they are 
mentioned in Josh. 24:11. 

4. The Jebusites had possession of the 
hill country around Jerusalem, and of that 
city itself, of which the ancient name was 
Jehus, Josh. 15:8, 63; 18:28. The Benja- 
mites, to whom this region was allotted, 
did not drive out the Jebusites, Judg. 1:21. 
David first captured the citadel of Jebus, 

2 Sam. 5:6. 

5. The Amorites inhabited, in Abra- 
ham's time, the region south of Jerusalem, 
on the western side of the Dead Sea, Gen. 
14:7. At a later period, they spread them- 
selves out over all the mountainous coun- 
try which forms the southeastern part of 
Canaan, and which was called from them 
the "mountain of the Amorites," and after- 
wards the " mountain of Judah," Deut. 
1:19, 20; Num. 13:29; Josh. 11:3. On the 
east side of the Jordan also they had, be- 
fore the time of Moses, founded 2 king- 
doms, that of Bashan in the north, and 
another, bounded at first by the Jabbok, in 
the south. But under Sihon they crossed 
the Jabbok, and took from the Ammonites 
and Moabites all the country between the 
Jabbok and the Arnon ; so that this latter 
stream now became the southern boundary 
of the Amorites, Num. 21:13, 14, 26; 32:33, 
39; Deut. 4:46, 47; 31:4. This last tract 
the Israelites took possession of after their 
victory over Sihon. See Amorites. 

6. The Hittites, or children of Heth, 
according to the report of the spies, Num. 
13:29, dwelt among the Amorites in the 
mountainous district of the south, after- 
wards called the " mountain of Judah." 
In the time of Abraham they possessed 
Hebron ; and the patriarch purchased from 
them the cave of Machpelah as a sepulchre, 
Gen. 23; 25:9, 10. After the Israelites en- 
tered Canaan, the Hittites seem to have 

9i 



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moved farther northward. The country 
around Bethel is called " the land of the 
Hittites," Judg. 1:26. See Hittites. 

7. The Perizzites were found in vari- 
ous parts of Canaan. The name signifies 
inhabitants of the plains, from their origi- 
nal abode. According to Gen. 13:7, they 
dwelt with the Canaanites, between Bethel 
and Ai ; and according to Gen. 34:30, in 
the vicinity of Shechem. See Perizzites. 

Besides these 7 tribes, there were several 
others of the same parentage, dwelling 
north of Canaan. These were the Arkites, 
Arvadites, Hamathites, and Zemarites. 
There were also several other tribes of di- 
verse origin within the bounds of Canaan, 
destroyed by the Israelites; such as the 
Anakim, the Amalekites, and the Rephaim 
or giants. 

Simon the Canaanite. See Zelotes. 

CAN'DACE, prince of servants, an Ethi- 
opian queen, whose high treasurer, proba- 
bly of Jewish birth, was converted to Chris- 
tianity under the preaching of Philip the 
evangelist, Acts 8:27. A. D. 30. The Ethi- 
opia over which she ruled was not Abys- 
sinia, but that region of Upper Nubia called 
by the Greeks Meroe ; and is supposed to 
correspond with the present province of 
Atbara, lying between 13 and 18 degrees 
north latitude. Extensive ruins found in 
this neighborhood, and along the upper 
valley of the Nile, indicate high civilization 
among the ancient Ethiopians. Pliny and 
Strabo inform us that for some time before 
and after the Christian era Ethiopia was 
under the government of female sovereigns, 
who all bore the appellation of Candace. 
Irenaeus and Eusebius ascribe to Canda- 



ce's minister her own conversion to Chris- 
tianity and the promulgation of the gospel 
through her kingdom. 

CAN'DLE, often used in the Bible, A. V., 
tor lamp, Job 18:6; Prov. 31:18; Luke 15:8. 
Candles were unknown in the East. See 
Lamp. A light in the house is an emblem 
of prosperity, Job 21:17, being often kept 
burning all night. 




GOLDEN CANDLESTICK : PLAN AND ELEVATION. 

CAN'DLESTICK. In the tabernacle, the 
golden "candlestick" — or rather candela- 
brum or lamp-stand — stood on the left hand 
of one entering the Holy Place, opposite 
the table of show-bread. It consisted of a 
pedestal ; an upright shaft ; 6 arms, 3 on 
one side, and 3 on the opposite side of the 
shaft ; and 7 lamps surmounting the shaft 
and arms. The arms were adorned with 
3 kinds of carved ornaments, called cups, 
globes, and blossoms. Its lamps were sup- 
plied with pure olive oil, and lighted every 
evening, Exod. 25:31-40; 30:7,8; 37:17-24; 
Lev. 24:1-3; t Sam. 3:3; 2 Chr. 13:11. In 
the 1st temple there were 10 candelabra of 
pure gold, half of them standing on the 




SPOILS OF JERUSALEM, FROM THE ARCH OF TITUS AT ROME. 



north, and half on the south side, within 
the Holy Place, 1 Kin. 7:49, 50; 2 Chr. 4:7; 
Jer. 52: 19. In the 2d temple there was but 
1, resembling that of the tabernacle. This 
92 



was carried to Rome, on the destruction of 
Jerusalem; it was lodged in Vespasian's 
temple to Peace, and copied on the tri- 
umphal arch of Titus, where its mutilated 



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CAP 



image is yet to be seen. See the beautiful 
and significant visions of the candlestick 
by Zechariah and John, Zech. 4:2-12; Rev. 
1:12, 20. 

CANE, or Cal'amus, sweet, Song 4:14, 
an aromatic reed mentioned among the 
drugs of which the sacred perfumes were 
compounded, Exod. 30:23. The true odo- 
riferous calamus or grass came from India; 
and the prophets speak of it as a foreign 
commodity of great value, Isa. 43:24; Jer. 
6:20; Ezek. 27:19. See Reed. 

CAN'KER-WORM, in our Bible, A. V., is 
put where the Hebrew means a species of 
locust, perhaps in the larva state, Joel 1:4; 
Nah. 3: 15, 16. 

CAN'ON, a straight rod ; hence a rule or 
standard, by which the rectitude of opin- 
ions or actions may be decided. In the 
latter sense it is used in Gal. 6:16; Phil. 
3:16, and by the Greek fathers. As the 
standard to which they sought to appeal 
on all questions was the will of God in the 
Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, 
they came naturally to apply this term to 
the collective body of those writings, and 
to speak of them as the canon or rule. 
Canon is also equivalent to a list or cata- 
logue, in which are inserted all those books 
which contain the inspired rule of faith 
and practice. 

In order to establish the canon of Scrip- 
ture, it must be shown that all its books 
are of divine authority; that they are en- 
tire and incorrupt ; that it is without addi- 
tion from any foreign source ; and that the 
whole of the books for which divine author- 
ity can be proved are included. See Bible. 

CAN'TICLES. See Solomon's Song. 

CAPER'NAUM, village of Nahum, a chief 
city of Galilee in the time of Christ, not 
mentioned before the captivity in Babylon. 
It lay on the northwest shore of the Sea of 
Galilee, about 5 miles from the Jordan, and 
on the frequented route from Damascus to 
the Mediterranean. It was a " city," and 
a revenue station, Matt. 9:1, 9; 17:24. 
This seems to have been the residence of 
Christ, during the 3 years of his ministry, 
more than any other place. The brothers 
Andrew and Peter dwelt there ; Christ often 
taught in its synagogues, one of which was 
the gift of a Roman centurion, Luke 7:5, 
and wrought mighty works there — the heal- 
ing of the centurion's servant, Matt. 8:5, 
the man with an unclean spirit, and Pe- 
ter's wife's mother, Mark 1:21-34, the par- 
alytic, Mark 2:1, and the nobleman's son, 
John 4:46, and many others. On its wa- 



ters the miracles of the tribute-money and 
of the stilling the tempest occurred, Matt. 
17:27; John 6:17-21; and it is called "his 
own city," Matt. 4:12-16; 9:1; Mark 2:1. 
Its inhabitants were thus " exalted unto 
heaven;" but their unbelief and impeni- 
tence cast them down to destruction, Matt. 
1 1 : 20-24. The very name and site of Ca- 
pernaum have been lost. Dr. Robinson 
locates it at Khan Minyeh, on the northern 
border of the fine plain of Gennesaret, 
where ruins of some extent still remain, 
and a copious fountain not far from the 
sea ; Capt. Wilson and other authorities, at 
Tell Hum, 3 miles to the northeast, where 
the remains of a large Jewish synagogue 
and other ruins are found ; and others still, 
with less probability, at the Round Foun- 
tain, near the south end of the plain, 3 
miles south of Khan Minyeh and a mile 
and a half from the lake. 

CAPH'TORIM, descendants of Mizraim, 
and kindred to the Casluhim, near whom 
they probably originated on the northeast 
coast of Africa. These last two people are 
both named as ancestors of the Philistines, 
Gen. 10:14; Deut. 2:23; Amos 9:7; and it 
is probable that a colony made up from 
both drove out the Avim from the country 
on the southeast coast of the Mediterrane- 
an, and occupied it under the name of Phil- 
istines, which it is generally agreed means 
strangers. They were there in Abraham's 
day, Gen. 21 :32, 34, but whether they came 
directly from Egypt, or from Cyprus, Crete, 
or Cappadocia, is not agreed. 

CAPPADO'CIA, the largest ancient prov- 
ince of Asia Minor ; having Pontus on the 
north, Mount Taurus, separating it from 
Cilicia and Syria, on the south, Galatia on 
the west, and the Euphrates and Armenia 
on the east. It was watered by the river 
Halys, and was noted for its fine pastures 
and its excellent breed of horses, asses, 
and sheep. There were many Jews resi- 
ding in it, Acts 2:9; and Christianity was 
early introduced there, 1 Pet. 1:1, among 
a people proverbial for dulness, faithless- 
ness, and vice. See Crete. Several cel- 
ebrated Christian fathers flourished in this 
province, as Basil and the 3 Gregories ; and 
their churches may be traced as late as the 
10th century. 

CAP'TAIN, a military chief, or in some 
cases a civil officer ; often a military tri- 
bune or commander of 1,000 men, John 
18:12; Acts 21:31. In Gen. 39:1, etc., prob- 
ably it describes Potiphar as head of the 
executors of the king's orders; in Luke 

93 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAP 



22 : 4, 52 ; Acts 4:1; 5 : 24, it means the lead- 
er of the nightly temple-guard of priests 
and Levites, as in 2 Kin. 11:19; 25:18; in 
Acts 28:16, it was apparently the Praetori- 
an prefect, over the emperor's body-guard. 
Applied to Christ in Heb. 2:10, it is not a 
military term, but means "author" or 
source, as in Heb. 12:2. 

CAP'TIVES, taken in war, seem ancient- 
ly to have been looked upon as justly liable 
to death, and hence to any treatment less 
dreadful than death. Their necks were 
trodden upon, Josh. 10:24, i n token of ab- 
ject subjection, which illustrates Psa. 110:1. 
They were sold into servitude, like Joseph. 
They were mutilated, like Samson, Adoni- 
zedek, or Zedekiah. They were stripped 
of all clothing, and driven in crowds to 
adorn the victor's triumph, Isa. 20 : 4. Large 
numbers of them were selected, often by a 
measuring line, 2 Sam. 8 : 2, and slain, 2 Chr. 
25:12. This was sometimes done with de- 
signed cruelty, 2 Sam. 12:31; 1 Chr. 20:3. 
See cut in Nineveh. See also 2 Kin. 8:12; 
Nah. 3:5, 6; Zech. 14:2. A whole people 
was sometimes sold into slavery, or trans- 
planted to another country. The Romans 
in some cases bound a living captive to a 
dead body, and left them to perish togeth- 
er — a practice which may illustrate the 
apostle's cry, "O wretched man that I am! 
who shall deliver me from the body of this 
death?" Rom. 7:24. 

CAPTIVITY. God often punished the 
«ins of the Jews by captivities or servi- 
tudes, according to his threatenings, Deut. 
28. Their first captivity, however, from 
which Moses delivered them, should be 
considered rather as a permission of Prov- 
idence, than as a punishment for sin. 
There were 6 subjugations of the 12 tribes 
during the period of the Judges. But the 
most remarkable captivities, or rather ex- 
patriations of the Hebrews, were those of 
Israel and Judah under the regal govern- 
ment. Israel was first carried away in 
part about 740 B. C, by Tiglath-pileser, 
2 Kin. 15:29. The tribes east of the Jor- 
dan, with parts of Zebulun and Naphtali, 
1 Chr. 5:26; Isa. 9:1, were the first suffer- 
ers. Twenty years later, Shalmaneser car- 
ried away the remainder of Israel, 2 Kin. 
17:6, and located them in distant cities, 
many of them probably not far from the 
Caspian Sea ; and their place was supplied 
by colonies from Babylon and Persia, 2 Kin. 
17:6-24. Aside from certain prophecies, 
Isa. 11:12, 13; Jer. 31:7-9, 16-20; 49:2; 
Ezek. 37:16; Hos. 11: 11; Amos 9:14; 
94 



Obad. 18 ; 19, etc., which are variously in- 
terpreted to mean a past or a future return, 
a physical or a spiritual restoration, there 
is no evidence that the 10 tribes as a body 
ever returned to Palestine. 

To Judah are generally reckoned 3 cap- 
tivities : 1. Under Jehoiakim, in his 3d year, 
B. C. 606, when Daniel and others were car- 
ried to Babylon, 2 Kin. 24:1, 2; Dan. 1:1. 
2. In the last year of Jehoiakim, when 
Nebuchadnezzar carried 3,023 Jews to Bab- 
ylon; or rather, under Jehoiachin, when 
this prince also was sent to Babylon ; that 
is, in the 7th and 8th years of Nebuchad- 
nezzar, B. C. 598, 2 Kin. 24:12; 2 Chr. 36:8, 
10; Jer. 52:28. 3. Under Zedekiah, B. C. 
588, when Jerusalem and the temple were 
destroyed, and most that was valuable 
among the people and their treasures was 
carried to Babylon, 2 Kin. 25 ; 2 Chr. 36. 
This was 132 years after the final captivity 
of Israel. The 70 years during which they 
were to remain in captivity, Jer. 25:11; 
29: 10, are reckoned probably from the date 
of the first captivity, B. C. 606. Besides the 
3 occasions above named, several other in- 
vasions and partial captivities are alluded 
to in 2 Kin. 15:19; 17:3-6; 18:13; 25:11. 

While in Babylonia, the Jews were treat- 
ed mildly, and more like colonists than 
slaves. They had judges and elders who 
governed them, and decided matters in dis- 
pute juridically according to their laws. 
The books of Nehemiah and Daniel show 
us Jews in high positions at court, and the 
book of Esther celebrates their numbers 
and power in the Persian empire. There 
were priests among them, Jer. 29:1, and 
they preserved their genealogical registers 
and many of their rites and customs. The 
prophets labored, not in vain, to keep alive 
the flame of true religion. 

At length the 70 years were fulfilled, and 
Cyrus, in the 1st year of his reign at Baby- 
lon, B. C. 536, made a proclamation through- 
out his empire permitting the people of God 
to return to their own country and rebuild 
the temple, Ezra 1:11. Nearly 50,000 ac- 
cepted the invitation, though a large pro- 
portion preferred to remain, Ezra 2:2; Neh. 
7:7. This company laid the foundation of 
the 2d temple, which was completed in the 
6th year of Darius, B. C. 516. Fifty-eight 
years after, Ezra led a small company of 
7,000 from Babylon to Judsea. He was 
succeeded as governor by Nehemiah, who 
labored faithfully and successfully to re- 
form the people, and many of the good 
fruits of his labors remained until the time 



CAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAR 



of Christ. The Jewish character and lan- 
guage were changed by their sojourn for 
so long a time among foreigners, Neh. 8:8; 
and it is noteworthy that we hear little of 
idols or idolatry among them after the cap- 
tivity. 

Probably none among the posterity of 
Jacob can now prove from which of his 12 
sons they are descended. Both Judah and 
Israel being removed from " the lot of their 
inheritance" in Canaan, and dispersed 
among strangers, the various tribes would 
naturally amalgamate with each other, the 
envy of Judah and Ephraim would depart, 
and the memory of Abraham, Moses, and 
David would revive, Ezra 6:16, 17; 8:35; 
Ezek. 37:26-28. They are called the "dis- 
persed among the Gentiles," John 7:35, 
and 2 of the inspired epistles were written 
to them, Jas. 1:1 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 1. 

The last captivity of the Jews, A. D. 71, 
after they had filled up the measure of 
their iniquity by rejecting Christ and the 
gospel, was a terrible one. According to 
Josephus, 1,100,000 perished at the siege of 
Jerusalem by Titus, and nearly 100,000 cap- 
tives were scattered among the provinces 
and slain in gladiatorial shows, doomed to 
toil as public slaves, or sold into private 




bondage. The cut represents the medal of 
the emperor Vespasian, A. D. 71, in mem- 
ory of the capture of Jerusalem. Under 
the emperor Hadrian, A. D. 133, a similar 
crushing blow fell on the Jews who had 
again assembled in Judaea; and at this 
day they are scattered all over the world, 
yet distinct from the people among whom 
they dwell, suffering under the woe which 
unbelief has brought upon their fathers 
and themselves, until the time come when 
Christ " shall turn away ungodliness from 
Jacob," Rom. 11:25, 26. 

CAR'BUNCLE, a precious stone, like a 
large ruby or garnet, of a dark red color, 



said to glitter even in the dark, and to 
sparkle more than the ruby. The word 
is put to represent 2 different Hebrew 
words, one of which, Exod. 28:17; Ezek. 
28:13, is commonly thought to mean the 
emerald; and the other, Isa. 54:12, may 
mean a brilliant species of ruby. 

CAR'CHEMISH, fort of Ckemosh, usually 
identified with Circesium, a fortified city 
on the east side of the Euphrates, where 
the river Chaboras enters it. In Isa. 10:9, 
it appears as taken by some king of As- 
syria. It was attacked by Pharaoh-necho 
king of Egypt, near the close of Josiah's 
reign, B. C. 609, 2 Chr. 35:20. Three years 
afterwards Necho was signally defeated by 
Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 46:1-12. In later 
times it was held as a frontier post of the 
Roman empire on the east. Rawlinson 
places it at Hierapolis, near Bir, much far- 
ther up the river. 

CAR'MEL, the park, or , fruitful field, I., 
a city of Judah, on a mountain of the same 
name, 9 miles south by east of Hebron, 
Josh. 15:55; 2 Chr. 26:10. Here Saul, re- 
turning from his expedition against Ama- 
lek, erected a trophy ; and here Nabal the 
Carmelite, Abigail's husband, dwelt, 1 Sam. 
15:12; 25; 27:3. Its ruins indicate that it 
was a large place. 

II. A celebrated range of hills, 12 miles 
long, running northwest beside the plain of 
Esdraelon, and ending in the promontory 
south of the Bay of Acre, Josh. 19:26. Its 
greatest height is about 1,810 feet; at its 
northeastern foot runs the brook Kishon, 
and a little farther north, the river Belus. 
On its northern point now stands a convent 
of the Carmelite friars, an order established 
in the 12th century, and having various 
branches in Europe. Mount Carmel is the 
only great promontory upon the coast of 
Palestine. The foot of the northern part 
approaches the water so that, seen from 
the hills northeast of Acre, Mount Carmel 
appears as if " dipping his feet in the 
western sea ;" farther south it retires more 
inland, so that between the mountain and 
the sea there is an extensive plain covered 
with fields and olive-trees. Mr. Carne 
traversed the whole summit, which occu- 
pied several hours. He says, " It is the 
finest and most beautiful mountain in Pal- 
estine, of great length, and in many parts 
covered with trees and flowers. On reach- 
ing, at last, the opposite summit, and com- 
ing out of a wood, we saw the celebrated 
plain of Esdraelon beneath, with the river 
Kishon flowing through it; Mounts Tabor 

95 



CAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAR 




MOUNT CARMEL AND HAIFA. 



and Little Hermon were in front (east) ; 
and on the right (south) the prospect was 
bounded by the hills of Samaria." From 
the southeast side of this ridge, a range of 
low wooded hills on the south spreads 
and rises into the high lands of Samaria. 
Those who visit Mount Carmel in the last 
part of the dry season find everything 
parched and brown, especially at the west- 
ern end; but at other seasons its exuber- 
ance of vegetable and animal life shows 
how just were the allusions of ancient wri- 
ters to its exceeding beauty, Isa. 35:2, its 
verdure of drapery and grace of outline, 
Song 7:5, and its rich pastures, Isa. 33:9; 
Jer. 50:19; Amos 1:2. The rock of the 
mountain is a hard limestone, abounding 
in natural caves, Amos 9:3. These have 
in many cases been enlarged, and other- 
wise fitted for human habitation ; and the 
mountain has been in various ages a favor- 
ite residence for devotees. It is memora- 
ble for frequent visits of the prophets Eli- 
jah and Elisha, 2 Kin. 1:9-15; 2:25; 4:25; 
and especially for the destruction of the 
priests of Baal upon it, 1 Kin. 18. This 
took place at the western end of the ridge, 
Mar Elyas, a high and bold point sloping 
down to the plain. There is still a well on 
the hillside, at a spot now called El-Mahar- 
rakah, the burning ; and the ancient Ki- 
96 



shon is now known as the Nahr el-Mukatta, 
river of slaughter. It flows into the sea 
east of Carmel and Haifa. 

CAR'NAL, fleshly, unholy ; in contrast 
with spiritual and holy. It describes all 
unrenewed men — born of fallen parents, 
and not born anew of the Holy Spirit, 
Rom. 7:14. 

CAR'PENTERS, and their tools and work, 
are often mentioned in the Bible; and a 
high degree of skill in many kinds of wood- 
work was early attained, and shown in the 
building of the ark, the tabernacle, the 
temple, royal palaces, and even the car- 
ving of idols, Gen. 6; Exod. 27; 2 Chr. 3; 
9:11; Isa. 44:13. This trade of civilized 
life was honored among the Jews, and is 
for ever endeared to all its Christian mem- 
bers by the fact that our Lord himself was 
one of them — a workingman, Matt. 13:55; 
Mark 6:3. 

CAR' PUS, fruit, a disciple and friend of 
Paul at Troas, 2 Tim. 4:13. 

CAR'RIAGE, the baggage which formed 
the burden of a man or beast, 1 Sam. 17 : 22 ; 
Acts 21:15. Once or twice it seems to in- 
dicate a circular trench or rampart of bag- 
gage, etc., around a camp, 1 Sam. 17:20; 
26:5, 7. 

CARTS or wagons. The roads in Pales- 
tine are now generally impassable by any 



CAS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CED 



wheeled vehicle ; and the chief use of the 
cart drawn by cattle, 2 Sam. 6:6, was on a 
limited scale for agricultural purposes, such 
as forcing the ripe grain out of the ear, 




A MODERN SYRIAN CART. 

bruising the straw, removing the produce 
of the fields, etc., Isa. 5:18; 28:27,28. Wag- 
ons were used to carry Israel into Egypt, 
and for the conveyance of the ark, Gen. 
45 : 27 ; Num. 7 : 3-9. They were often drawn 
by heifers, etc., 1 Sam. 6:7, and were usu- 
ally low, and on solid wooden wheels, some- 
times iron-shod. 

CASE'MENT, Prov. 7:6. See Lattice. 

CASIPH'IA, the home of many of the ex- 
iled Jews, was probably in the direction of 
the Caspian Sea from Babylon, Ezra 8:17. 

CAS'LUHIM, descendants of Mizraim, 
See Caphtorim. 

CAS'SIA, the bark of an odoriferous tree, 
from which came one ingredient of the 
holy oil or ointment, Exod. 30:24; Psa. 
45:8; Ezek. 27: 19. 

CAST'AWAY, worthless, like the dross 
of metals, 1 Cor. 9:27. In heathen coun- 
tries infants are often exposed and left to 
perish, Ezek. 16:5. 

CAS'TLE, Acts 21:34, the Tower of An- 
tonia, a fortress in Jerusalem. See Tem- 
ple. 

CAS'TOR and POL/LUX, twin sons of 
Jupiter and Leda, and guardians of sea- 
men, according to Greek and Roman my- 
thology. Ships often had their images on 
the prow, and bore their names, Acts 28 : 1 1 . 

CATERPILLAR, some locust-like insect, 
now undistinguishable, Deut. 28.38; 1 Kin. 
8:37; Psa. 78:46; 105:34; Isa. 33:4. See 
Locust. 

CATH'OLIC. This term is Greek, sig- 
nifying universal. The true church of 
Christ is called catholic, because it extends 
throughout the world, and during all time. 
In modern times the Church of Rome has 
usurped this title, improperly applying it 
exclusively to itself. 

The " Catholic epistles " are 5, so called 
because they were addressed to the church 
in general, and not to any particular 
church. They are, 1 epistle of James, 2 of 
Peter, 1 of John, and 1 of Jude. 
5 



CAT'TLE. See Goat, Ox, Sheep, Ass, 
Camel, Horse. 

CAUL, Lev. 3:4, 10, 14; 4:9, a lobe of 
the liver; in Hos. 13:8, the membrane in- 
closing the heart ; in Isa. 3 : 18, network for 
the hair. 

CAUSE' WAY. 1 Chr. 26:16, 18, supposed 
to be the "ascent," 2 Chr. 9:4, by which 
men went from Zion to the west side of the 
temple area. If it was first of wood, " ter- 
races," 2 Chr. 9:11; the later structure was 
stone. See Walls. 

CAVE. Judaea, a limestone country, 
abounds with subterranean caverns of va- 
rious dimensions, often giving rise to small 
rivulets. These were used as dwellings, 
places of refuge for men and cattle, and 
tombs. It was in a cave that Lot resided 
after the destruction of Sodom, Gen. 19:30. 
Petra, in Idumaea, was a city of caves, and 
its early inhabitants, expelled by the Edom- 
ites, were a troglodite race, called Hor- 
ites, or cave-men, Num. 24:21; Song 2: 14; 
Jer. 49: 16; Obad. 3. In the vicinity of He- 
bron, the poor still live in caves while pas- 
turing their flocks. Natural cavities were 
sometimes enlarged, and artificial ones 
made for refuge and defence, Judg. 6:2; 

1 Sam. 13:6; Isa. 2:19; Jer. 41:9. The 
caves of Machpelah, of Adullam, of Enge- 
di, of Carmel, and of Arbela still exist. See 
Sela, Sepulchre. 

CE'DAR of Lebanon, a noble evergreen- 
tree greatly celebrated in the Scriptures, 
Psa. 92:12; Ezek. 31:3-6. These trees 
are remarkably thick and tall ; some have 
trunks from 35 to 40 feet in girth, and 90 
feet in height. The cedar-tree shoots out 
branches at 10 or 12 feet from the ground, 
large and almost horizontal ; its leaves are 
an inch long, slender and straight, growing 
in tufts. The tree bears a small cone, like 
that of the pine. This celebrated tree is 
not peculiar to Mount Lebanon, but grows 
upon Mounts Amanus and Taurus in Asia 
Minor, and in other parts of the Levant, 
but does not elsewhere reach the size and 
height of those on Lebanon. It has also 
been cultivated in the gardens of Europe ; 

2 are at Chiswick in England, 1 in the 
Jardin des Plantes in Paris, and there are 
possibly more young cedars in England 
than in Palestine. The beauty of the cedar 
consists in the proportion and symmetry 
of its wide-spreading branches and cone- 
like top. The gum, which exudes both 
from the trunk and the cones or fruit, is 
soft like balsam ; its fragrance is like that 
of the balsam of Mecca. Everything about 

97 



CED 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CEN 




THE CEDAR OF LEBANON : CEDRUS LIBANI. 



the tree has a strong balsamic odor ; and 
hence the whole grove is so pleasant and 
fragrant that it is delightful to walk in it, 
Song 4:11; Hos. 14:6. The wood is ex- 
ceedingly durable, Psa. 92:12; not subject 
to decay, nor to be eaten of worms ; hence 
it was much used for rafters, and for boards 
with which to cover houses and form the 
floors and ceilings of rooms. It was of a 
red color, beautiful, solid, and free from 
knots. The palace of Persepolis, the tem- 
ple at Jerusalem, and Solomon's palace 
were all partly built with cedar ; and " the 
house of the forest of Lebanon " was per- 
haps so called from the quantity of this 
wood used in its construction, 1 Kin. 7:2; 
10:17. 

Of the forests of cedars which once cov- 
ered Lebanon, comparatively few are now 
left, Isa. 2:13; 10:19, though there are still 
many scattered trees and groves in various 
parts. Rev. H. H. Jessup, American mis- 
sionary, and Dr. Post, visited 11 different 
groves, 2 of them numbering thousands of 
genuine cedars. The largest and most an- 
cient trees, formerly thought to be the only 
ones, are found in a grove, lying a little off 
from the road which crosses Mount Leba- 
non from Baalbek to Tripoli, 6,400 feet 
above the sea, and 3,000 feet below the sum- 
mit of the mountain on the western side, 
at the foot indeed of the highest summit or 



ridge of Lebanon. This grove consists of 
a few very old trees, perhaps as old as the 
time of Christ, intermingled with 400 or 500 
younger ones. See Lebanon. 

Besides the true cedar of Lebanon, the 
word cedar in the Bible appears to mean 
sometimes the juniper, Lev. 14:4, 6, 49-52; 
Num. 19:6; and sometimes the pine, Ezek. 
27 : 5, and perhaps 1 Kin. 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 9:11; and 
the yew. 

CE'DRON. See Kidron. 

CEIL'ING. The ancients took great 
pains to ornament the ceilings of their best 
apartments : making them sometimes of a 
sort of wainscoting, in squares or complica- 
ted figures ; and sometimes of a fine plaster 
with beautiful mouldings, tinted and re- 
lieved by gilding, small mirrors, etc., 1 Kin. 
6:15; 2 Chr. 3:5; Jer. 22:14. Hence "ceiled 
houses," Hag. 1:4. Such ceilings were 
used, according to Layard, in the palaces 
and temples of Nineveh ; and are found at 
this day in the houses of Damascus. 

CEN'CHREiE, a port of Corinth, now 
named Kenkries, whence Paul sailed for 
Ephesus, Acts 18 : 18. It was a place of some 
commercial note, and the seat of an early 
church, Rom. 16:1. It was situated on the 
eastern side of the isthmus, 8 or 9 miles 
east of the city, on the Saronic Gulf. The 
other port, on the western side of the isth- 
mus, was Lechaeum. 



CEN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CHA 



CEN'SER, 2 Chr. 26:16, 19, a vessel in 
which fire and incense were carried, in cer- 
tain parts of the Hebrew worship. Little 
is known of its form. The censer for the 





daily offering was at first made of copper, 
Num. 16:39. That used on the great day 
of Atonement was made of pure gold, 1 Kin. 
7:50; Heb. 9:4. In the daily offering, the 
..„.. censer was filled with 
coals from the perpetual 
fire, and placed on the 
altar of incense where 
the incense, was sprin- 
kled on the coals, and 
burning diffused its fra- 
grance far and wide, 
Exod. 30:1, 7-10. On 
the day of Atonement, in 
the Holy of Holies, the 
censer must have been 
held in the hand, and probably by a han- 
dle, Lev. 16:12, 13. 

The censers of the Egyptians had long 
bandies,. like a human arm and hand, upon 
the palm of which the incense-cup stood. 
Those of the Greeks and Romans had 
•chains, by which they were carried, like 
those now used in the Romish service. 

The golden " vials " full of odors, Rev. 
5:8, were censers, or vessels of incense. 

CEN'SUS. There are 4 formal number- 
ings of the Jews reported in the Bible: one 
at Mount Sinai, Exod. 38 : 26, when the num- 
ber of men over 20 years old was 603,550 ; 
one in the 2d year after the exodus, Num. 
1-3; one just before their entrance into 
Canaan, Num. 26; and one in David's 
reign, 2 Sam. 24:1-9; 1 Chr. 21:5; 27:24, 
when the men numbered at least 1,300,000. 
Comparing with this the vast armies raised 
by subsequent kings, 2 Chr. 13:3, 17; 14:8, 
•9; 17:14-19; 25:5, 6, and adding 3 times 
these numbers for the women and children, 
we learn that the population of the Holy 
Land in its prime was more dense than in 
most thickly settled countries of our own 
day ; and the statements of Josephus are 
-of the same purport. 

CENTU'RION, a Roman officer com- 



manding a hundred soldiers; similar to 
"captain" in modern times. Several cen- 
turions are mentioned with honor in the 
New Testament, Mark 15:39; Luke 7:1- 
10; Acts 27:1, 3, 43; and the first fruit to 
Christ from the Gentiles was the generous 
and devout Cornelius, Acts 10. 

CE'PHAS, a rock, a Syriac or later He- 
brew name given to Peter by Christ, John 
1:42. The Greek Petros and the Latin 
Petrns have the same meaning. See Pe- 
ter. 

CE'SAR. See Cesar. 

CH, in words derived from Hebrew and 
Greek, usually proper names, is to be pro- 
nounced like K. As in Chaldaea, Chloe, 
Archippus ; pronounced Kalde'a, Klo'e, Ar- 
kip'pus. In Cher'ubim and Rachel, how- 
ever, it is pronounced as in chest, chief. 

CHAFF. See Threshing. 

CHAINS, of iron or brass, were either 
fetters or handcuffs, Judg. 16:21; 2 Sam. 
3:34; 2 Kin. 25:7; Acts 12:6, 7. Chains of 
gold were worn as ornaments by women, 
Song 1:10; 4:9; and by men also, Num. 
31:50; Prov. 1:9; but especially as official 
badges of honor, Gen. 41:42; Dan. 5:16; 
E'zek. 16: 11. They were a part of the tem- 
ple furnishing and the priestly dress, Exod. 
28; 2 Chr. 3. 

CHALCED'ONY, a precious stone, resem- 
bling the agate ; of various colors, but often 
a light brown or blue, Rev. 21:19. ^ xs 
named after Chalcedon, in Bithynia, oppo- 
site Constantinople, and is much used as 
a material for cups, vases, and other arti- 
cles of taste. 

CHALDiE'A, a country in Asia, the capi- 
tal of which, in its widest extent, was Bab- 
ylon. It was originally of small extent ; 
but the empire being afterwards very much 
enlarged, the name is generally taken in a 
more extensive sense, and includes Baby- 
lonia, which see. 

CHALD/E'ANS. This name is taken, 1. 
for the people of Chaldaea, and the subjects 
of that empire generally; 2. for philoso- 
phers, naturalists, or soothsayers, whose 
principal employment was the study of 
mathematics and astrology, by which they 
pretended to foretell the destiny of men 
born under certain constellations. 

The Chaldaeans were originally a war- 
like people, apparently Cushite in origin 
and language, dwelling in the south part of 
the plain of Shinar, Job 1 : 17. As the As- 
syrian monarchs extended their conquests 
towards the west, the Chaldaeans also came 
under their dominion. A very vivid and 

99 



CHA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CHA 



graphic description of the Chaldaean war- 
riors is given by the prophet Habakkuk, 
who probably lived about the time when 
they first made incursions into Palestine 
or the adjacent regions, Hab. 1:6-11. In 
the reign of king Hezekiah, B. C. 713, a 
king of Babylon is mentioned, the first of 
whom we read after Nimrod and Amra- 
phel. About 100 years later we find the 
Chaldseans in possession of the kingdom 
of Babylon. The first sovereign in the 
new line appearing in history was Nabo- 
polassar. His son Nebuchadnezzar inva- 
ded Palestine, as foretold by Jeremiah and 
Habakkuk, Ezra 5:12; Jer. 39:5. He was 
succeeded by his son Evil-merodach, 2 Kin. 
25:27; Jer. 52:31. After him came, in quick 
succession, Neriglissar, Laborosoarchod, 
and Nabonnedus with Belshazzar, under 
whom this empire was absorbed in the 
Medo-Persian. The Chaldseo-Babylonian 
dynasty continued probably less than 200 
years. See Babylon. 

The ancient Chaldaeans seem to have re- 
tained their old Cushite language for scien- 
tific uses, and to have been the learned 
and priestly class when merged with the 
Babylonians and Assyrians. As such they 
are spoken of in Dan. 1:4; 2:2-12. 

CHALDEE Language. See Language. 

CHAM'BER. See House. Chambers 
sometimes denotes constellations or re- 
gions in the heavens, Job 9:9; Psa. 104:3, 
13. For "chambers of imagery," Ezek. 
8:12, see Nineveh. 

CHAM'BERING, licentiousness, Rom. 
13:13. 

CHAM'BERLAIN, 2 Kin. 23:11, an officer 
who had charge of a king's lodgings and 
wardrobe. In Eastern courts eunuchs were 
generally employed in this office, Esth. 1 : 10, 
12, 15. In Acts 12:20, an officer high in the 
king's confidence. This title in Rom. 16:23 
probably denotes the steward or treasurer 
of the city. 

CHAME'LEON. See below. 

CHAM'OIS, not the well-known moun- 
tain goat of Southern Europe, but proba- 
bly a variety of wild sheep, resembling a 
goat, found in Arabia Petraea and on Egyp- 
tian monuments, Deut. 14:5. 

CHAME'LEON, Lev. 11:30, a kind of liz- 
ard, with a shagreened skin. Its body is 
about 6 inches long ; its feet have 5 toes 
each, arranged like 2 thumbs opposite to 3 
fingers ; its eyes turn backwards or for- 
wards independently of each other. It 
feeds upon flies, which it catches by dart- 
ing out its long, viscous tongue. It has the 
100 



faculty of inflating itself at pleasure with 
air, and thus changing its color from its 






■ 




ordinary gray to green, purple, and even 
black when enraged. 

CHAMPAIGN', Deut. 11:30, a plain or 
open region. 

CHAP'ITER, the capital, or upper portion 
of a pillar, Exod. 38:17, 19, or of a laver or 
other work of art, perhaps a carved scroll, 
1 Kin. 7:16-31. 

CHAP'MEN, travelling merchants, 2 Chr. 
9:14. 

CHAP'TER. See Bible. 

CHAR'GER, or platter, a large, shallow 
dish, Num. 7:13; Ezra 1:9; Matt. 14:8, 11. 

CHAR'GES, Acts 21:24. "Be at charges 
with (for) them," means, " Pay the expenses 
of their rites and offerings." 




CHAR'IOTS. Scripture speaks of 2 sorts 
of these, two-wheeled, and both drawn by 
horses : one for princes and generals to 
ride in, Gen. 41:43; 46:29; 2 Kin. 5:9; 
Acts 8:28; or dedicated to idols, 2 Kin. 
23:11 ; the other to break an enemy's bat- 
talions, by rushing in among them, being 



CHA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CHE 



"chariots of iron," that is, armed with 
iron scythes or hooks, projecting from the 
ends of the axletrees. These made terri- 
ble havoc. The Canaanites whom Joshua 
engaged at the waters of Merom had horse- 
men, and a multitude of chariots, Josh. 
11:4; Judg. 1:19. Sisera, general of Jabin 
king of Hazor, had 900 chariots of iron, 
Judg. 4:3; and Solomon raised 1,400, 1 Kin. 
10:26, in spite of the prohibition in Deut. 
17:16; 1 Sam. 8:11, 12. The later kings 
also cultivated this arm of military power, 
Isa. 31:1. Elijah was called the chariot 
and horsemen of Israel, as being their 
chief defender, 2 Kin. 2:12. In Song 3:9, 
chariot seems to mean a portable sedan or 
palanquin. See Litter. 

CHAR'ITY in Scripture does not mean 
almsgiving alone, nor a lenient judgment 
of others, but that loving of men as we love 
ourselves, which springs from supreme 
love to God, and shows itself in all good 
works, 1 Cor. 13. See Love. 




INDIAN SERPENT-CHARMERS. 

CHARM'ERS, Psa. 58:4, 5; Eccl. 10: 11; 
Jer. 8:17, persons very common through- 
out India and Egypt, who claim to have 
the faculty of catching, taming, and con- 
trolling serpents, even the most venomous. 

CHARMS. See Amulets. 

CHAR'RAN. See Haran. 

CHE'BAR, length, commonly believed to 
be a river which rises in the northern part 
of Mesopotamia, and flows first southeast, 
then south and southwest, into the Euphra- 



tes. It was called Chaboras by the Greeks ; 
now Khabour. On its fertile banks Nebu- 
chadnezzar located a part of the captive 
Jews, and here the sublime visions of Eze- 
kiel took place, Ezek. 1:3; 3:15; 10:15; 
43 : 3. Rawlinson thinks this river is too far 
north for the limits of Chaldaea, and identi- 
fies the Chebar with a large canal near Bab- 
ylon excavated under Nebuchadnezzar. 

CHEDORLAO'MER, handful of sheaves, 
king of Elam, in Persia, in the time of 
Abraham. He made the cities in the re- 
gion of the Dead Sea his tributaries ; and 
on their rebelling, he came with 4 allied 
kings and overran the whole country south 
and east of the Jordan. Lot was among 
his captives, but was rescued by Abraham 
with his own dependents and his neigh- 
bors, Gen. 14:1-24. ComparePsa.no. His 
name is found on Chaldaean bricks recent- 
ly discovered. 

CHEESE, several times alluded to in 
Scripture, and still an important article of 
food in the East, 1 Sam. 17:18; 
2 Sam. 17:29. It is usually white 
and very salt; soft, when new, but 
soon becoming hard and dry. The 
cheese was like a small saucer in 
. size, Job 10:10. The "cheese-ma- 

kers' valley" in Jerusalem, Tyro- 
pceon, lay between Mounts Zion and 
Moriah. 

CHEM'ARIM, occurring once only 
in the English version, Zeph. 1:4, 
but frequently in the Hebrew, trans- 
lated "idolatrous priests," 2 Kin. 
23:5; Hos. 10:5. 

CHE'MOSH, subduer, the national 
god of the Moabites and of the Am- 
monites, worshipped also under Sol- 
omon at Jerusalem, Num. 21:29; 
Judg. 11:24; 1 Kin. 11:7; 2 Kin. 
2 3 :x 3', Jer. 48 : 7. Some erroneously 
identify Chemosh with Molech, an- 
other god of the Ammonites. 

CHER'ETHITES, or CHER'ETHIM, 
I., a portion of the Philistines, sup- 
posed by many to have originated in 
Crete, 1 Sam. 30: 14; Ezek. 25: 16; Zeph. 2:5. 
II. A portion of David's body-guard, al- 
ways mentioned with the Pelethites, 2 Sam. 
8:18; 15:18; 20:7; 1 Chr. 18:17. Some 
suppose that they were foreigners, whom 
David took into his service while among 
the Philistines. The Gittites mentioned 
with them in 2 Sam. 15:18, were plainly 
such. Others think they had their name 
from their office — executioners and run- 
ners. See Pelethites. 

101 



CHE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CHI 



CHE'RITH, a cutting, a small brook flow- 
ing into the Jordan, to which Elijah once 
withdrew, and where ravens brought him 
supplies of bread and flesh, i Kin. 17:3-5. 
Robinson suggests that it may be the pres- 
ent Wady Kelt, which drains the hills west 
of Jericho, and flows near that town on its 
way to the Jordan. This brook is dry in 
summer. It is in a deep and wild ravine, 
and the lofty sides are pierced by many cav- 
erns where ravens and eagles still dwell. 

CHER'UB, plural Cher'ubim, an order 
of celestial beings or symbolical represen- 
tations often referred to in the Old Testa- 
ment and in the book of Revelation. The 
cherubim are variously represented as liv- 
ing creatures, Gen. 3:24; Ezek. 1 ; Rev. 
4 ; or as images wrought in tapestry, gold, 
or wood, Exod. 36:35; 37:7; Ezek. 41:25; 
as having 1, 2, or 4 faces, Exod. 25:20; 
Ezek. 10:14; 41:18; as having 2, 4, or 6 
wings, i Kin. 6 : 27 ; Ezek. 1:6; Rev. 4:8; 
in the simplest form, as in the golden fig- 
ures above the ark of the covenant; or in 
the most complex and sublime form, as in 
Ezekiel's wonderful visions of the glory of 
God — discerning and ruling all things, and 
executing irresistibly and with the speed of 
thought all his wise and just decrees, Ezek. 
1 ; 10. The fullest of these descriptions 
represents the cherub as a winged figure, 
like a man in form, full of eyes, and with 
a fourfold head— of a man, a lion, an ox, 
and an eagle— with wheels turning every 
way, and speed like the lightning: pre- 
senting the highest earthly forms and pow- 
ers of creation in harmonious and perfect 
union, Ezek. 1; 10; 41; Rev. 4. Usually 
also the cherubim stand in a special near- 
ness to God ; they are engaged in the lofti- 
est adoration and service, moving in in- 
stant accordance with his will, Psa. 18:10; 
Ezek. 1:26; 10:20; Rev. 4; they are seen 
in the temple inseparably associated with 
the mercy-seat, " the cherubim of glory," 
Heb. 9:5 — made of the same mass of pure 
gold, Exod. 25:19, bending reverently over 
the place of God's presence, Psa. 99:1, 
where he met his people, Num. 7:89, ac- 
cepted the blood of atonement, Lev. 16: 14- 
16, and shone forth as their Saviour, Psa. 
80:1 ; Isa. 37:16. 

CHEST'NUT-TREE, Gen. 30:37. The Sep- 
tuagint and Vulgate here read, the plane- 
tree, with which most modern expositors 
agree. The plane-tree is akin to the 
American button-wood-tree, and has a tall 
and stately trunk, with smooth bark, and 
branches spreading in every direction, 
102 



covered with a profusion of glossy green 
leaves. It is nowhere more abundant and 
noble than" in the plains of Assyria, Ezek. 
31:8. 

CHESUL'LOTH, a town on the border of 
Issachar, named between Jezreel and Shu- 
nem, but possibly the same as Chisloth- 
tabor, on the border of Zebulun, about 3 
miles west of Mount Tabor; the village 
called Iksal now marks its site, together 
with numerous excavated tombs, Josh. 
19:12, 18, 22, with 1 Chr. 6:72. See Dabe- 

RATH. 

CHE'ZIB, Gen. 38:5, probably Achzib, II. 

CHIL'DREN. A numerous offspring was 
regarded as a signal blessing, Psa. 127:3-5, 
and childless wives sought various means 
to escape the reproach of barrenness, which 
was deprecated in the blessing given to a 
newly married couple, Ruth 4:11. The 
pangs of childbirth, in their suddenness 
and sharpness, are often alluded to in 
Scripture. The apostle Paul speaks of 
them as fruits and evidences of the fall ; 
but assures those who abide in faith that, 
amid all the suffering that reminds them 
that woman was first in the transgression, 
Gen. 3:16, they may yet look trustfully to 
Christ, "the seed of the woman," for ac- 
ceptance and salvation, 1 Tim. 2:15. 

A new-born child was washed, rubbed 
with salt, and wrapped in swaddling 
clothes, Ezek. 16:4; Luke 2:7-11. On the 
8th day a son was circumcised and named. 
At his weaning a feast was often made, 
Gen. 21:8, when the child was about 3 
years old. Young children are still car- 
ried by Arab mothers astride of the hip or 
the shoulder, as was a custom in the time 
of Isaiah, ch. 49:22; 66:12. At the age of 
5, sons were brought more into the father's 
care than before, to be taught the arts and 
duties of life. The nurse of a female child 
often attended her through life, Gen. 24: 59; 
35:8. Children were to be instructed with 
great diligence and care, Deut. 6 : 20-23. 
They were required to honor and obey 
their parents, and were subject to the fa- 
ther's control in all things, Gen. 22:21; 
Num. 30:5; they were even liable to be 
sold into temporary bondage for his debts, 
Lev. 25:39-41; 2 Kin. 4:1 ; Matt. 18:25. 

The firstborn son received, besides other 
privileges (see Birthright), 2 portions of 
his father's estate; the other sons 1 por- 
tion each. The sons of concubines re- 
ceived presents, and sometimes an equal 
portion with the others, Gen. 21:8-21; 25: 1- 
6; 49:1-27; Judg. 11:1-7. The daughters 



CHI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



CHR 



received no portion, except in cases pro- 
vided for in Num. 27:1-11. 

The term child or children, by a Hebrew 
idiom, is used to express a great variety of 
relations: the good are called children of 
God, of light, of the kingdom, etc. ; the bad 
are named children of the devil, of wrath, 
of disobedience, etc. A strong man is called 
a son of strength ; an impious man, a son 
of Belial ; an arrow, the son of a bow ; and 
a branch, the son of a tree. The posterity 
of a man are his " sons," for many genera- 
tions. True wisdom may make a child 
wiser than 100 years of life, Isa. 65:20. 

CHIM'HAM, probably a son of Barzillai, 
2 Sam. 19:37; 1 Kin. 2:7. He may have 
received from David the place near Beth- 
lehem called Chimham, Jer. 41:17. B. C. 
1023. 

CHIN'NERETH, or ClNNEROTH, a town 
on the west shore of the Sea of Galilee, 
Num. 34:11 ; Deut. 3:17; Josh. 11:2; 12:3; 
19:35; 1 Kin. 15:20. It was a "fenced 
city " of Naphtali, and gave its name to the 
lake. Tiberias is supposed by Jerome to 
have afterwards occupied its site. 

CHI'OS, an island in the Ionian Archi- 
pelago, between Lesbos and Samos, on the 
coast of Asia Minor ; now called Scio. It 
is 30 miles long and 10 wide, and has al- 
ways been famous for its beauty and fertil- 
ity, and in modern times for the massacre 
of its inhabitants by the Turks in 1822. 
Paul passed this way as he sailed south- 
ward from Mitylene to Samos, Acts 20:15. 

CHIS'LEU, the 9th month of the He- 
brews, beginning with the new moon near- 
est to the 1st day of December, Neh. 1:1; 
Zech. 7:1. 

CHIS'LOTH-TABOR. See CHESULLOTH. 

CHIT'TIM, or Kittim, descendants of 
Javan, son of Japheth; and the land set- 
tled by them, Gen. 10:4. Chittim seems 
to denote primarily the island of Cyprus ; 
and also to be employed, in a wider sense, 
to designate other islands and countries 
adjacent to the Mediterranean, Isa. 23:1, 
12; Jer. 2:10; Ezek. 27:6; as, for instance, 
Macedonia, Dan. 11:30, and Rome, Num. 
24:24. 

CHI'UN, an idol worshipped by the Isra- 
elites in the desert, Amos 5:26; Acts 7:43; 
representing probably the planet Saturn, 
worshipped by Eastern nations as an evil 
spirit to be propitiated by sacrifices. See 
Remphan. 

CHORA'ZIN, a town in Galilee, near Ca- 
pernaum and Bethsaida, on the northwest 
shore of the Sea of Galilee. Jerome says 



it was 2 miles from Capernaum. Robin- 
son locates it at the modern Tell-Hum ; Dr. 
Wm. M. Thomson found more extensive 
ruins, named Kherazeh, 2 miles northwest 
of Tell-Hum, and this site is approved by 
Wilson and other recent explorers. It was 
upbraided by Christ for its impenitence, 
Matt. 21:21; Luke 10:13. 

CHRIST, anointed, a Greek word, equiv- 
alent to the Hebrew Messiah, the conse- 
crated or anointed one, and given preemi- 
nently to our blessed Lord and Saviour. 
See Messiah and Jesus. 

The ancient Hebrews, being instructed 
by the prophets, had clear notions of the 
Messiah; but these became gradually de- 
praved, so that when Jesus appeared in 
Judaea, the Jews entertained a false con- 
ception of the Messiah, expecting a tem- 
poral monarch and conqueror, who should 
remove the Roman yoke and subdue the 
whole world. Hence they were scandal- 
ized at the outward appearance, the humil- 
ity, and seeming weakness of our Saviour. 
The modern Jews, indulging still greater 
mistakes, form to themselves ideas of the 
Messiah utterly unknown to their fore- 
fathers. 

The ancient prophets had foretold that 
the Messiah should be God, and man ; ex- 
alted, and abased ; master, and servant ; 
priest, and victim; prince, and subject; 
sinless, and yet punished as a criminal ; 
involved in death, yet victor over death ; 
rich, and poor ; a king, a conqueror, glori- 
ous — a man of griefs, exposed to infirmi- 
ties, unknown, in a state of abjectness and 
humiliation. All these contrarieties were 
to be reconciled in the person of the Mes- 
siah ; as they really were in the person of 
Jesus. 

It is not recorded that Christ ever re- 
ceived any external official unction. The 
unction that the prophets and the apostles 
speak of is the spiritual and internal unc- 
tion of grace and of the Holy Ghost, Luke 
4:18; Acts 10:38, of which the outward 
unction, with which kings, priests, and 
prophets were anciently anointed, was but 
the figure and symbol. 

The name Christ is the official title of 
the Redeemer, and is not to be regarded 
as a mere appellative, to distinguish our 
Lord from other persons named Jesus. 
The force of many passages of Scripture 
is greatly weakened by overlooking this. 
We may get the true sense of such passa- 
ges by substituting for " Christ," "the An- 
ointed," and where Jews were addressed, 

103 



CHR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CHR 



" the Messiah." Thus in Matt. 2:4, Her- 
od " demanded of them," the priests and 
scribes, " where the Christ should be born," 
that is, the Old Testament Messiah. Peter 
confessed, " Thou art the Messiah," Matt. 
16:16. The devils did the same, Luke 4:41. 
See also Matt. 22:42; Acts 17:3; 18:5. In 
later times the name Jesus was compara- 
tively disused ; and Christ, as a proper 
name, was used instead of Jesus, as in the 
epistles. 

When we consider the relation of Christ's 
person, as God and man, to his official 
work as our Prophet, Priest, and King, 
and to his states of humiliation and glory ; 
when we consider how God is in and with 
him — how all the perfections of God are 
displayed, and all the truths of God exem- 
plified in him ; when we consider his vari- 
ous relations to the purposes, covenants, 
word, and ordinances of God, and to the 
privileges, duties, and services of saints, 
in time and to eternity, we have a delight- 
ful view of him as all and in all, Col. 
3:11. And we can understand that "No 
man can say that Jesus is the Lord " — cor- 
dially believe in and accept him as the 
Messiah described in the Bible — "but by 
the Holy Ghost," 1 Cor. 12:3. Compare 
Matt. 16: 16, 17; 1 John 5:1. 

CHRIS'TIANS, a name given at Antioch 
in Syria to those who believed Jesus to be 
the Messiah, A. D. 42, Acts 11:26. It seems 
to have been given to them by the men of 
Antioch as a term of convenience rather 
than of ridicule, to designate the new sect 
more perfectly than any other word could 
do, and occurs in only 2 other places in 
the Bible, Acts 26:28; 1 Pet. 4:16. They 
generally called each other "brethren," 
"the faithful," "saints," "believers;" and 
were named by the Jews, Nazarenes and 
Galileans. The term is sometimes used 
now to distinguish nominally Christian 
nations or individuals from idolaters, Mo- 
hammedans, or infidels, and sometimes to 
denote church members only. Nominal 
Christian nations, including Roman-catho- 
lics 195,000,000, Greek and Oriental Chris- 
tians 76,000,000, and Protestants 97,000,000, 
form barely four-tenths of the human fam- 
ily in numbers ; but in influence Christ- 
endom, and especially Protestantism, is 
largely in the ascendant above all others — 
including idolaters 766,000,000, Mohamme- 
dans 161,000,000, and Jews 6,000,000. He 
only is a real Christian who heartily accepts 
Christ as his teacher, guide, and master, 
the source of his highest life, strength, and 
104 



joy, his only Redeemer from sin and hell, 
his Lord and his God. They who rightly 
bear Christ's name and partake of his na- 
ture, and they only, will finally share in 
his glory. 

CHRISTS, false. Our Saviour predict- 
ed that many pretended Messiahs would 
come, Matt. 24:24, and his word has been 
abundantly fulfilled. Twenty-four differ- 
ent men have pretended to be the Messiah. 
One of them named Coziba, usually known 
as Bar-cocheba, son of the star, lived with- 
in 100 years of Christ, had many followers, 
and is said to have occasioned the death of 
more than half a million of Jews. Others 
have continued to appear, even down to 
modern times, 1682. 

CHRON'ICLES, the name of 2 historical 
books of the Old Testament, the author of 
which is not known, though the general 
opinion ascribes them to Ezra, B. C. 457, 
and this opinion is established by the 
searching inquiries and discussions of 
modern criticism. They originally formed 
a single book. The inspired penman made 
use, not only of the earlier books of Scrip- 
ture, but of numerous other public annals, 
now lost, 1 Chr. 29 : 29 ; 2 Chr. 9 : 29 ; 16:11; 
20:34; 27:7. The 1st book contains a re- 
capitulation of sacred history, by genealo- 
gies, from the beginning of the world to 
the time of David, and more fully the life, 
reign, and death of David. The 2d book 
contains the history of the kings of Judah, 
without those of Israel, from the beginning 
of the reign of Solomon only, to the return 
from the captivity of Babylon. In this re- 
spect it differs from the books of Kings, 
which give the history of the kings of both 
Judah and Israel. In many places, where 
the history of the same kings is related, the 
narrative in Chronicles is almost a copy 
of that in Kings ; in other places, the one 
serves as a supplement to the other. In 
the Septuagint, these books are called Pa- 
raleipomena, that is, things omitted. The 
2 books of Chronicles, written after the 
restoration from Babylon and during the 
reestablishment of the Hebrew state and 
church, seem intended primarily to aid in 
this work ; they give full genealogical rec- 
ords, by which the lands were to be re- 
assigned, the temple service reorganized, 
etc. ; they dwell more on ecclesiastical mat- 
ters than the books of Kings ; they enlarge 
upon the ordinances of public worship ; and 
detail minutely the preparations of David 
for the building of the temple, and its erec- 
tion and dedication by Solomon ; the histo- 



CHR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CIL 



ries of the other kings also are specially 
full in respect to their religious character 
and acts, i Chr. 13:8-11; 2 Chr. 11:13; 
19:8-11; 26:16-19, etc. The Chronicles 
should be read in connection with the 
books of Samuel and the Kings ; treating 
of the same periods, they illustrate each 
other, with some apparent but unessential 
discrepancies, and form a continuous and 
instructive history, showing that religion 
is the main source of national prosperity, 
and ungodliness of adversity, Prov.' 14:34. 
The details of these books may be studied 
with interest, in view of their bearing upon 
the coming and the kingdom of our Lord 
Jesus Christ. The whole period treated of 
in the Chronicles is about 3,500 years. See 
Numbers. 

CHRYS'OLITE, supposed to be the Ori- 
ental topaz of modern times, a transparent 
precious stone, having the color of gold 
with a mixture of green, and a fine lustre, 
Rev. 21 :20. 

CHRYSOP'RASUS, the 10th precious 
stone in the foundation of the heavenly 
Jerusalem, as seen by John. Its color was 
green, inclining to gold, as its name im- 
ports, Rev. 21 :2o. 

CHUB, Ezek. 30:5, some unknown peo- 
ple of North Africa, in alliance with Egypt 
and defeated by Nebuchadnezzar. 

CHUN, 1 Chr. 18:8, elsewhere called Be- 
rothai, which see. 

CHURCH. The Greek word ecclesia, 
translated church, signifies generally an 
assembly, either common or religious ; and 
it is sometimes so translated, as in Acts 
I 9 : 3 2 > 39- I n the New Testament it usu- 
ally means a congregation of religious 
worshippers, either Jewish, as Acts 7:38, 
or Christian, as Matt. 18:17; 1 Cor. 6:4. 
The latter sense is the more common one ; 
and it is thus used in a twofold manner, 
denoting, 

1. The universal Christian church: either 
the invisible church, consisting of all saved 
souls, whom God knows, but whom we can- 
not infallibly know, Heb. 12:23 ; or the vis- 
ible church, made up of the professed fol- 
lowers of Christ. Col. 1:24; 1 Tim. 3:5, 15. 

2. A particular church or body of pro- 
fessing believers, who meet and worship 
together in one place; as the churches of 
Rome, Corinth, Ephesus, Philippi, etc., to 
which Paul addressed epistles. 

In Matt. 16:18, 19, it seems to mean more 
than the mere body of Christ's redeemed 
people, including the doctrines, endow- 
ments, institutions, and hopes he has given 



them— the gospel in the full development 
and accomplishment of its designs. The 
expression commonly used by Christ him- 
self is, " the kingdom of heaven," or of God. 
See Kingdom. 

CHURL, Isa. 32:5, 7, a deceiver. Churl- 
ish, in 1 Sam. 25:3, coarse and rude. 

CHURN, Prov. 30:33. See Butter. 

CHU'SHAN-RISHATHA'IM, a king of 
Mesopotamia, probably between the Eu- 
phrates and the Chebar, who oppressed the 
Israelites 8 years, A. M. 2591-9, but was 
defeated by Othniel, Caleb's nephew, Judg. 
3:8-10. This was centuries before the rise 
of the Assyrian empire. 

CHU'ZA, a seer. See Joanna. 

CILI'CIA. See below. 




CINNAMON : LAURUS CINNAMONUM. 

CIN'NAMON, an ingredient in the per- 
fumed oil with which the tabernacle and 
its vessels were anointed, Exod. 30:23; 
Prov. 7:17; Song 4:14. It is the inner 
bark of a tree of the laurel family, grow- 
ing about 20 feet high, and being peeled 
off in thin strips, curls as it is found in 
market. It is of a dark red color, of a 
poignant taste, aromatic, and very agreea- 
ble. That of the finest quality comes from 
Ceylon, and reached the Jews by the way 
of Babylon, Rev. 18:13. 

CILI'CIA, the southeastern province of 
Asia Minor, bounded north bv the Taurus 
range, separating it from Cappadocia, Ly- 
caonia, and Isauria, south by the Mediter- 
ranean, east by Syria, and west by Pam- 
phylia. The western part had the appel- 
lation of Aspera, or rough ; while the east- 
ern was called Campestris, or level. This 
country was the province of Cicero when 
proconsul, B. C. 52 ; and its chief town, Tar- 

105 



CIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CIS 



sus, was the birthplace of the apostle Paul> 
Acts 6:9. Many Jews dwelt in Cilicia, and 
maintained frequent intercourse with Jeru- 
salem, where they had a synagogue, and 
joined the other Jews in opposing the prog- 
ress of Christianity. Paul himself may 
have taken part in the public discussion 
with Stephen, Acts 6:9; 7:58. After his 
conversion he visited his native province, 
Acts 9:30; Gal. 1:21, and established 
churches, which were addressed in the let- 
ter of the council at Jerusalem, Acts 15:23. 
The apostle once afterwards made a mis- 
sionary tour among these churches, his 
heart yearning to behold and to increase 
their prosperity, Acts 15:36, 41. Christian- 
ity flourished in Cilicia until it was sup- 
pressed by the Turks in the 8th century. 
CIN'NEROTH, 1 Kin. 15:20. See Chin- 

NERETH. 

CIRCUMCIS'ION, a cutting around, be- 
cause in this rite the foreskin was cut 
away. It was significant of consecration 
to God, and of purification. God com- 
manded Abraham to use circumcision, as 
a sign of his covenant; and so the patri- 
arch, at 99 years of age, was circumcised, 
also his son Ishmael, and all the males of 
his household, Gen. 17:10-12. God repeat- 
ed the precept to Moses, and ordered that 
all who intended to partake of the paschal 
sacrifice should receive circumcision ; and 
that this rite should be performed on chil- 
dren on the 8th day after their birth, Exod. 
12:44; Lev. 12:3; John 7:22; the giving of 
a name accompanying the act, Luke 1:59; 
2:21. In it as a religious rite of the cove- 
nant, the males represented also the females 
of the household. The Jews have always 
been very exact in observing this ceremo- 
ny, and it appears that they did not neglect 
it when in Egypt, Exod. 4:24-26; Josh. 5: 1- 
9; though while wandering in the desert 
under God's displeasure it was suspended. 
It was required of slaves, Gen. 17:12, 13, 
and of proselytes to Judaism, Acts 16:3; 
and being a painful rite, Gen. 34:25, was 
one of the burdens from which the gospel 
relieved the Jewish converts. 

All the other nations that sprung from 
Abraham besides the Hebrews, as the Ish- 
maelites, the Arabians, etc., also retained 
the practice of circumcision. At the pres- 
ent day it is an essential rite of the Moham- 
medan religion, and though not enjoined 
in the Koran, prevails wherever this reli- 
gion is found. It is also practised in some 
form among the Abyssinians, and various 
tribes of South Africa, as it was by the an- 
106 



cient Egyptians. But there is no proof 
that it was practised upon infants, or be- 
came a general, national, or religious cus- 
tom, before God enjoined it upon Abraham. 

Most of the nations around Judaea were 
uncircumcised — as the Hivites, Gen. 34, 
and the Philistines, who are often called 
"the uncircumcised," Judg. 14:3; whence 
the occurrence in 1 Sam. 18:25-27. The 
Jews esteemed uncircumcision as a very 
great impurity; and the greatest offence 
they could receive was to be called " uncir- 
cumcised." Paul frequently mentions the 
Gentiles under this term, not opprobrious- 
ly, Rom. 2:26; 4:9, but in distinction from 
the Jews, whom he names " the circum- 
cision," etc. 

Disputes as to the observance of this rite 
by the converts from heathenism to Chris- 
tianity occasioned much trouble in the 
early church, Acts 15; and it was long be- 
fore it was well understood that " in Christ 
Jesus neither circumcision availeth any- 
thing, nor uncircumcision, but a new crea- 
ture," Gal. 5:2, 3; 6:15. 

The true circumcision is that of the heart, 
Rom. 2:29; and those are " uncircumcised 
in heart and ears," Acts 7:51, who will not 
obey the law of God nor embrace the gos- 
pel of Christ. 

CIS'TERNS and reservoirs were very 
common in Palestine, both in the country 
and in cities. During nearly half the year 
no rain falls, and never-failing streams 
and springs are rare indeed. The main 
dependence of a large portion of the pop- 
ulation was upon the water which fell in 
the rainy season and was preserved in cis- 
terns, 2 Sam. 17:18. Dr. Robinson alludes 
to immense reservoirs within and under 
the area of the temple, supplied by rain- 
water and by the aqueduct from Solomon's 
pools, and says, " These of themselves, in 
case of a siege, would furnish a tolerable 
supply. But in addition to these, almost 
every house in Jerusalem, of any size, is 
understood to have at least one or more 
cisterns, excavated in the soft limestone 
rock on which the city is built. The house 
of Mr. Lanneau, in which we resided, had 
no less than 4 cisterns ; and as these are 
but a specimen of the manner in which all 
the better class of houses are supplied, I 
subjoin here the dimensions: 

LENGTH. BREADTH. DEPTH. 

I. 15 feet. 8 feet. 12 feet. 

II. 8 " 4 " J 5 " 

III. 10 " 10 " 15 ' 

IV. 30 " 30 " 20 " 



CIT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CLA 



The water is conducted into them during 
the rainy season, and with proper care re- 
mains pure and sweet during the whole 
summer and autumn." When dry, they 
might be used as a prison, Gen. 37: 22; Jer. 
38:6, or a granary, as at this day; and to 
drink water only from one's own domestic 
cistern means, to content one's self with the 
lawful enjoyments of his own home, Prov. 
5:15. Such cisterns, and others more prop- 
erly called tanks and pools, were provided 
in the fields for irrigation, and at intervals 
along the highways, for the accommoda- 
tion of travellers, Psa. 84:6, and "broken 
cisterns " of high antiquity may still be 
seen at intervals along the old highways. 
Such uncertain reservoirs of earthly pleas- 
ure are contrasted with the perennial foun- 
tain of God's love, Jer. 2:13. The same 
causes led to the erection, near all the 
chief cities, of large open reservoirs for 
public use. These were built of massive 
stones, and in places where the , winter 
rains could be easily conducted into them. 
Many such reservoirs, and ruins of others, 
yet remain. See Bethesda, Siloam, Sol- 
omon's Pools. 

CIT'IZENSHIP, in the New Testament 
the privilege of native Romans, and of 
Jews, etc., who acquired it by purchase, 
Acts 22:28, by military or other services, 
by manumission, etc. It secured to its pos- 
sessor and his children all the rights left 
them by the emperors ; among others, ex- 
emption from scourging, or imprisonment 
without trial, Acts 16:37; 22:24-29, and the 
right of appeal to the emperor, Acts 25:11. 

CITY. The towns and cities of Palestine 
were commonly built on heights, for bet- 
ter security against robbers or invaders. 
These heights, surrounded by walls, some- 
times formed the entire city. In other 
cases, the citadel alone crowned the hill, 
around and at the base of which the town 
was built ; and in time of danger the sur- 
rounding population all took refuge in the 
fortified place. Larger towns and cities 
were often not only defended by strong 
outer walls, with towers and gates, but by 
a citadel or castle within these limits — a 
last resort when the rest of the city was 
taken, Judg. 9:46, 51. "Cities" are men- 
tioned very early in the history of the 
world, Gen. 4:17; 10:10-12, 19; 11:3-9; 
19: 1-29. The " fenced cities " of the Jews, 
Deut. 3:5, were of various sizes and de- 
grees of strength ; some being surround- 
ed by high and thick stone walls, and 
others by feebler ramparts, often of clay or 



sun-dried bricks, and sometimes combus- 
tible, Isa. 9:10; Amos 1:7-14. They were 
also provided with watchmen, Psa. 127:1; 
Song 5:7. The streets of ancient towns 
were usually narrow, with scarcely room 
for two loaded camels to pass each other, 
and often unpaved, almost always unlight- 
ed. There were sometimes open places, 
especially the forum or market-place, and 
the vicinity of the gates. Some cities were 
adorned with vast parks and gardens; this 
was the case with Babylon, which embraced 
an immense space within its walls. It is 
impossible at this day to form any reliable 
estimate of the population of the cities of 
Judaea. Jerusalem is said by Josephus to 
have had 150,000 inhabitants, and to have 
contained,- at the time of its siege by the 
Romans, more than 1,000,000 of persons 
crowded in its circuit of 4 miles of wall. 
See Gate, Refuge, Watchmen. 

City of David, Mount Zion, the south- 
west section of Jerusalem, which David 
took from the Jebusites, and occupied by a 
palace and called by his own name. In 
Luke 2:11, Bethlehem his native city is 
meant. 

City of God, Deut. 12:5; Psa. 46:4, and 
The Holy City, Neh. 1 1 : 1, names of Jeru- 
salem. Its modern name is El-Kuds, the 
Holy. 

CLAU'DA, a small island near the south- 
west shore of Crete, approached by Paul 
in his voyage to Rome, Acts 27: 16. A gale 
from the east-northeast came down on the 
ship from Crete, and being driven before 
it under the lee of Clauda, they were ena- 
bled to take the precautions described in 
ver. 16, 17. Clauda is now called Gozzo, 
and is occupied by about 30 families. 

CLAU'DIA, lame, a Christian woman, 
probably a convert of Paul at Rome, 
2 Tim. 4:21. 

CLAU'DIUS Cffi'SAR, 5th emperor of 
Rome, succeeded Caius Caligula, A. D. 41, 
and was followed by Nero, after a reign of 
13 years. He endowed Agrippa with royal 
authority over Judaea, which on the death 
of Agrippa again became a province of 
Rome, A. D. 45. About this time probably 
occurred the famine foretold by Agabus, 
Acts 11:28. About the 9th year of his 
reign, he banished all Jews from Rome, 
Acts 18:2, including Jewish Christians. 
The Roman historian Suetonius says, " He 
banished the Jews from Rome on account 
of the continual disturbances they made at 
the instigation of Chrestus " — having heard 
of Christ and of disputes between Chris- 

107 



CLA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



COA 



tians and Jews, but knowing nothing of 
the merits of the case. In A. D. 43-44, 
Claudius made a military expedition to 
Britain. His death was caused by poison, 
from the hand of his wife and niece, Agrip- 
pina. 

CLAU'DIUS FE'LIX. See Felix. 

CLAU'DIUS LYS'IAS. See LYSIAS. 

CLAY designed for earthenware was 
trodden by the feet to mix it well, Isa. 
41:25, was moulded on a wheel, and then 
baked in a kiln, Jer. 18:3; 43:9. The pot- 
ter's art is referred to in Scripture to illus- 
trate man's dependence upon God, Isa. 
64:8; Rom. 9:21. See Potter. Clay 
seems to have been also used in sealing, 
as wax is with us, Job 38:14. The bricks 
of Babylon are found marked with a large 
seal or stamp; and modern travellers find 
the locks of doors in Eastern khans, gran- 
aries, and mummy-pits sealed on the out- 
side with clay. 

CLEAN and unclean, terms often used 
in the Bible in a ceremonial sense ; as- 
signed to certain animals, and to men in 
certain cases, by the law of Moses, Lev. 
11-15; Num. 19; Deut. 14. A distinction 
between clean and unclean animals exist- 
ed before the deluge, Gen. 7:2. The Mo- 
saic law was not arbitrary, but grounded 
on reasons connected with animal sacrifi- 
ces, with health, with the separation of the 
Jews from other nations, and their practice 
of moral purity, Lev. 11:43-45; 20:24-26; 
Deut. 14:2, 3, 21. To eat with Gentiles was 
one of the worst forms of association with 
them, Matt. 9:11; Acts 11:3. The ritual 
law was still observed in the time of Christ, 
but under the gospel is annulled, Acts 10:9- 
16; Heb. 9:9-14. 

Ceremonial uncleanness was contracted 
by the Jews in various ways, voluntarily 
and involuntarily. It was removed, usu- 
ally at the evening of the same day, by 
bathing. In other cases a week, or even 
40 or 50 days, and some sacrificial offer- 
ings, were required. 

CLEM'ENT, mild, a Christian of Philippi, 
mentioned in Phil. 4:3. It is conjectured, 
though without evidence, that this is the 
same Clement who was afterwards a pas- 
tor at Rome, commonly called Clemens 
Romanus. 

CLE'OPHAS, rather Clo'pas, the hus- 
band of Mary, John 19:26, called also Al- 
ph^eus, which see. The Cleopas men- 
tioned in Luke 24:18 probably was a dif- 
ferent person. 

CLOAK, CLOTHES. See GARMENTS. 

108 



CLOS'ET. See House. 

CLOUD, Pillar of, the miraculous to- 
ken of the divine presence and care, Exod. 
14:24; 16:10; Num. 12:5, which guided the 
Israelites in the desert, resting over the 
tabernacle, and moving along majestically 
above the ark when on the way ; it was a 
means of protection and perhaps of shade 
by day, and gave them light by night, Exod. 
13:21, 22; 14:19, 20. By it God directed 
their movements, Num. 9:15-23; 14:14; 
Deut. 1:33. See the beautiful application 
of the image to the future church in Isa. 
4:5- 

CLOUDS, in the summer season of Pal- 
estine, were an unlooked-for phenomenon, 

1 Sam. 12:17, 18, and rising from off the 
Mediterranean, betokened rain, 1 Kin. 
18:44; Luke 12:54. They are emblems of 
transitoriness, Hos. 6:4, and of whatever 
shuts men off from God's favor, Lam. 2:1 ; 
3:44. Clouds are the symbols of armies 
and multitudes, probably by their grand 
and majestic movements, Isa. 60:8; Jer. 
4:13; Heb. 12:1. They betokened the 
presence of Jehovah, as on Mount Sinai, 
Exod. 19:9; 24:12-18; in the temple, Exod. 
40:34; 1 Kin. 8:10; in the cloudy pillar, and 
on the Mount of Transfiguration. They 
are found in many representations of the 
majesty of God, Psa. 18: it, 12; 97:2, and 
of Christ, Matt. 24:30; Rev. 14:14-16. 

CLOUTS, pieces of old garments, Jer. 
38:11. "Clouted" clothes were old and 
patched, Josh. 9:5. 

CLO'VEN, divided. See Tongues. 

CNI'DUS, a city and peninsula of Doris 
in Caria, jutting out from the southwest 
corner of Asia Minor, between the islands 
of Rhodes and Cos. It had a fine harbor, 
and was celebrated for the worship of Ve- 
nus. Paul passed by it in his voyage to 
Rome, Acts 27:7. 

COAL, usually in Scripture, charcoal, or 
the embers of fire, often in a chafing-dish 
or brazier, John 18:18. Mineral coal is 
now procured in Mount Lebanon, 8 hours 
from Beirut ; but we have no evidence that 
it was known and used by the Jews. The 
following passages are those which most 
strongly suggest this substance, 2 Sam. 
22:9, 13; Job 41:21. To "quench one's 
coal " meant to destroy his last living child, 

2 Sam. 14:7. In Rom. 12:20, the idea is, to 
melt an enemy into kindness. 

COAST is often used in the Bible for an 
inland border of a country, not always for 
a sea-coast, Judg. 11:20; Matt. 8:34. 

COAT. See Garments. 



COA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CON 



COAT OF MAIL. See Arms and Haber- 
geon. 

COCK'ATRICE, an old English word of 
obscure origin, used by our translators to 
designate the Hebrew Tzepha, or Tsipho- 
ni, a serpent of a highly venomous charac- 
ter, Prov. 23:32; Isa. 11:8; 14:29; 59:5; 
Jer. 8:17. See Serpent. 

COCK'-CROWING, the 3d watch of the 
night, in the time of Christ. See Hours. 

COCK'LE, a plant growing among wheat, 
Job 31:40. The Hebrew word seems to 
denote some noisome weed which infests 
cultivated grounds. 

COF'FIN, in Gen. 50:26, a sarcophagus 
or mummy-chest, hollowed out of stone, 
or made of sycamore-wood. Such coffins 
were used in the burial of some persons of 
distinction, but for few even of these among 
the Jews. See Burial. 

COL'LEGE, 2 Kin. 22:14, not a home of 
learning, but Mishneh, the second, as trans- 
lated in Zeph. 1 : 10, A. V., the name of some 
locality in Jerusalem, perhaps in the " low- 
er city." 

COL/ONY, Acts 16:12. See Philippi. 

COLOS'SE, or rather Colos's^e, a city of 
Phrygia, on a hill near the junction of the 
Lycus with the Meander, and not far from 
the cities Hierapolis and Laodicea, Col. 
2:1 ; 4:13, 15. With these cities it was de- 
stroyed by an earthquake in the 10th year 
of Nero, about A. D. 65, while Paul was 
yet living. It was soon rebuilt. The 
church of Christians in this city, to whom 
Paul wrote, seems to have been gathered 
by Epaphras, Col. 1:2. Compare 1:7, 8, 9, 
and 4:12, 13. Philemon and Onesimus 
lived here, also Archippus. Its ruins are 
near a place called Chonas. 

COLOS'SIANS, Epistle to the, was 
written by Paul from Rome during his first 
detention there, A. D. 62. The occasion of 
the letter was the intelligence brought him 
by Epaphras, Col. 1:6-8, respecting the 
internal state of the church, which appar- 
ently he himself had not yet visited, Col. 
2:1, though familiar with their history and 
affairs, Acts 16:6; 18:23. Some Jewish 
philosopher professing Christianity, but 
mingling with it a superstitious regard for 
the law and other errors, seems to have 
gained a dangerous ascendancy in the 
church. Paul shows that all our hope of 
salvation is in Christ the only Mediator, in 
whom all fulness dwells ; he cautions the 
Colossians against the errors introduced 
among them, as inconsistent with the gos- 
pel, and incites them by most persuasive 



arguments to a temper and conduct worthy 
of their Christian character. The epistle 
was written at the same time with that to 
the Ephesians, and was sent by the same 
bearers. The two closely resemble each 
other, and should be studied together. 

COM'FORTER, Greek Paracle'tos, an 
advocate, teacher, or consoler. This title 
is given to our Saviour: " We have an ad- 
vocate {par'aclete) with the Father, Jesus 
Christ the righteous," 1 John 2:1. But 
more frequently it designates the Holy 
Spirit. He is the " other Comforter," suc- 
ceeding Christ, the great promised bless- 
ing of the Christian church, John 14:16, 17, 
26; 15:26; Luke 24:49; Acts 1:4. The 
English word Comforter does not ade- 
quately describe the office of the Paraclete, 
who was not only to console, but to aid 
and direct them, as Christ had done. The 
disciples found the promise fulfilled to 
them. The Comforter aided them when 
called before councils ; guided them into 
all truth respecting the plan of salvation; 
brought to their remembrance the words 
and deeds of Christ ; and revealed to them 
things to come. His presence was accom- 
panied by signal triumphs of grace, and 
made amends for the absence of Christ. 
The church is still under the dispensation 
of the Comforter, and still he convinces the 
world of sin, of righteousness, and of the 
judgment to come. See Holy Spirit. 

COM'FORTLESS, John 14:18, literally 
orphans. 

COMING OF CHRIST. See THOUSAND. 

COM'MERCE. See Merchant. 

COM'MON, profane, ceremonially un- 
clean, Mark 7:2, 5; Acts 10:14, 15; Rom. 
14:14. See Clean. 

COM'PASS; "to fetch a compass" is, 
" to make a circuit," or " go round," 2 Sam. 
5:23; Acts 28:13. 

COMPEL', Luke 14:23, vehemently urge. 
The Greek word thus translated in Matt. 
5:41 refers to the custom of Persian and 
Roman couriers for government, who had 
power to press men and horses into their 
service for the time. 

CONCIS'ION, cutting off, Phil. 3:2, a term 
of reproof for certain teachers who exag- 
gerated the value of mere circumcision, 
and required it for Gentile converts ; in 
contrast with the true " circumcision," those 
who were created anew in Christ Jesus 
unto righteousness and true holiness. 

CON'CUBINE, a woman who, without 
being married to a man, lives with him like 
a wife ; but in the Bible the word concubine 

109 



CON 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CON 



means a lawful wife, but of a secondary 
rank. She differed from a proper wife in 
that she was not married by solemn stipu- 
lation, but only betrothed; she brought no 
dowry with her, and had no share in the 
government of the family. She was liable 
to be repudiated, or sent away with a gift, 
Gen. 21 : 14, and her children might be 
treated in the same way, and not share in 
their father's inheritance, Gen. 25:6. One 
cause of concubinage is shown in the his- 
tory of Abraham and Jacob, Gen. 16; 30; 
it was the barrenness of the lawful wife, 
and the special urgency of desire to be 
favored with children ; and the children of 
such concubines had no stain of illegiti- 
macy, but were often adopted as children 
of the wife proper, Gen. 30:6. Concubi- 
nage, however, became a general custom, 
and the law of Moses restricted its abuses, 
Exod. 21:7-9; Deut. 21:10-14, but never 
sanctioned it. The gospel has restored the 
original law of marriage, Gen. 2:24; Matt. 
19:5; 1 Cor. 7:2, and concubinage, always 
an evil, is now ranked with fornication and 
adultery. 

CON'DUIT. See Gihon and Solomon's 
Pools. 




CO'NEY, an old English name for the 
rabbit ; in Scripture, the Hebrew shaphan, 
which agrees with the Ashkoko or Syrian 
Hyrax, Lev. 11:5; Deut. 14:7; Psa. 104 : 18 ; 
Prov. 30:26. This animal is externally of 
the size and form of the rabbit, and of a 
brownish color. It is, however, much clum- 
sier in its structure, almost without tail, and 
having long bristly hairs scattered through 
the fur. The feet are naked below, and 
the nails flat and rounded, except those on 
the inner toe of the hind feet, which are 
long and awl-shaped. They cannot dig, 
but reside in the clefts of rocks. They are 
called by Solomon " wise," and " a feeble 
1 10 



folk;" they are quiet and gregarious in 
their habits, and so timid that they start at 
the shadow of a passing bird. The name 
of Spain is said to have been given to it by 
Phoenician voyagers, who seeing its west- 
ern coast overrun with animals resembling 
the shaphan, called it Hispania, or Coney- 
land. 

CONGREGA'TION, the general assem- 
blage of the Jews under the Theocracy, in 
eluding either all the adult males, or their 
representatives by families and tribes, Josh. 
9:15, 18. They were summoned before " the 
tabernacle of the congregation" by 2 sil- 
ver trumpets, to commune with God, Num. 
10:3; 25:6, to act judicially, declare war, 
or perform any important national act, 
Judg. 20: 1-11 ; 1 Sam. 10:17-25 ; 2 Sam. 5:1. 
In later periods the Sanhedrin represented 
the congregation. The word " church " in 
Acts 7:38 means this holy congregation of 
Israelites at Sinai. 

CONI'AH. See Jehoiachin. 

CON'SCIENCE is that faculty common to 
all free moral agents, Rom. 2: 13-15, in vir- 
tue of which we discern between right and 
wrong, and are prompted to choose the 
former and refuse the latter. Its appoint- 
ed sphere is in the regulation, according to 
the will of God revealed in nature and the 
Bible, of all our being and actions so far as 
these have a moral character. The exist- 
ence of this faculty proves the soul ac- 
countable at the bar of its Creator, and its 
voice is in an important sense the voice of 
God. We feel that when pure and fully 
informed, it is an unerring guide to duty, 
and that no imperious sway of wrong affec- 
tions, no possible array of inducements, 
can justify us in disregarding it. In man, 
however, though this conviction that we 
must do what is right never fails, yet the 
value of conscience is greatly impaired by 
its inhering in a depraved soul, whose evil 
tendencies warp and pervert our judg- 
ments on all subjects. Thus Saul verily 
thought that he ought to persecute the fol- 
lowers of Christ, Acts 26:9. His sin was 
in his culpable neglect to enlighten his 
conscience by all the means in his power, 
and to purify it by divine grace. A terri- 
ble array of conscientious errors and per- 
secutions, which have infested and afflicted 
the church in all ages, warns us of our in- 
dividual need of perfect light and sancti- 
fying grace. A "good " and " pure " con- 
science, 1 Tim. 1:5; 3:9, is sprinkled with 
Christ's blood, clearly discerns the will of 
God, and urges us to obey it from gospel 



CON 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



COR 



motives ; in proportion as we thus obey it, 
it is "void of offence," Acts 24:16, and its 
approbation is one of the most essential 
elements of happiness. A " weak," or ir- 
resolute and blind conscience, 1 Cor. 8:7; 
a " defiled" conscience, the slave of a cor- 
rupt heart, Tit. 1:15; Heb. 10:22; and a 
"seared" conscience, 1 Tim. 4:2, hardened 
against the law and the gospel alike, unless 
changed by grace, will at length become an 
avenging conscience, the instrument of a 
fearful and eternal remorse. The case of 
Judas shows its terrific power. No bodily 
tortures can equal the agony it inflicts ; and 
though it may slumber here, it will here- 
after be like the worm that never dies and 
the fire that never can be quenched. 

CON'SECRATE, to devote to God's ser- 
vice or sacred purposes, as the Jewish 
priests, temple furniture, and offerings, 
Exod. 28:3; 29:31; 2 Chr. 26:18; 31:6. 

CONVEN'IENT, suitable and right, Prov. 
30:8; Rom. 1:28; Eph. 5:4. 

CONVERSA'TION, in the Bible, the whole 
tenor of one's life, in intercourse with his 
fellow-men, Gal. 1:13; Eph. 4:22; 1 Pet. 
1 : 15. But another word is employed in 
Phil. 1:27; 3:20, which means citizenship. 
For conversation in the modern sense of 
discourse face to face, the English version 
generally has communication, 2 Kin. 9:11 ; 
Matt. 5:37; Eph. 4:29, etc. 

CONVER'SION, the "turning" of a sin- 
ner to holiness and God. The term is 
scriptural, being used of the Gentiles in 
Acts 15:3, and elsewhere, Luke 1:16 ; Acts 
26:18. In the case of infidels and heathen, 
the term sometimes denotes merely their 
abandonment of infidelity and idolatry to 
embrace Christianity, though their regen- 
eration is also usually implied. In the 
case of Peter, Luke 22:32, his recovery 
from a fall to a more secure and vigorous 
faith is meant. In common usage, it means 
the whole work by which a sinner becomes 
a child of God, including the regenerating 
work of the Holy Spirit; but there is a 
valid and important reason for a distinc- 
tion in terms between that almighty and 
gracious work of the Spirit by which a soul 
is "born again," and the act of the soul 
itself, thus made willing in the day of 
God's power, freely and heartily accepting 
Christ and forsaking sin. 

CO'OS, R. V. Cos, a small island of the 
Grecian archipelago, at a short distance 
from the southwest point of Asia Minor. 
Paul passed it in his voyage to Jerusalem, 
Acts 21:1. It is now called Stanchio, and 



has a population of 8,000, most of them 
Greek Christians. 

COP'PER, one of the primitive metals, 
and the most ductile and malleable after 
gold and silver. Of this metal and zinc is 
made brass, which is a modern invention. 
There is little doubt but that copper is in- 
tended in those passages of our translation 
of the Bible which speak of brass. Cop- 
per was known prior to the flood, and was 
wrought by Tubal-cain, Gen. 4:22. Hiram 
of Tyre was a celebrated worker in cop- 
per, 1 Kin. 7:14. Palestine abounded in it, 
Deut. 8:9, and David amassed great quan- 
tities to be employed in building the tem- 
ple, 1 Chr. 22:3, 14. The great "brazen 
laver" or "sea" was made of it, the pil- 
lars Jachin and Boaz, and many other arti- 
cles for the temple and its services, 1 Kin. 
7:15-39. In Ezra 8:27, 2 vessels are men- 
tioned "of fine copper, precious as gold." 
This was probably a metal compounded of 
copper with gold or silver, or both. It was 
extolled for its beauty, solidity, and rarity, 
and for some uses was preferred to gold 
itself. Compare 1 Kin. 7:45; Dan. 10:6. 
Some compound of this kind may have 
been used for the small mirrors mentioned 
in Exod. 38:8; Job 37:18; and for the 
"bows of steel" Job 20:24; P sa - I 8 ; 34- 
The same word is used in jer. 15:12, and 
this compound with copper is spoken of as 
harder than iron, like the " northern iron," 
that is, steel: the art of making which was 
known to the ancient Egyptians and Mexi- 
cans. See Brass and Sea. 

COR, Ezek. 45:14. See Table of Meas- 
ures in the Appendix, and Measures. 




COR'AL, a hard, calcareous, marine pro- 
duction, produced by the labors of millions 
of minute polypous animals, and often re- 
in 



COR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



COR 



sembling in figure the stem of a plant divi- 
ded into branches. It is of various colors, 
black, white, and red. The latter is the 
most valuable. It is ranked by Job, 28 : 18, 
and Ezekiel, 27: 16, among precious stones. 
It abounds in the Red Sea; and the islands 
of the South Seas are often coral reefs, 
covered over with earth. The word " ru- 
bies" in Prov. 3:15; 8:11; 20:15; 31:10, is 
thought by many to mean ornaments of 
red coral. 

COR'BAN, a sacred gift, a present devo- 
ted to God, or to his temple, Matt. 23:18. 
Our Saviour reproaches the Jews with cru- 
elty towards their needy parents, in making 
a corban of what should have been appro- 
priated to their use: " I have already de- 
voted to God that which you request of 
me," Mark 7:11; and the traditionary 
teachings of the Jewish doctors would en- 
force such a vow, although it was contrary 
to nature and to reason, and made void 
the law of God as to honoring parents, 



Matt. 15:3-9; and although the property so 
" devoted " was never actually transferred 
from the owner to God's service, nor even 
intended to be. The Pharisees, and the 
Talmudists their successors, permitted 
even debtors to defraud their creditors by 
consecrating their debt to God ; as if the 
property were their own, and not rather 
the right of their creditors. God himself is 
the guardian of our relatives, and credi- 
tors, and despises an offering or a charity 
which we procure at the cost of their right- 
ful claims. 

CO'RE, Jude 11, A. V. See Korah. 

CORIAN'DER, a small round seed of an 
aromatic plant. The plant is a native of 
China, and is now widely diffused. Its 
seeds are planted in March. They are em- 
ployed as a spice, and are much used by 
druggists and confectioners. The manna 
which fell in the wilderness was like cori- 
ander-seed in form and color, Exod. 16:31 ; 
Num. 11:17. See Manna. 




MODERN CORINTH. 



COR'INTH, the capital of Achaia, on the 
isthmus which separates the Ionian Sea 
from the ./Egean, and hence called bimaris, 
" on 2 seas." The city itself stood a little 
inland ; but it had 2 ports, Lechaeum on the 
west, and Cenchrea on the east. Its posi- 
tion gave it great commercial and military 
importance ; for while the traffic of the east 
and west pou/ed through its gates, as over 
112 



the Isthmus of Darien the commerce of 2 
oceans, it was also at the gate of the Pelo- 
ponnesus, and was the highway between 
Northern and Southern Greece. Its de- 
fence, besides the city walls, was in the 
Acro-corinth, a mass of rock rising 2,000 
feet above the sea, with precipitous sides, 
and with room for a town upon its summit. 
Corinth thus became one of the most pop- 



COR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



COR 



ulous and wealthy cities of Greece ; but its 
■riches produced pride, ostentation, effemi- 
nacy, and all the vices generally conse- 
quent on plenty. Lasciviousness, particu- 
larly, was not only tolerated, but consecra- 
ted here, by the worship of Venus, and the 
notorious prostitution of numerous attend- 
ants devoted to her. Corinth was destroyed 
by the Romans, B. C. 146. A century later 
it was restored by Julius Caesar, who plant- 
ed in it a Roman colony ; but though it soon 
regained its ancient splendor, it also re- 
lapsed into all its former dissipation and 
'licentiousness. Paul arrived at Corinth, 
A. D. 52, Acts 18: 1, and lodged with Aquila 
and Priscilla, who, as well as himself, were 
tent-makers. Supporting himself by this 
labor, he remained at Corinth a year and 
a half, preaching the gospel at first to the 
Jews, and afterwards more successfully to 
the Gentiles, 1 Cor. 12:2. See Gallio. 
During this time he wrote the Epistles to 
the Thessalonians ; and in a subsequent 
visit, A. D. 57, Acts 20:2, 3, the Epistle to 
the Romans. Some suppose he made a 
•short intervening visit, not narrated in the 
Bible. Compare 2 Cor. 13:1 with 2 Cor. 
1:15; 2:1; 12:14, 2I ! !3 :2 - Apollos fol- 
lowed him in his labors at Corinth, and 
Aquila and Sosthenes were also among its 
■early ministers, Acts 18:1; 1 Cor. 1:1; 
16:19. Its site is now unhealthy and al- 
most deserted, with few vestiges of its 
"former greatness. 

CORIN'THIANS, Epistle I. This was 
written by Paul at Ephesus, about A. D. 
57, upon the receipt of intelligence respect- 
ing the Corinthian church, conveyed by 
members of the family of Chloe, ch. 1:11, 
and by a letter from the church requesting 
advice, ch. 7:1, probably brought by Ste- 
phanas, etc., ch. 16:17. Certain factions 
Tiad arisen in the church, using his name 
and those of Peter, Apollos, and of Christ 
"himself, in bitter partisan contentions. In 
the first part of this letter he endeavors to 
restore harmony among them, by reuniting 
them to the great and sole Head of the 
•church. He then takes occasion to put 
them on their guard against teachers of 
false philosophy, and resting their faith on 
the wisdom of men instead of the simple 
l>ut mighty word of God. He proceeds, in 
>ch. 5, to reprove them for certain gross im- 
moralities tolerated among them, such as 
they had formerly practised like all around 
them, but which he charges them to banish 
from the church of Christ. He replies to 
ttheir queries respecting celibacy and mar- 
8 



riage, and the eating of food offered to 
idols ; and meets several errors and sins 
prevalent in the church by timely instruc- 
tions as to disputes among brethren, deco- 
rum in public assemblies, the Lord's Sup- 
per, the resurrection of believers, true 
charity, and the right use of spiritual gifts, 
in which the Corinthian Christians ex- 
celled, but not without a mixture of osten- 
tation and disorder. He directs them as 
to the best method of Christian benefi- 
cence, and closes with friendly greetings. 

Epistle II. This was occasioned by in- 
telligence received through Titus, at Phi- 
lippi. Paul learned of the favorable recep- 
tion of his former letter, and the good 
effects produced, and yet that a party re- 
mained opposed to him — accusing him of 
fickleness in not fulfilling his promise to 
visit them; blaming his severity towards 
the incestuous person; and charging him 
with an arrogance and assumption unsuit- 
ed to his true authority and his personal 
appearance. In the course of his reply he 
answers all these objections; he enlarges 
upon the excellence of the new covenant, 
and the duties and rewards of its minis- 
ters, and on the duty of the Corinthian 
Christians as to charitable collections. He 
then vindicates his own course, his dignity 
and authority as an apostle, against those 
who assailed him. His last words invite 
them to penitence, peace, and brotherly 
love. This epistle seems to have been 
written a few months after the first. 

COR'MORANT, Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14:17, 
some bird like the cormorant— which is a 
water-bird about the size of a goose. It 
lives on fish, which it catches with great 
dexterity; and is so voracious and greedy 
that its name has passed into a kind of 
proverbial use. Another Hebrew word, 
translated "cormorant" in Isa. 34:11; 
Zeph. 2:14, should rather be translated, as 
it is in other passages, "pelican." 

CORN, in the Bible, is the general word 
for grain of all kinds, including various 
seeds, peas, and beans. It never means, 
as in America, maize, or Indian corn. Pal- 
estine was anciently very fertile in grain, 
which furnished in a great measure the 
support of the inhabitants, Gen. 27 : 28. 
" Corn, wine, and olive-oil " were the sta- 
ple products, and wheat and barley still 
grow there luxuriantly, when cultivated; 
also spelt, rye, millet, fitches, and oats. 
The disciples ate wheat in the field, the 
ripe ear being simply rubbed in the hands 
to separate the kernels, Deut. 23:25; Matt. 

113 



COR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



COR 



12:1. Parched wheat was a part of the 
ordinary food of the Israelites, as it still is 
of the Arabs, Ruth 2:14; 2 Sam. 17:28, 29. 
Their method of preparing grain for the 
manufacture of bread was the following : 
The threshing was done either by the staff 
or the flail, Isa. 28:27, 28; by the feet of 
cattle, Deut. 25:4; or by "a sharp thresh- 
ing instrument having teeth," Isa. 41:15, 
which was something resembling a cart, 
drawn over the corn by means of horses or 
oxen. See Threshing. When the grain 
was threshed, it was separated from the 
chaff and dust by throwing it forward 
across the wind, by means of a winnowing 
fan or shovel, Matt. 3:12; after which the 
grain was sifted, to separate all impurities 
from it, Amos 9 : 9 ; Luke 22:31. Hence we 
see that the threshing-floors were in the 
open air, and if possible on high ground, 
as travellers still find them in actual use, 
Judg. 6:11 ; 2 Sam. 24:18. The grain thus 
obtained was sometimes pounded in a mor- 
tar, Num. 11:8; Rev. 18:22, but was com- 
monly reduced to meal by the hand-mill. 



/./.^ 




This consisted of a lower millstone, the 
upper side of which was slightly concave, 
and an upper millstone, the lower surface 
of which was convex. These stones were 
each about 2 feet in diameter, and half a 
foot thick; and were called "the nether 
millstone " and the rider, Job 41 :24 ; Judg. 
9:53; 2 Sam, 11:21. The hole for receiving 
the corn was in the centre of the upper 
millstone ; and in the operation of grind- 
ing, the lower was fixed, and the upper 
made to move round upon it with consid- 
erable velocity by means of a handle. The 
meal came out at the edges, and was re- 
ceived on a cloth spread under the mill on 
114 



the ground. Each family possessed a mill, 
and the law forbade its being taken in. 
pledge, Deut. 24:6; one among innumera- 
ble examples of the humanity of the Mosaic 
legislation. These mills are still in use in, 
the East, and in some parts of Scotland. 
Dr. E. D. Clarke says, " In the island of 
Cyprus I observed upon the ground the 
sort of stones used for grinding corn, called. 
querns in Scotland, common also in Lap- 
land, and in all parts of Palestine." The 
employment of grinding with these mills 
is confined solely to females, who sit on the 
ground with the mill before them, and thus, 
may be said to be " behind the mill," Exod. 
11:5. See Matt. 24:41. To this feminine 
occupation Samson was degraded, Judg. 
16:21. The women always accompany the 
grating noise of the stones with their voi- 
ces; and when 10 or a dozen are thus em- 
ployed at daybreak, the noise is heard all 
over the city. The Scriptures mention the 
want of this noise as a mark of desolation, 
Jer. 25:10; Rev. 18:22. 

CORNE'LIUS, a Roman centurion, sta- 
tioned at Caesarea in Palestine, supposed 
to have been of a distinguished family in 
Rome. He was the 1st Gentile convert, 
under Peter; and the story of his recep- 
tion of the gospel and acceptance by Jew- 
ish Christians shows how God broke down, 
the partition-wall between Jews and Gen- 
tiles. When first mentioned, Acts 10:1, he 
had evidently been led by the Holy Spirit 
to renounce idolatry, to worship the true 
God, and to lead, in the midst of profli- 
gacy, a devout and beneficent life ; he was 
prepared to receive the Saviour, and God 
did not fail to reveal Him. Cornelius was 
miraculously directed to send for Peter, 
who was also miraculously prepared to 
attend the summons. He went from Joppa 
to Caesarea, 35 miles, preached the gospel 
to Cornelius and his friends, and saw with 
wonder the miraculous gifts of the Spirit 
poured upon them all. Providence thus, 
explained his recent vision in the trance; 
he nobly discarded his Jewish prejudices,, 
and at once began his great work as apos- 
tle to the Gentiles by receiving into the 
church of Christ those whom Christ had so 
manifestly accepted, Acts 10; 11. 

COR'NER-STONE, a massive stone, usu- 
ally distinct from the foundation, Jer. 51 :26, 
and so placed at the corner of the building 
as to bind together the 2 walls meeting, 
upon it. Such a stone is found at Baalbek, 
28 feet long, 6yi feet wide, and 4 feet thick. 

Our Lord is compared in the New Tes- 



COR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



COV 



tament to a corner-stone in 3 different 
points of view. First, as this stone lies at 
the foundation, and serves to give support 
and strength to the building, so Christ, or 
the doctrine of a Saviour, is called the chief 
corner-stone, Eph. 2:20, because this doc- 
trine is the most important feature of the 
Christian religion — as a system of truths, 
and as a living power in the souls of men. 
Further, as the corner-stone occupies an 
important and conspicuous place, Jesus is 
compared to it, 1 Pet. 2:6, because God has 
given him, as the Mediator, a dignity and 
conspicuousness above all others. Lastly, 
since men often stumble against a project- 
ing corner-stone, Christ is so called, Matt. 
21:42, because his gospel will be the cause 
of aggravated condemnation to those who 
reject it. 

COR'NET, a wind instrument of music, 
of a curved form, 1 Chr. 15:28; Dan. 3:5, 7. 
See Music. 

CORRUP'TION, Mount of. See Olives. 

COS. See Coos. 

COTES, inclosures for the safe keeping 
of sheep, 2 Chr. 32:28. See Sheep. 

COT'TAGE, a rustic tent or booth, made 
often of boughs, Isa. 1:8; Zeph. 2:6. In 
Isa. 24:20 it denotes a sort of hammock or 
elevated couch for a garden watchman. 




COT'TON was a native product of India, 
and perhaps of Egypt, and has been sup- 
posed to be intended in some of the passa- 
ges where the English version has "fine 
linen." But minute examination of the 
cloths in which Egyptian mummies were 
wrapped seems to establish the fact that 
linen, sometimes of extraordinary fineness, 
was the only material thus used. See Flax 
and Linen. 



COUCH. See Bed. 

COUN'CIL is occasionally taken for any 
kind of assembly for deliberation, Matt. 
12:14; in Acts 25:12, the advisers of Fes^ 
tus the Roman governor. In Matt. 5:22; 
Mark 13:9, the minor Jewish courts, of 
which each town had one, seem meant ; 
but more frequently the Sanhedrin. The 
name is applied in later times to certain 
general, or at times partial, conventions of 
the official representatives of churches, to- 
deliberate on ecclesiastical affairs. Thus 
the assembly of the " apostles, elders, and 
brethren," at Jerusalem, Acts 15, to deter- 
mine whether the yoke of the law should 
be imposed on Gentile converts, is com* 
monly reputed to be the 1st general coun- 
cil of the Christian church. See Sanhe- 
drin. 

COUR'SES, the order in which the priests 
were on duty at the temple. See Abia. 

COURT, an inclosed space or yard within 
the limits of an Oriental house, 2 Sam. 
17:18. For the courts of the temple, see 
Temple. The tabernacle also had a court. 
All Oriental houses are built in the form 
of a hollow square around a court. See 
House. 

COVENANT. The word lestamentum is 
often used in Latin to express the He- 
brew word berith, which signifies cove- 
nant ; whence the titles, Old and New Tes- 
taments, are used to denote the old and 
new covenants. See Testament. 

A covenant is properly an agreement 
between 2 parties, ratified among the an- 
cients by an oath, appealing to God as wit- 
ness, Gen. 21:31; 31:50, and by eating or 
taking salt together, as did Jacob and La- 
ban, Gen. 31:46; Lev. 2:13; Num. 18:19; 
or dividing animals in two and passing 
between the parts, Gen. 15; Jer. 34:18, 19. 
Where one of the parties is infinitely supe- 
rior to the other, as in a covenant between 
God and man, God's covenant assumes the 
nature of a promise, Isa. 59:21; Jer. 31:33, 
34; Gal. 3:15-18; but this promise is often 
limited by certain conditions on the part of 
man, as circumcision, Gen. 17:10, 14; Acts 
7:8; obedience to the commandments, etc., 
Exod. 34:27, 28; Lev. 18:5. God's 1st cov- 
enant with the Hebrews was made when 
the Lord chose Abraham and his posterity 
for his people ; a 2d covenant, or a solemn 
renewal of the former, was made at Sinai, 
comprehending all who observe the law of 
Moses. The " new covenant," of which 
Christ is the Mediator and Author, and 
which was confirmed by his blood, com- 

115 



cov 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CRE 



prehends all who believe in him and are 
born again, Gal. 4:24; Heb. 7:22; 8:6-13; 
9:15-23; 12:24. The divine covenants 
were ratified by the sacrifice of a victim, 
to show that without an atonement there 
could be no communication of blessing and 
salvation from God to man, Gen. 15:1-18; 
Exod. 24:6-8; Heb. 9:6. Eminent believ- 
ers among the covenant people of God 
were favored by the establishment of par- 
ticular covenants, in which he promised 
them certain temporal favors; but these 
were only renewals to individuals of the 
" everlasting covenant," with temporal 
types and pledges of its fulfilment. Thus 
God covenanted with Noah, Abraham, and 
David, Gen. 9:8, 9; 17:4, 5; Psa. 89:3, 4, 
etc., and gave them faith in the Saviour 
afterwards to be revealed, Rom. 3 : 25 ; Heb. 
9 :I 5- 

In common discourse we usually speak 
of the old and new testaments, or cove- 
nants — the covenant between God and the 
posterity of Abraham, and that which he 
has made with believers by Jesus Christ; 
because these 2 covenants contain emi- 
nently all the rest, which are consequen- 
ces, branches, or explanations of them. 
The most solemn and perfect of the cove- 
nants of God with men is that made 
through the mediation of our Redeemer, 
which must subsist to the end of time. 
The Son of God is the guarantee of it; it 
is confirmed with his blood ; the end and 
object of it is eternal life, and its constitu- 
tion and laws are more exalted than those 
of the former covenant. 

Theologians use the phrase " covenant 
of works" to denote the constitution es- 
tablished by God with man before the fall, 
the promise of which was eternal life on 
condition of obedience, Hos. 6:7; Rom. 
3:27; Gal. 2:19. They also use the phrase 
" covenant of grace or redemption " to de- 
note the arrangement made in the coun- 
sels of eternity, in virtue of which the 
Father forgives and saves sinful men re- 
deemed by the death of the Son. 

COVET, to ardently long for. The de- 
sire may be right, as in 1 Cor. 12:31; or 
wrong, as in Exod. 20:17. Covetousness 
is a gross form of selfishness, very offen- 
sive to God, Luke 12:15-21; Col. 3:5; 
1 Tim. 6:9, 10. 

CRACK'NELS, a sort of hard, brittle, 
punctured cakes, 1 Kin. 14:3. 

CRAFT, trade or occupation, Acts 18:3. 
After the Captivity, Jewish boys, even of 
rich parents, had to learn some useful craft, 
116 



manual labor not being regarded as unfit 
for free citizens. It was a Rabbinical say- 
ing that he who did not give his son a trade 
fitted him to steal. The Bible contains 
many notices of a great variety of trades 
common in the East. All were not, how- 
ever, equally honorable, nor were they 
necessarily hereditary, though Jesus adopt- 
ed the trade of Joseph, Matt. 13:55; Mark 
6:3. Tradesmen of one craft, then as now 
congregated in one locality in a city. 




THE NUMIDIAN CRANE : GRUS VIRGO. 

CRANE. In Isa. 38 : 14, and Jer. 8 : 7, two 
birds are mentioned, the sus and the agtir, 
the 1st rendered in our version crane, and 
the 2d swallow. Bochart says the sus, or 
sis, is the swallow ; the agur, the crane. 
The Numidian crane, supposed to be re- 
ferred to, is about 3 feet in length, is blu- 
ish-gray, with the cheeks, throat, breast, 
and tips of the long hinder feathers black, 
with a tuft of white feathers behind each 
eye. " Like a crane, or a swallow, so did 
I chatter:" there is peculiar force and 
beauty in the comparison here made be- 
tween the dying believer and migratory 
birds about to take their departure to a 
distant but more genial clime. They lin- 
ger in the scenes which they have fre- 
quented, but instinct compels them to re- 
move. 

CREA'TION, (1) the act by which God 
calls into existence things not previously 
in being— material or spiritual, visible or 



CRE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CRE 



invisible, Psa. 148:5; Rev. 4:11; (2) the 
moulding or reconstituting things, the ele- 
ments of which previously existed ; and 
(3) the things thus " created and made," 
2 Pet. 3:4; Rev. 3:14; 5:13. It is in the 
first of these senses the word " created " is 
to be understood in Gen. 1:1; and the idea 
of the eternity of matter is to be rejected, 
as contrary to sound reason and to the 
teachings of Scripture, Pro v. 8:22-31 ; John 
1 : 1-3 ; Heb. 11:3. 

Creation is exclusively the work of God. 
The Father, the Son, and the Spirit are each 
in turn named as its author, Isa. 40:28; Col. 
1:16; Gen. 2:2. It is a work the myster- 
ies of which no finite mind can apprehend ; 
and yet, as it reveals to us the invisible 
things of God, Rom. 1 : 20, we may and 
ought to learn what he reveals respecting 
it not only in revelation, but in his works. 
These 2 volumes are from the same divine 
hand, and cannot but harmonize with each 
other. The Bible opens with an account 
of the creation unspeakably majestic and 
sublime. The 6 days there spoken of have 
usually been taken for our present natural 
days; but modern geological researches 
have given rise to the idea that "day" 
here denotes a longer period. The differ- 
ent rocks of our globe lie in distinct layers, 
the comparative age of which is supposed 
to have been ascertained. Only the most 
recent have been found to contain human 
remains. Older layers present in turn 
different fossib remains of animals and 
plants, many of them supposed to be now 
extinct. These layers are deeply imbed- 
ded beneath the present soil, and yet ap- 
pear to be formed of matter washed into 
the bed of some primeval sea, and hard- 
ened into rock. Above this may lie nu- 
merous other strata of different materials, 
but which appear to have been deposited 
in the same manner, in the slow lapse of 
time. These layers are also thrown up 
and penetrated all over the world by rocks 
of still earlier formations, apparently once 
in a melted state. 

There are several modes of reconciling 
these geological discoveries with the state- 
ments of Scripture : First, that the 6 days 
of Gen. 1 denote 6 long epochs— periods of 
alternate progressive formation and revo- 
lution on the surface of the earth. To the 
Lord " a thousand years are as one day," 
Psa. 90:2, 4; 2 Pet. 3:5-10; Rev. 20. Sec- 
ondly, that the long epochs indicated in 
the geological structure of the globe oc- 
curred before the Bible account commen- 



ces, or rather in the interval between the 
1st and 2d verses of Gen. 1. According to 
this interpretation, verse 2 describes the 
state of the earth at the close of the last 
revolution it experienced, preparatory to 
God's fitting it up for the abode of man as 
described in the verses following. Thirdly, 
that God compressed the work of those un- 
told ages into 6 short days, and created the 
world as he did Adam, in a state of matu- 
rity, embodying in its rocks and fossils 
those rudimental forms of animal and veg- 
etable life which seem naturally to lead up 
to the existing forms. 

According to the 1st of these 3 modes of 
interpretation, the latest theory of the cre- 
ation may be stated somewhat as follows : 
In verse 1 is indicated the original creation 
of matter, in a gaseous form, universally 
diffused, "without form and void." On 
the 1st day light was formed, by the chem- 
ical union of gaseous particles. On the 
2d day the "firmament" was made, the 
gas condensing into countless spheres of 
nebulous matter, that " under the firma- 
ment " forming the earth. On the 3d day 
came the condensation of this nebulous 
matter of the earth into a melted mineral 
mass, gradually cooling on the surface, the 
water separating from the land, and vege- 
tation commencing. On the 4th day fol- 
lowed the organization of the solar system, 
with day and night, seasons, climates, etc. 
On the 5th day came the creation of the 
lower orders of animal life, the water ani- 
mals, reptiles, and birds. On the 6th day 
the higher orders of animals were created, 
and finally man. The 1st of these geo- 
logic days are supposed to have been 
epochs of prodigious duration, and each of 
the 6 longer than its immediate successor. 
The 7th day, on which God rested from 
creation, is still in progress. 

The Bible account of the creation of man 
is utterly irreconcilable both with the athe- 
istic theory of an eternal series of like races, 
or of evolution upwards from the simplest 
elements of primordial matter through a 
long series of animals into man, and with 
the modern infidel theory that several dis- 
tinct races of men were created, and not one 
alone. The Bible unequivocally teaches 
the unity of the whole human race, and its 
origin in Adam, Mai. 2 : 10 ; Acts 17 : 26 ; and 
no one who accepts it as the word of God 
can doubt these statements. They come 
forth also from the sharp investigations of 
modern science confirmed with new evi- 
dences. The anatomy of men's bodies 

117 



CRE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CRO 



and the analysis of their mental and spir- 
itual faculties, prove their essential unity as 
one species ; their various languages bear 
traces of the one primeval tongue ; and 
their power of adaptation to every climate 
also agrees with the Bible statement. The 
scriptural date of man's creation is con- 
firmed by the traditions of many ancient 
nations, by critical examination of the 
world's progress in arts, sciences, and lan- 
guages ; and by the fact that no human 
remains are found except in superficial 
and recent deposits. 

The accounts of creation on the stone 
tablets of ancient Assyrian libraries re- 
cently disinterred are fragmentary and 
obscure traditions, but go to confirm the 
Bible history, and not the theories of ma- 
terialists. 

The "creature" and "the whole crea- 
tion," in Rom. 8:19-22, may denote the 
irrational and inferior creation, which shall 
be released from the curse, and share in 
the glorious liberty of the sons of God, 
Isa. 11:6; 35:1; 2 Pet. 3:7-13. The bodies 
of believers, now subject to vanity, are 
secure of full deliverance at the resurrec- 
tion — "the redemption of our bodv," Rom. 
8:23. 

CRES'CENS, growing, an assistant of the 
apostle Paul, and probably one of the 70 
disciples ; supposed to have exercised his 
ministry in Galatia, 2 Tim. 4:10. 

CRETE, a large island, 150 miles long, 6 
to 35 wide, now called Candia, in the Med- 
iterranean, originally peopled probably by 
a branch of the Caphtorim. It is rugged 
and mountainous, but has many fertile 
plains and valleys, and is celebrated by 
Homer for its 100 cities. Its inhabitants 
were excellent sailors, and visited all 
coasts. They were also famous for arch- 
ery, which they practised from their in- 
fancy. Crete was one of the 3 K's against 
whose unfaithfulness the Grecian prov- 
erb cautioned — Kappadocia, Kilicia, and 
Krete ; and this agrees with the character 
which the apostle has given of the Cretans, 
that they were " always liars," brutes, and 
gormandizers, as Epimenides, a Cretan 
poet, described them, Tit. 1:12, 13. 

Crete is famous as the birthplace of the 
legislator Minos ; and for its connection 
with the voyage of Paul to Rome, Acts 27. 
The ship first made Salmone, the eastern 
promontory of the island, and took shelter 
at Fair Havens, a roadstead on the south 
side, east of Cape Matala. After some 
time, and against Paul's warning, they set 
ti8 



sail for Phcenix, a more commodious har- 
bor on the western part of the island ; but 
were overtaken by a fierce wind from the 
east-northeast, which compelled them to 
lie to, and drifted them to Malta. Paul is 
supposed to have visited Crete afterwards, 
in connection with one of his visits to Asia 
Minor, after his 1st imprisonment at Rome, 
1 Tim. 1:3; Phile. 22. Here he established 
gospel institutions, and left Titus in pas- 
toral charge, Tit. 1:5. See also Acts 2: 11. 

CRIB, a feeding-trough for cattle, often 
of stones and mortar, a fixture in the sta- 
ble. Each ox and ass knows its crib, Isa. 
1:3; and Dr. Thomson, watching the droves 
of cattle and donkeys coming down at 
nightfall from the heights back of Tiberias, 
saw them separate on entering the city and 
each one thread the narrow and crooked 
alleys straight to its own home and its own 
special crib. See Manger. 

CRIM'SON, 2 Chr. 2:7-14; 3:14. See 
Purple. 

CRISP'ING-PINS, Isa. 3:22, rather, reti- 
cules ; rendered " bags " in 2 Kin. 5:23. 

CRIS'PUS, curled, president of the Jew- 
ish synagogue at Corinth, converted under 
the preaching of Paul, Acts 18:8, and bap- 
tized by him, 1 Cor. 1 : 14. 



^ 




CROSS, a kind of gibbet made of 2 pie- 
ces of wood placed transversely, in one of 
the above 3 forms. Death by the cross 
was a punishment of the meanest slaves, 
and was a mark of infamy, Deut. 21:23: 
Gal. 3 : 13. This punishment was practised 
among many ancient nations, but proba- 
bly not by the early Jews. It was so com- 
mon among the Romans that pains, afflic- 
tions, troubles, etc., were called by them 
" crosses." Our Saviour says that his dis- 
ciples must " take up the cross and follow " 
him. Though the cross is the sign of igno- 
miny and suffering, yet it is the badge and 
glory of the Christian. Paul gloried in the 
cross of Christ, Gal. 6:14, that is, in his 
wonderful love in dying to atone for our 
sins, and in the glorious consequences 
which result from it, 1 Cor. 1:18, 22, 23; 



CRO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CRO 



:2 : 2 ; but to make the sign of the cross, with 
the idea of any efficacy in it, is supersti- 
tious and childish; to adore the crucifix, 
•or image of Christ on a cross, is idolatrous. 

The common way of crucifying was by 
fastening the criminal with nails, one 
through each hand, and one through both 
his feet, or through each foot. Sometimes 
they were bound with cords, which, though 
it seems gentler, was really more cruel, 
because the sufferer was hereby made to 
languish longer. Sometimes they used 
"both nails and cords for fastenings ; and 
when this was the case, there was no diffi- 
-culty in lifting up the person, together with 
his cross, he being sufficiently supported 
T}y the cords ; near the middle of the cross 
•also there was a wooden projection, which 
partially supported the body of the suf- 
ferer. Before they nailed him to the cross, 
they generally scourged him with whips or 
leathern thongs, which was thought more 
severe and more infamous than scourging 
with cords. Christ's scourging preceded 
his condemnation, Luke 23:22; John 19:1. 
See Scourging. Slaves who had been 
guilty of great crimes were fastened to a 
•gibbet or cross, and were thus led about 
the city, and beaten. Isaac was laden with 
the wood for his own sacrifice, Gen. 22:6. 
Our Saviour too was loaded with his cross ; 
and as he sank under the burden, Simon 
the Cyrenian was constrained to bear it 
after him and with him, Mark 15:21. Our 
Lord was crucified between 2 malefactors, 
■as was predicted, Isa. 53:12; and his feet 
as well as his hands were nailed to the 
•cross, Luke 24:39, 40; Psa. 22:16. 

After the person had been stripped of 
all his clothing and bound or nailed to the 
cross, a stupefying draught was sometimes 
administered, in order to render him less 
sensible to pain, Prov. 31:6, an alleviation 
which our Saviour did not accept, Matt. 
27:34; Mark 15:23; though he seems after- 
wards to have taken a little of the common 
beverage of the soldiers, Matt. 27:48 ; John 
19:29. Sent by the Father to bear the 
heavy load of penal suffering for a lost 
race, he felt that he had no right to the pal- 
liatives resorted to in ordinary cases, and 
perfectly lawful except in his own. " The 
cup which my Father hath given me, shall 
I not drink it?" John 18:11. He drank it, 
and to the very dregs. The cross being 
erected under the burning sun, the wounds 
made by the scourge and the nails soon 
occasioned a general fever and an intoler- 
able thirst. The blood, interrupted in its 



regular flow, accumulated in various parts 
of the body, and caused painful conges- 
tions. Every slight writhing of the sufferer 
increased his anguish, which found no re- 
lief but in final mortification and death. 
Those who were fastened upon the cross 
sometimes lived in that condition 3 or 4 
days ; and in exceptional cases on record, 
even as long as a week and more. Hence 
Pilate was amazed at our Saviour's dying 
so soon, because naturally he must have 
lived longer, Mark 15:44. The death of 
our blessed Redeemer was hastened by his 
previous terrible agony in the garden, and 
by the crushing burden upon his soul of 
the world's sin. The immediate cause of 
death is thought to have been a rupture of 
the heart ; and the blood being released 
into the cavity around the heart, separated 
into serum and crassamentum, the " water 
and blood " which flowed forth when the 
side was pierced by the soldier's spear. 
The legs of the 2 thieves were broken to 
hasten their death, that their bodies might 
not remain on the cross on the Sabbath 
day, Deut. 21:23; Josh. 8:29; but the cru- 
cified were usually left hanging, under the 
eye of guards, till their bodies fell to the 
ground, or were devoured by birds and 
beasts of prey. 




ANTIQUE GARLANDS, DIADEMS, AND CROWNS. 

CROWN. There are 2 distinct classes 
of Hebrew terms rendered crown in the 
Bible. The one represents such head- 
dresses as we should designate coronet, 
band, mitre, tiara, garland, etc. The other 
is generally applied to the head-dresses of 

119 



CRU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CUP 



kings. The former was a simple fillet or 
diadem around the head, variously orna- 
mented. Newly-married persons of both 
sexes wore crowns on their wedding-day. 
Song 3:11; Ezek. 16:12. The crowns of 
kings were sometimes white fillets, bound 
round the forehead, the ends falling back 
on the neck ; or were made of gold tissue or 
open work, or a gold band which was the 
basis of ornamental raised work, adorned 
with jewels. That of the Jewish high-priest 
was a fillet, or diadem, tied with a ribbon of 
a hyacinth color, Exod. 28 : 36 ; 39 : 30. Occa- 
sionally the crown was of pure gold, and 
was worn by kings on all state occasions, 
2 Chr. 23: 11, sometimes when they went to 
battle, 2 Sam. 1:10; 12:30. It was also 
worn by queens, Esth. 2:17. The crown 
is a symbol of honor, power, and eternal 
life, Prov. 12:4; Lam. 5:16; 1 Pet. 5:4. 
Crowns or garlands were given to the suc- 
cessful competitors at the Grecian games, 
to which frequent allusion is made in the 
Epistles, 2 Tim. 4:7, 8. These wreaths 
were of laurel, parsley, pine, and oak 
leaves — highly prized, but soon perishing ; 
a fact which adds force to the contrast im- 
plied when the apostles speak of the " in- 
corruptible " " crown of glory, that fadeth 
not away," Jas. 1:12; 1 Pet. 5:4; Rev. 2:10. 
See Thistles. 
CRUCIFIX'ion. See Cross. 




CRUSE, a small vessel for holding water 
and other liquids, 1 Sam. 26:11; 1 Kin. 
17:12; 19:6. The above cut represents 
various antique cups, travelling flasks, and 
cruses, like those still used in the East. 

CRYS'TAL. The same Hebrew word is 

rendered by our translators, crystal, Ezek. 

1:22; frost, Gen. 31:40; and ice, Job 6:16. 

The word primarily denotes ice, and is 

120 



also applied to glass, and to a perfectly 
transparent and glass-like gem, from their 
resemblance to this substance, Job 28:17; 
Rev. 4:6 ; 21:11. 

CU'BIT, a measure widely used among 
the ancients, originally the distance from, 
the elbow to the wrist, as some say, or 
rather to the extremity of the middle fin- 
ger, which is the fourth part of a man's- 
stature. The Hebrew cubit, according to- 
most authorities, is 21^ inches; but others 
fix it at 18. The Talmudists observe that 
the Hebrew cubit was larger by one quar- 
ter than the Roman, which would give a. 
length of 22 inches. This nearly corre- 
sponds with the Egyptian sacred cubit, 
which was 21 ^ inches, while their common 
cubit was 20%: . 

CUCKOO, Lev. 11:16; Deut. 14:15, prob- 
ably one of the larger sort of petrels, sea- 
birds which are often sold in the Arab- 
markets on the sea-coast of Syria. 

CU'CUMBER, a vegetable very plentiful 
in the East, especially in Egypt, Num. 
11:5, where they are esteemed delicacies, 
and are much used by the lower class of* 
people, especially during the hot months. 
The Egyptian cucumber is described by 
Hasselquist as greener, smoother, softer,, 
sweeter, and more digestible than our cu- 
cumber. 

CUM'MIN, an umbellate plant much like 
fennel. Its seeds yield an aromatic oil, of 
a warm, stimulating nature, Isa. 28:25-27. 
The Pharisees scrupulously paid tithes of 
mint, anise, and cummin, and yet neglect- 
ed good works and obedience to God's law,. 
Matt. 23:23. 

CUN'NING, skilful, expert, rather than 
crafty, Gen. 25:27; Exod. 28:15; 38:23;; 
Psa. 137:5; 2 Pet. 1:16. 

CUP. This word is taken in Scripture 
both in a proper and in a figurative sense.. 
In a proper sense, it signifies a common 
cup, of horn, earthenware, or some precious, 
metal, Gen. 4.0:13; 44'2; 1 Kin. 7:26, such 
as is used for drinking out of at meals ; or 
a cup of ceremony, used at solemn and 
religious meals— as at the Passover, when 
the father of the family pronounced certain 
blessings over the cup, and having tasted 
the wine, passed it round to the company 
and his whole family, who partook of it, 
1 Cor. 10:16. In a figurative sense, a cup. 
is spoken of as filled with the portion given 
to one bv divine Providence, Psa. 11:6; 



16: 



with the blessings of life and of 



grace, Psa. 23:5; with a thank-offering to- 
God, Exod. 29:40; Psa. 116:13; with liquor 



CUP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CYM 



used at idolatrous feasts, i Cor. 10:21 ; with 
love-potions, Rev. 17:4; with sore afflic- 
tions, Psa. 65:8; Isa. 51:17; and with the 




EGYPTIAN CUPS (ALABASTER). 

bitter draught of death, which was often 
caused by a cup of hemlock or some other 
poison, Psa. 75:8. See Matt. 16:28; Luke 
22:42; John 18:11. See Cruse. 

Those who insist on the literal meaning 
instead of the real intent of Christ's words, 
" This is my body," must also turn the 
"cufi" — not the wine it contains — into his 
blood: "this cup is my blood." 

CUP-BEARER. See Butler. 

CURIOUS ARTS, Acts 19:19. See En- 
chantment. 

CURSE, a malediction, a passionate im- 
precation of evil on a supposed enemy, 
Exod. 21:17; 22:18; Lev. 19:14. In all 
ages superstitious people have ascribed a 
fearful power to the curses of certain pre- 
tenders, Num. 22:6. But a divine curse, 
like that on the serpent, on Cain, or on Ca- 
naan, Gen. 3:14; 4:11; 9:25, is devoid of 
selfish passion, and carries with it the idea 
of God's holiness and justice, and the cer- 
tainty of its fulfilment, Deut. 27:15-26. In 
the Hebrew it is a different word. The 
curses pronounced by holy men at God's 
command were not mere bursts of anger, 
but predictions, Gen. 49:7; Josh. 6:26. 
Christ redeems his people from the curse 
of the law, Gal. 3:10, 13. The follower of 
Christ is to return blessings for maledic- 
tions, Matt. 5:44; Rom. 12:14. See Anath- 
ema, Blasphemy, and Oath. 

CUSH, black, I., the eldest son of Ham, 
and father of Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, Raa- 
mah, and Sabtecha, most of whom settled 
in Arabia Felix, Gen. 10:6-8. See Nimrod. 

II. The countries peopled by the de- 



scendants of Cush, and generally called in 
the English Bible Ethiopia, though not al- 
ways. But under this name there seem to 

be included not less than 3 different 

countries: 

1. The Oriental Cush, compre- 
hending the regions of Persis, Chu- 
sistan, and Susiana in Persia. It lay 
chiefly to the north and south of the 
Tigris, Isa. 11: 11; Ezek. 38:5. Hith- 
er we may refer the river Gihon, 
Gen. 2:13; Zeph. 3:10. See Eden. 

2. The Hebrews also, in the opin- 
ion of many, used Cush and Cushan, 
Hab. t,'-7> to designate the southern 
parts of Arabia, and the coast of the 
Red Sea, 2 Chr. 21:16. From this 
country originated Nimrod, who es- 
tablished himself in Mesopotamia,. 
Gen. 10:8. The " Ethiopian woman," 
too, whom Moses married during the 
march of the Israelites through the 

desert, came probably from this Cush,. 
Num. 12:1. See Zipporah. 

3. But, more commonly, Cush signifies 
Ethiopia proper, lying south and southeast 
of Egypt, Psa. 68:31, and now called Abys- 
sinia, Isa. 18:1; 20:3-5; Jer. 13:23; 46:9; 
Ezek. 29:10; Dan. 11:43. See Ethio- 
pia. 

CUS'TOM. See Tribute. In Acts 16:21 
"customs" means a new religion; a new 
object of worship and new forms. 

CUTH'ITES, a people who dwelt beyond 
the Euphrates, and were thence trans- 
planted into Samaria, in place of the Isra- 
elites who had before inhabited it, 2 Kin. 
17:24, 30. Cutha seems to have recently 
come to light, 15 miles northeast of Baby- 
lon, where the name is found on the bricks 
exhumed from ruins of Nebuchadnezzar's 
time. 

CUTTINGS and Marks on the body for 
the dead seem to have been practised in 
ancient times, Jer. 16:5,7; 41:5; but some 
kinds at least were forbidden to the Jews, 
Lev. 19:28; 21:5, either as barbarous or as 
idolatrous, 1 Kin. 18:28. The prohibition 
might also apply to tattooing, which is still 
practised in Arabia and India, and may be 
referred to in Ezek. 9:4; Rev. 13:16; 19:20,. 
etc. 

CYM'BAL, a musical instrument consist- 
ing of 2 broad plates of brass, of a convex 
form, which being struck together produce 
a shrill, piercing clangor. From Psa. 150:5, 
it would appear that both hand-cymbals 
and finger-cymbals, or castagnets, were 
used. They were used in the temple, and 

121 



CYP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CYR 



upon occasions of public rejoicings, i Chr. 
13:8; 16:5, as they are by the Armenians 




JIAND AND FINGER CYMBALS, AND TAMBOURINE. 

at the present day. In 1 Cor. 13:1, "tink- 
ling" cymbals are better rendered clang- 
ing or clattering cymbals. See Music. 

CY'PRESS, an evergreen tree, resembling 
in form and size the Lombardy poplar. Its 
wood is exceedingly durable, and seems to 
have been used for making idols, Isa. 44: 14. 
The cypress is thought to be intended in 
some of the passages where "fir-tree " oc- 
curs, 2 Sam. 6:5, etc. 

CY'PRUS, a large island in the Mediter- 
ranean, situated in the northeast part of 
that sea between Cilicia and Syria, with 
Mounts Lebanon and Taurus both in view. 
It is about 140 miles long, and varies from 
5 to 50 miles in breadth. It is especially sig- 
nified among " the isles of Chittim," Ezek. 
27:6, etc. Its inhabitants were plunged in 
all manner of luxury and debauchery. 
Their principal deity was Venus, who had 
a celebrated temple at Paphos. The island 
was extremely fertile, and abounded in 
wine, oil, honey, wool, copper, agate, and 
a beautiful species of rock crystal. There 
were also large forests of cypress-trees. 
Of the cities in the island, Paphos on the 
western coast, and Salamis at the opposite 
•end, are mentioned in the New Testament. 
The gospel was preached there at an early 
-day, Acts 11 : 19, Barnabas and Mnason, and 
other eminent Christians, having been na- 
tives of the island, Acts 11:20; 21:16. The 
apostles Paul and Barnabas made a mis- 
sionary tour through it, A. D. 48, Acts 13:4- 
13. See also Acts 15:39; 27:4. 

CYRE'NE, a province of Libya, west of 
Egypt, between the Great Syrtis and the 
Mareotis, now called Cairoan, in the prov- 
122 



ince of Barca. It was sometimes called 
Pentapolis, from the 5 principal cities 
which it contained — Cyrene, Apollonia, Ar- 
sinoe, Berenice, and Ptolemais. Cyrene 
the city was colonized by Greeks about 631 
B. C, and falling after the death of Alexan- 
der the Great into the hands of the Egyp- 
tians, was afterwards yielded by them to 
the Romans, 75 B. C. From this city came 
" Simon the Cyrenian," father of Alexan- 
der and Rufus, on whom the Roman sol- 
diers laid a part of our Saviour's cross, 
Matt. 27:32; Luke 23:26. It is now in 
ruins. There were many Jews in the prov- 
ince of Cyrene, a great part of whom em- 
braced the Christian religion, though others 
opposed it with much obstinacy, Acts 1 1 : 20 ; 
13:1. Also Acts 2:10; 6:9. 

CYRE'NIUS, rather Publius Sulpitius 
Quirinus, according to his Latin appella- 
tion, governor of Syria. According to his- 
tory, Quirinus was not properly governor 
of Syria till A. D. 6, some years after the 
date of Luke 2:2; and the only census of 
that time mentioned by secular historians 
took place when Christ was 8 or 10 years 
old. Compare Acts 5:37. Recent critical 
researches, however, by Zumpt, show a 
strong probability that Quirinus was twice 
governor of Syria, the first time from B. C. 
4 to 1; and the census of Luke 2:2 may 
have been less known and memorable than 
the second, which seems to have been a 
resumption and completion of the first. It 
was a Roman census, but made according 
to the Jewish modes. 




CY'RUS, the sun, son of Cambyses, a 
prince of Elam; his mother, or perhaps 
adopted mother, was Mandane, daughter 
of Astyages, king of the Medes. His re- 



DAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DAM 



markable bravery and ability soon placed 
him at the head of the Persian army ; and 
heading a revolt against Astyages, he de- 
throned him, and became king of the Medes 
and Persians, B. C. 559. With their joint 
forces he began a career of conquest. With 
" Darius the Mede," probably his uncle 
Cyaxares, nominal " king of the Medes," 
he conquered the Lydians, the Greeks of 
Asia Minor, and Susiana, captured Baby- 
lon, and overran the Assyrian empire. 
Syria and Palestine came under his power, 
and he made some attempts on Egypt and 
on India, and was slain in a war against 
the Massagetae on the river Iaxartes, B. C. 
529. Cyrus was foretold by the prophet 
Isaiah, 44:28; 45:1-7, as the deliverer and 
restorer of Judah, as he proved to be, 2 Chr. 
36:22, 23 ; Ezra 1 : 1-4. The prophet Daniel 
was his favorite minister, Dan. 6:28, and 
great was the influence of these 2 remark- 
able men on the countrymen of both. Cy- 
rus appears to have revered Jehovah as the 
true God, Ezra 1:2, 3; Isa. 41:2; and this 
hero of Persian history, this conqueror re- 
nowned in classic annals, we find in Scrip- 
ture recognizing and obeying the King of 
heaven. 

D. 

DAB'ERATH, pasture, a Levitical town 
in the borders of Zebulun and Issachar, 
Josh. 19:12; 21:28; 1 Chr. 6:72; probably 
Deburieh, a small village at the foot of 
Mount Tabor on the northwest. 




DA'GON, fish, a national idol of the Phil- 
istines, with temples at Gaza, Ashdod, etc., 
1 Chr. 10:10. That at Gaza was destroyed 
by Samson, Judg. 16:21-30. In that at 



Ashdod, Dagon twice miraculously fell 
down before the ark of God ; and in the 2d 
fall his head and hands were broken off, 
leaving only the body, which was in the 
form of a large fish with a human head, 

1 Sam. 5:1-9. See Josh. 15:41; 19:27. 
There were other idols of like form among 
the ancients, particularly the goddess Der- 
ceto or Atergatis ; and a similar form or 
''incarnation" of Vishnu is at this day 
much worshipped in India, and like Dagon 
is destined to be prostrated in the dust be- 
fore the true God. 

DALMANU'THA, a town or village on 
the west shore of the Sea of Galilee, north 
of Tiberias, Mark 8:10. Compare Matt. 
15:39, probably at 'Ain-el-Barideh, at the 
mouth of a glen 1 mile south of Magdala. 

DALMA'TIA, a province of Europe on 
the east of the Adriatic Sea, and forming 
part of Illyricum, and contiguous to Mace- 
donia. Hither Titus was sent by Paul, 

2 Tim. 4:10. See also Rom. 15:19. 
DAM'ARIS, a heifer, an Athenian lady, 

distinguished as one of the few who em- 
braced Christianity at Athens under the 
preaching of Paul, Acts 17:34. 

DAMAS'CUS, metropolis of Syria, first 
mentioned in Gen. 14:15; 15:2, and now 
probably the oldest city on the globe. It 
stands on the river Barada, the ancient 
Chrysorrhoas, in a beautiful and fertile 
plain on the southeast of Anti-Lebanon, 
about 140 miles north by east from Jerusa- 
lem, and 2,300 feet above the Mediterra- 
nean. See Abana. This plain is about 70 
miles in circumference ; it is open to the 
desert of Arabia on the southeast, and is 
bounded on the other sides by the moun- 
tains. The region around and north of 
Damascus, including the valley between 
the ridges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, 
is called in the Scriptures " Syria of Da- 
mascus," 2 Sam. 8:5, and by Strabo, Coele- 
Syria. This city, which at first had its own 
kings, was taken by David, 2 Sam. 8:5, 6, 
and by Jeroboam II., 2 Kin. 14:28. Its his- 
tory at this period is to be found in the 
accounts given of Naaman, Ben-hadad, 
Hazael, and Rezin. It was subdued by 
Tiglath-pileser, 2 Kin. 16:9; and was after- 
wards subject to the Assyrians, Babyloni- 
ans, Persians, Seleucidae, and Romans ; its 
history having been in part foretold by 
Isaiah, 7:4: 10:9; 17; also by Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel, and Amos. In the days of Paul 
it appears to have been held, for a time at 
least, by'Aretas, king of Arabia Petraea 
under the Romans, and father-in-law of 

123 



DAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DAX 



r ak.fura 




3e°30J:lim.f 



If: Hij an. el. 



DAMASCUS: WITH PLAIN AND LAKES. 



Herod Antipas, 2 Cor. 11:32, $5. At this 
period the city was so much thronged by 
the Jews, that, according to Josephus, 10,000 
of them, by command of Nero, were put to 
death at once. It is memorable to Chris- 
tians as the scene of the miraculous con- 
version of that most illustrious "servant of 
the Lord Jesus Christ," the apostle Paul, 
Acts 9:1-27; 22:1-16. Since 1516, Damas- 
cus has been held by the Turks ; it is the 
metropolis of "the Pashalic of Damas- 
cus," and has a population of about 150,000, 
chiefly Mohammedans, and very bigoted. 
In i860, some 6,000 nominal Christians were 
slaughtered here and around here. The 
Arabs call it Esh-sham. It is still cele- 
brated, with the surrounding country, by 
all travellers, as one of the most beautiful 
and luxuriant regions in the world. The 
Orientals themselves call it the " Paradise 
on earth," and it is pretended that Mo- 
hammed refused to enter it, lest he should 
thereby forfeit his heavenly Paradise. The 
plain around the city is well watered and 
of exuberant fertility, and the eye of the 
traveller is fascinated by the sight ; but a 
nearer view discloses much that is offen- 
sive to the senses as well as to the spirit. 
It is the most purely Oriental city yet re- 
maining of all that are named in the Bible. 
124 



Its public buildings and bazaars are fine ; 
and many private dwellings, though out- 
wardly mean, are decorated within in a 
style of costly luxury. Its position has 
made it from the first a commercial city, 
Ezek. 27:18. The cloth called Damask is 
supposed to have originated here, and Da- 
mascus steel was long unequalled. It still 
carries on an extensive traffic in woven 
stuffs of silk and cotton, in fine inlaid cab- 
inet work, in leather, fruits, sweetmeats, 
etc. For this purpose huge caravans as- 
semble here at intervals, and traverse, just 
as of old, the desert routes to remote cities. 
Here, too, is a chief gathering-place of pil- 
grims to Mecca. People from all the na- 
tions of the East resort to Damascus, a fact 
which shows its importance as a mission- 
ary station. An encouraging commence- 
ment has been made by English Christians, 
and the fierce and bigoted intolerance of 
its Mussulman population has begun to 
give way. A street called by the guides 
" Straight," perhaps the same referred to 
in Acts 9:11, runs through the city from 
the eastern gate. 

DAMNA'TION, judgment and condem- 
nation, Mark 16:16; Rom. 13:2; 14:23; 
1 Cor. 11 :29. 

DAN, a judge, I., a son of Jacob by Bil- 



DAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DAN 



hah, Gen. 30:3; 35:25. The tribe of Dan 
was second only to that of Judah in num- 
bers before entering Canaan, Num. 1:39; 
26:43. A portion was assigned to Dan 
extending southeast from the sea-coast 
near Joppa. It bordered on the land of 
the Philistines, with whom the tribe of Dan 
had much to do, Judg. 13-16. Their terri- 
tory was fertile, but small, and the natives 
were powerful. A part of the tribe there- 
fore sought and conquered another home, 
Josh. 19 ; Judg. 18. Its name does not ap- 
pear in the chronicles in 1 Chr. 2-12, nor 
among those sealed by the angel in John's 
vision, Rev. 7:5-7; and the reason may 
perhaps be found in their association with 
the Philistines, and their partial removal 
from the territory assigned to them by God 
to Laish, and the idolatry into which they 
there fell. See Dan, II. 

II. A city originally called Laish, Judg. 
18:29, at the northern extremity of Israel, 
in the tribe of Naphtali. " From Dan to 
Beer-sheba " denotes the whole extent of 
the land of promise, Dan being the north- 
ern city, and Beer-sheba the southern one, 
Judg. 20:1. Dan was seated at the foot of 
Mount Hermon, 4 miles west of Paneas, 
near one source of the Jordan, on a hill 
now called Tell-el-Kady. Laish at one 
time belonged to Zidon, and received the 
name of Dan from a portion of that tribe 
who conquered and rebuilt it, Judg. 18. It 
was an idolatrous city even then, ver. 30, 
.31, and was afterwards the seat of one of the 
golden calves of Jeroboam, 1 Kin. 12:28; 
Amos 8 : 14. Though once and again a very 
prosperous city, Judg. 18:10; Ezek. 27:19, 
only slight remains of it now exist. 




EGYPTIAN DANCE. 

DANCING. The Hebrew word signified 
"to leap for joy," Psa. 30:11 ; and the ac- 
tion of the lame man healed by Peter and 
John, Acts 3:8, more nearly resembled the 
Hebrew dancing than the measured arti- 
ficial steps of modern times do. The Jew- 
ish dances were usually extemporaneous 



expressions of religious joy and gratitude. 
Sometimes they were in honor of a con- 
queror, as in the case of David, 1 Sam. 
18:6, 7; when he had slain the Philistine 
giant, " the women came out of all the cit- 
ies of Israel singing and dancing;" and 
sometimes on occasions of domestic joy, 
as at the prodigal son's return. In the 
religious dance, the timbrel was used to 
direct the ceremony, and some one led, 
whom the rest followed with measured 
step and devotional songs; thus Miriam 
led the women of Israel, Exod. 15:20, 21, 
and king David the men, 2 Sam. 6:14, 21. 
See also Judg. 21:19-23; 1 Chr. 13:8; 15:29. 
Several important conclusions have been 
drawn from a careful comparison of the 
portions of Scripture in which there is allu- 
sion to dancing. It was usually religious 
in its character; practised exclusively on 
joyous occasions ; only by one of the sexes ; 
usually in the daytime, and in the open air: 
no instances are on record in which the two 
sexes united in the exercise ; and it was not 
practised for amusement. The exceptions 
to this latter assertion are the " vain fel- 
lows" alluded to by Michal, 2 Sam. 6:20, 
the ungodly rich families referred to by 
Job, 21:11, and the daughter of Herodias, 
Mark 6:22. Other passages occur where 
dancing is condemned by its association 
with idolatrous worship and with lewdness, 
as Exod. 32:19, 25; Isa. 3:16; 1 Cor. 10:7, 
and with drunkenness and revelry, 1 Sam. 
30:16. Promiscuous dancing is thus une- 
quivocally condemned by Scripture, as well 
as by the best men of all times. It is a pow- 
erful stimulus to immodesty and licentious- 
ness. Its more innocent forms are insep- 
arably linked with its grosser, into which 
they are perpetually sliding. Its votaries 
sport in the edge of a whirlpool in whose 
depths of moral and spiritual death too 
many of them are sure to be lost. Among 
the Greeks and Romans dancing was a 
common pastime, resorted to in order to 
enliven feasts, and also on occasions of 
domestic joy. Still Cicero says, " No one 
dances, unless he is either drunk or mad;" 
and these words express the prevailing 
sense as to the impropriety of respectable 
people taking part in the amusement. 
Hence the gay circles of Rome, as is the 
case in the East at the present time, de- 
rived their entertainment from the per- 
formances of professional dancers. These 
were women of abandoned character ; and 
their dances, like those in heathen temples, 
were often grossly indecent Isa. 23 : 16. 

125 



DAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DAN 



In Psa. 150:4, the Hebrew word transla- 
ted dance is supposed to mean a musical 
instrument. 

DAN'IEL, God is my judge, I., called 
Belteshazzar by the Chaldaeans, a prophet, 
Matt. 24: 15, descended from the royal fam- 
ily of David, Dan. 1:3; who was carried 
captive to Babylon, when very young, in 
the 3d year of Jehoiakim king of Judah, 
B. C. 606. Compare Isa. 39:7. He was 
chosen, with his 3 companions, Hananiah, 
Mishael, and Azariah, to reside at Nebu- 
chadnezzar's court, where he found favor, 
like Joseph in Egypt, and made great pro- 
gress in all the sciences of the Chaldaeans, 
as well as in the sacred language, but de- 
clined to pollute himself by eating provis- 
ions from the king's table, which would 
often be ceremonially unclean to a Jew, or 
defiled by some connection with idol-wor- 
ship. At the end of their 3 years' educa- 
tion, Daniel and his companions excelled 
all others, and received honorable appoint- 
ments in the royal service. Here Daniel 
soon displayed his prophetic gifts in inter- 
preting a dream of Nebuchadnezzar, by 
whom he was made governor of Babylon, 
and head of the learned and priestly class. 
Compare the similar history of Joseph. He 
seems to have been absent, perhaps on 
some foreign embassy, when his 3 compan- 
ions were cast into the fiery furnace. At a 
later period he interpreted another dream 
of Nebuchadnezzar, and afterwards the 
celebrated vision of Belshazzar — one of 
whose last works was to promote Daniel to 
an office much higher than he had previ- 
ously held during his reign, Dan. 5:29; 
8:27. 

After the capture of Babylon by the Medes 
and Persians, Darius the Mede, who "took 
the kingdom " after Belshazzar, made him 
"first president" of his 120 princes; their 
envy designed the plot to have him cast 
into the lions' den, an act which recoiled 
on them to their own destruction, Dan. 6. 
Subsequently Daniel was continued in all 
his high employments, and enjoyed the 
favor of Cyrus until his death. During 
this period he earnestly labored, by fasting 
and prayer, as well as by counsel, to se- 
cure the return of the Jews to their own 
land, the promised time having come, 
Dan. 9. He lived to see the decree issued, 
and many of his people restored ; but it is 
not known that he ever revisited Jerusa- 
lem, being now, 536 B. C, over 80 years 
old. In the 3d year of Cyrus, he had a 
series of visions disclosing the state of the 
126 



Jews till the coming of the promised Re- 
deemer; and at last we see him calmly 
awaiting the peaceful close of a well-spent 
life, and the gracious resurrection of the 
just. See Shushan. 

Daniel was one of the most spotless char- 
acters upon record. His youth and his 
age were alike devoted to God. He main- 
tained his integrity in the most difficult 
circumstances, and amid the fascinations 
of an Eastern court he was pure and up- 
right. He confessed the name of God 
before idolatrous princes ; and would have 
been a martyr, but for the miracle which 
rescued him from death. His history de- 
serves the careful and prayerful study of 
the young, and the lessons which it incul- 
cates are weighty and rich in instruction. 
See Cyrus. 

II. The 2d son of David, also called Chi- 
leab, 1 Chr. 3:1:2 Sam. y.T,. 

III. A descendant of Ithamar, the 4th son 
of Aaron. He was one of the chiefs who 
accompanied Ezra from Babylon to Judaea, 
and afterwards took a prominent part in 
the reformation of the people, Ezra 8:2; 
Neh. 10:6. 

DAN'IEL, Book of. This is a mixture 
of history and prophecy. The first 6 chap- 
ters are chiefly historical, and the remain- 
der prophetical. It was completed about 
B. C. 534. The wonders related are of a 
peculiar and striking character, and were 
designed to show the people of God that, 
amid their degeneracy, the Lord's hand 
was not shortened that it could not save ; 
and also to exhibit to their enemies that 
there was an essential difference between 
Jehovah and idols, between the people of 
God and the world. The prophecies con- 
tained in the latter part of the book extend 
from the days of Daniel to the general res- 
urrection. According to some interpreters 
the 4 kingdoms are the Babylonian, Me- 
dian, Persian, and Greek; but this first 
fulfilment of the vision was but prelimi- 
nary to one or more additional fulfilments 
in later and Christian times. According 
to the general interpretation, however, the 
Assyrian, the Persian, the Grecian, and the 
Roman empires are here described under 
appropriate imagery. The precise time of 
Christ's coming is told ; the rise and fall of 
antichrist, and the duration of his power, 
are accurately determined ; the victory of 
Christ over his enemies, and the universal 
prevalence of his religion, are clearly point- 
ed out. The book is filled with the most 
exalted sentiments of piety and devout 



DAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DAU 



gratitude. Its style is simple, clear, and 
concise, and many of the prophecies are 
delivered in language so plain and circum- 
stantial that some infidels have asserted 
that they were written after the events they 
describe had taken place. Sir Isaac New- 
ton regards Daniel as the most distinct and 
plain of all the prophets, and most easy 
to be understood ; and therefore considers 
that in things relating to the last times he 
is to be regarded as the key to the other 
prophets. 

With respect to the genuineness and au- 
thenticity of the book, there is the strong- 
est evidence, both internal and external. 
We have the testimony of Christ himself, 
Matt. 24:15; of John and of Paul, who 
have copied his prophecies ; of the Jewish 
Church and nation, who have constantly 
received this book as canonical; of Jose- 
phus, who recommends him as the greatest 
of the prophets ; and of the Jewish Tar- 
gums and Talmuds, which frequently cite 
his authority. As to the internal evidence, 
the style, the language, the manner of wri- 
ting, perfectly agree with the age; and 
especially, he is proved to have been a 
prophet by the exact fulfilment of his pre- 
dictions. This book, like that of Ezra, is 
written partly in Hebrew and partly in 
Chaldee, the prevailing language of the 
Babylonians. See Alexander, I. 

I. DARI'US THE MEDE, Dan. 6:1; 9:1; 
11: 1, was probably Cyaxares II., son of 
Astyages king of the Medes, and brother 
of Mandane mother of Cyrus, and of Amyit 
the mother of Evil-merodach and grand- 
mother of Belshazzar : thus he was uncle, 
by the mother's side, to Evil-merodach and 
to Cyrus. The Septuagint calls him Arta- 
xerxes ; Xenophon, Cyaxeres ; and the He- 
brew, " Darius the son of Ahasuerus of 
the seed of the Medes." With Cyrus his 
nephew, and as nominally "king of the 
Medes," he captured Babylon and slew 
Belshazzar king of the Chaldaeans, being 
then 62 years old, Dan. 5:31. He made 
Daniel the highest officer in the empire; 
and after the prophet's enemies had taken 
his place in the lions' den, he made a de- 
cree that all his subjects should adore the 
God of Daniel, ch. 6. His reign at Babylon 
was short, ending in his death in the 2d 
year, when the government passed directly 
into the hands of Cyrus. 

II. DARI'US son of Hystas'pes, spo- 
ken of in Ezra 4-7, Haggai, and Zechariah, 
as the king who renewed the permission 
to rebuild the temple, given to the Jews by 



Cyrus and afterwards recalled. He over- 
threw Smerdis, the Magian usurper of the 
Persian throne, to which Darius was the 
rightful heir, B. C. 521, and reigned 36 
years. He removed the seat of govern- 
ment to Susa, whereupon Babylon rebelled 
against him; but he subdued the rebellion 
and broke down the walls of Babylon, as 
was predicted, Jer. 51 :58. 

III. DARI'US CODOMA'NUS, Neh. 12:22, 
was one of the most brave and generous of 
the Persian kings. Alexander the Great 
defeated him several times, and at length 
subverted the Persian monarchy, after it 
had been established 206 years. Darius 
was killed by his own generals, after a 
short reign of 6 years. Thus were verified 
the prophecies of Daniel, ch. 8. 

DARK'NESS, the absence of natural light, 
Gen. 1:4, and hence figuratively a state of 
misery and adversity, Job 18:6; Psa. 107 : 10 ; 
Isa. 8:22; 9:1; of ignorance and unbelief, 
John 1:5; 3:19, and of death, Job 10:21, 22; 
also the absence of the sun and stars, and 
hence the fall of chief men and national 
convulsions, Isa. 13 : 10 ; Acts 2 : 20. " Works 
of darkness " are the impure mysteries 
practised in heathen worship, Eph. 5:11; 
Ezek. 8:12. "Outer darkness" illustrates 
the gloom of those on whom the gates of 
heaven are closed, Matt. 8:12. The dark- 
ness in Egypt, Exod. 10:21-23, was mirac- 
ulous ; also that which covered " all the 
land" of Judaea with sympathetic gloom at 
the crucifixion of Christ, Luke 23:43. This 
could not have been caused by an eclipse 
of the sun ; for at the Passover the moon 
was full, and on the opposite side of the 
earth from the sun. There are allusions 
to eclipses in Joel 2:10, 31; 3:15; Amos 
8:9; Mic. 3:6; Zech. 14:6; and total eclip- 
ses of the sun occurred in the time of 
Amos, B. C. 784, and of Micah, B. C. 716. 

DATES. See Palm. 

DA'THAN, a Reubenite, one of the reb- 
els, in company with Korah, against the 
authority of Moses and Aaron, Num. 16; 
26:9; Psa. 106:17. 

DAUGH'TER, in Heb. bath, is used in 
the Bible not only literally, but, like son, 
in other derived meanings. Sometimes it 
may denote any female descendant, Gen. 
28:6, or a native or resident of a place, as 
the "daughters of Zion " or Jerusalem, 
Isa. 3:16. Tyre is called a daughter of 
Zidon, that is, a colony, Isa. 23:12, and Sa- 
rah is called in the Hebrew of Gen. 17:17, 
the daughter of 90 years. See Son. The 
young women of the richest families, and 

127 



DAV 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DAV 



even princes' daughters, in ancient times 
were accustomed to domestic services and 
to an active and useful life. 

DA'VID, beloved, the youngest son of 
Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, born in Beth- 
lehem B. C. 1085; one of the most remark- 
able men in either sacred or secular his- 
tory. His life is fully recorded in 1 Sam. 
16 to 1 Kin. 2, and his spiritual life in the 
Psalms, by his own pen. He was " the 
Lord's anointed," chosen by God to be 
king of Israel instead of Saul, and conse- 
crated to that office by the venerable proph- 
et Samuel long before he actually came to 
the throne, 1 Sam. 16:1-13, for which God 
prepared him by the gift of his Spirit, and 
a long course of vicissitudes and dangers. 
In his early pastoral life he distinguished 
himself by his boldness, fidelity, and faith 
in God; and while yet a youth was sum- 
moned to court, as one expert in music, 
valiant, prudent in behavior, and comely in 
person. He succeeded in relieving from 
time to time the mind of king Saul, op- 
pressed by a spirit of melancholy and 
remorse, and became a favorite attendant, 
ver. 21 ; but on the breaking out of war 
with the Philistines he seems to have been 
released, and to have returned to take care 
of his father's flock. Providence soon led 
him to visit the camp, and gave to his no- 
b>le valor and faith the victory over the 
giant champion Goliath. He returned to 
court crowned with honor, received a com- 
mand in the army, and the king's daughter 
Michal for wife, acquitted himself well on 
all occasions, and rapidly gained the con- 
fidence and love of the people. The jeal- 
ousy of Saul, however, at length drove him 
to seek refuge in the wilderness of Judaea, 
where he soon gathered a band of 600 men, 
whom he kept in perfect control and em- 
ployed only against the enemies of the land. 
He was still pursued by Saul with impla- 
cable hostility ; and as he would not lift his 
hand against his king, though he often had 
him in his power, he at length judged it 
best to retire into the land of the Philis- 
tines. See Jesse. Here he was gener- 
ously received; but had found the difficul- 
ties of his position such as he could not 
honorably meet, when the death of Saul 
and Jonathan opened the way for him to 
the promised throne. 

He was at once chosen king over the 
house of Judah, at Hebron; and after 
about 7 years of hostilities was unanimous- 
ly chosen king by all the tribes of Israel, 
and established himself at Jerusalem — the 
128 



founder of a royal family which continued 
till the downfall of the Jewish state. His 
character as a monarch is remarkable for 
fidelity to God and to the great purposes 
for which he was called to so responsible a 
position. The ark of God he conveyed to 
the Holy City with the highest demonstra- 
tions of honor and of joy. The ordinances 
of worship were remodelled and provided 
for with the greatest care. He adminis- 
tered justice to the people with impartial- 
ity, and gave a strong impulse to the gen- 
eral prosperity of the nation. His wisdom 
and energy consolidated the Jewish king- 
dom; and his organization of the army 
and his warlike skill enabled him not only 
to resist with success the assaults of inva- 
ders, but to extend the bounds of the king- 
dom over the whole territory promised in 
prophecy — from the Red Sea and Egypt to 
the Euphrates, Gen. 15:18; Josh. 1:3. With 
the spoils he took in war he enriched his 
people, and provided abundant materials 
for the magnificent temple he purposed to 
build in honor of Jehovah, but which it was 
Solomon's privilege to erect. 

David did not wholly escape the demor- 
alizing influences of prosperity and unre- 
stricted power. His temptations were nu> 
merous and strong ; and though his general 
course was in striking contrast with that ol 
the kings around him, he fell into grievous 
sins. Like others in those days, he had 
numerous wives, and his later years were 
imbittered by the evil results of polygamy. 
His crimes in the case of Uriah and Bath- 
sheba were heinous indeed; but on awa- 
king from his dream of folly, he repented 
in dust and ashes, meekly submitted to 
reproof and punishment, and sought and 
found mercy from God. Thenceforth fre- 
quent afflictions reminded him to be hum- 
ble and self-distrustful. There were dis- 
cords, profligacy, and murder in his own 
household, 2 Sam. 12:10. The histories of 
Tamar, Amnon, and Absalom show what 
anguish must have rent their father's heart. 
The rebellions of Absalom, Sheba, and 
Adonijah, the famine and plague that afflict- 
ed his people, the crimes of Joab, etc., led 
him to cry out, " Oh, that I had wings, like 
a dove; then would I fly away and be at 
rest." Yet his trials bore good fruit. His 
firmness and decision of character, his hu- 
mility, nobleness, and piety shine in his 
last acts, on the occasion of Adonijah's 
rebellion. His charge to Solomon respect- 
ing the forfeited lives of Joab and Shimei 
was the voice of justice and not of revenge. 



DAY 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DEA 



His preparations for the building of the 
temple, and the public service in which he 
devoted all to Jehovah, and called on all 
the people to bless the Lord God of their 
fathers, crown with singular beauty and 
glory the life of this eminent servant of 
God. After a reign of 40 years, he died at 
the age of 71, and was buried " in the city 
of David," on Mount Zion, where his 
tomb is now shown. 

The mental abilities and acquirements 
of David were of a high order ; his gen- 
eral conduct was marked by generosity, 
integrity, fortitude, activity, and perseve- 
rance ; gentleness and fire combined in his 
temperament, and his religious character 
was eminently adorned by sincere, fervent, 
and exalted piety. He was statesman, 
warrior, and poet all in one. In his Psalms 
he frankly reveals his whole heart. They 
are inspired poems, full of penitence and 
trust in God and delightful communion 
with him, containing many prophetic pas- 
sages, and wonderfully fitted to guide the 
devotions of the people of God so long as 
he has a church on earth. Though first 
sung by Hebrew tongues in the vales of 
Bethlehem and on the heights of Zion, they 
sound as sweetly in languages then un- 
known, and are dear to Christian hearts all 
round the world. In introducing them into 
the temple service, David added an impor- 
tant means of instruction and edification 
to the former ritual. 

In his kingly character, David was a re- 
markable type of Christ ; and his conquests 
foreshadowed those of Christ's kingdom. 
His royal race was spiritually revived in 
the person of our Saviour, who was de- 
scended from him after the flesh, and who 
is therefore called "the Son of David," and 
is said to sit upon his throne. 

DAY. The word " day " is used in many 
different senses. The scientific day is one 
revolution of the earth on its axis. The 
civil day is that the beginning and end of 
which are determined by the custom of any 
.nation. The Hebrews began their day in 
the evening, Lev. 23:32 ; the Babylonians at 
sunrise; and we begin at midnight. The 
ordinary day is the time of the sun's con- 
tinuance above the horizon, which is un- 
equal at different latitudes and seasons, on 
account of the obliquity of the equator. The 
sacred writers generally divide this day 
into 12 hours. The 6th hour always ends 
at noon throughout the year; and the 12th 
hour is the last hour before sunset. But 
in summer, all the hours of the day were 



longer than in winter, while those of night 
were shorter. See Hour, and Three. 

The word day is also often put for an 
indeterminate period, see Creation; for 
the time of Christ's coming in the flesh, and 
of his 2d coming to judgment, Isa. 2:12; 
Ezek. 13:5; John 11:24; iThess.5:2. The 
prophetic " day " usually has been under- 
stood as 1 year, and the prophetic "year" 
or "time" as 360 years, Ezek. 4:6. Com- 
pare the 2> l A years of Dan. 7:25 with the 42 
months and 1,260 days of Rev. 11:2, 3. 

DAY'S JOUR'NEY. See Journev. 

DAYS'MAN, Job 9 : 7,3, umpire, one to 
arbitrate at an appointed day. 

DEA'CON, an attendant, assistant, or 
helper, sometimes translated minister, as 
in Matt. 20:26; 2 Cor. 6:4; Eph. 3:7. Dea- 
cons are first mentioned as officers in the 
Christian church in Acts 6 ; their duty was 
to collect the alms of the church, and dis- 
tribute them to such as had a claim upon 
them, visiting the poor and sick, widows, 
orphans, and sufferers under persecution, 
and administering all necessary and pro- 
per relief. Of the 7 there named, Philip 
and Stephen are afterwards found labor- 
ing as evangelists. The qualifications of 
deacons are specified in 1 Tim. 3:8-12, and 
those of bishops in the preceding verses. 

DEA'CONESS. At an early period of 
the Christian church, if not in the apostolic 
age, such women were called deaconesses 
as served the church in those offices in 
which the deacons could not with propriety 
engage ; such as keeping the doors of that 
part of the church where the women sat, 
privately instructing those of their own 
sex, and visiting the sick and those impris- 
oned for the faith. In Rom. 16:1, Phcebe 
is said to be a deaconess of the church at 
Cenchrea. See also 1 Tim. -5:9-16. 

DEAD. Two Hebrew words are trans- 
lated "the dead" in Scripture, one ex- 
pressing merely the fact that they have 
ceased to live on earth ; the other entirely 
different, denoting disembodied spirits. 
This term is important as necessarily im- 
plying the undying nature of the human 
spirit. See Rephaim. 

DEAD SEA. See Sea. 

DEAL, part; as "a great deal." See 
Tenth-deal. 

DEATH is taken in Scripture, First, for 
the separation of body and soul, the 1st 
death, Gen. 25:11 ; secondly, for alienation 
from God, and exposure to his wrath, 1 John 
3: 14, etc. ; thirdly, for the 2d death, that of 
eternal damnation. Death in all 3 of these 

129 



DEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DEC 



senses was the penalty affixed to Adam's 
transgression, Gen. 2:17; 3:19; and all his 
posterity are transgressors with him, and 
share the curse inflicted upon him. Christ 
is " our life." All believers share his life, 
spiritually and eternally; and though sin 
and bodily death remain to afflict them 
here, their sting is taken away, and in the 
resurrection the last enemy shall be tram- 
pled under foot, Rom. 5:12-21 ; 1 Cor. 15. 

Natural death is described as a yielding 
up of the breath, or spirit, expiring, Psa. 
104:29; as a return to our original dust, 
Gen. 3:19; Eccl. 12:7; as the soul's laying 
off the body — its clothing, 2 Cor. 5:3, 4, or 
the tent in which it has dwelt, 2 Cor. 5:1; 
2 Pet. 1:13, 14. Death nowhere means an- 
nihilation. The body is not annihilated, 
but changed into other forms ; and the soul 
that dies is not annihilated, but consigned 
to everlasting woe. The death of the be- 
liever is a departure, a going home, a fall- 
ing asleep in Jesus, Phil. 1 :23 ; Matt. 26:24; 
John 11: 11. See Immortality, Saddu- 
cees. 

The term death is also sometimes used 
for any great calamity, or imminent dan- 
ger threatening life, as persecution, 2 Cor. 
1:10. "The gates of death," Job 38:17, 
signify the unseen world occupied by de- 
parted spirits. Death is also figuratively 
used to denote the insensibility of Chris- 
tians to the temptations of a sinful world, 
Col. 3:3. 

DEBATE', Rom. 1:29, strife. 

DE'BIR, a sanctuary, or oracle, Judg. 
1:11, a place called also Kirjath-sepher, 
a city of books ; and Kirjath-sannah, a 
city of palm-leaf, Josh. 15: 15, 49. Judging 
from the names, it appears to have been 
some sacred place among the Canaanites, 
and a repository of their records. It was a 
royal city in Judah, lying 11 or 12 miles 
southwest of Hebron, conquered from the 
Anakim by Joshua, but recaptured by the 
Canaanites, and resubdued by Othniel, and 
afterwards given to the priests, Josh. 10:38, 
39; 15:15-17; 21:15. It is now Dhaheriyeh. 
There was another Debir in Gad, and a 
3d on the border of Benjamin, Josh. 13:26; 
15:7. For Debir, king of Eglon, see Josh. 
10:3, 23.-26. 

DEB'ORAH, a bee, I., the nurse of Rebe- 
kah, whom she accompanied from Aram 
into Canaan, Gen. 24:59. At her death, 
near Bethel, she was buried with honora- 
ble marks of affection, under the famous 
oak which was then named Allon-bachuth, 
the oak of weeping, Gen. 35:8, B. C. 1732. 
130 



She was in Jacob's household at the time, 
Rebekah doubtless being now dead, and 
was about sixscore years old. There is 
something very beautiful in this simple 
record, which would scarcely find a place 
in our grand histories of kings, statesmen, 
and renowned warriors. They seldom 
take the trouble of erecting a memorial to 
obscure worth and a long life of humble 
usefulness. 

II. A prophetess, and wife of Lapidoth, 
judged the Israelites, and dwelt under a 
noted and perhaps solitary palm-tree be- 
tween Ramah and Bethel, Judg. 4:4, 5. 
When the Jews, especially the northern 
tribes, were suffering under the tyranny of 
Jabin, 1296 B. C, as a prophetess she la- 
bored to rouse them from their desponden- 
cy; and sending for Barak, directed him 
to attack Sisera, and promised him victory. 
Barak, however, refused to go unless she 
accompanied him, which she did, but told 
him that the success of the expedition 
would be imputed to a woman and not to 
him. After the victory, Deborah composed 
a splendid triumphal song, which is pre- 
served in Judg. 5. 

DEBT'OR, one under obligations, wheth- 
er pecuniary or moral, Matt. 23:16; Rom. 
1:14; Gal. 5:3. If the house, cattle, or 
goods of a Hebrew would not meet his 
debts, his land might be appropriated for 
this purpose until the year of Jubilee, or he 
might be reduced into servitude till he had 
paid his debt by his labor, or till the year 
of Jubilee, which terminated Hebrew bond- 
age in all cases, Lev. 25:29-41 ; 2 Kin. 4:1; 
Neh. 5:3-5. See also limitations to the 
creditor's power in Deut. 24:6, 10-13. In 
the time of Christ, imprisonment for debt 
had become customary, Matt. 18:34. 

DECALOGUE, the 10 principal com- 
mandments, Exod. 20:3-17, from the Greek 
words deka, ten, and logos, word. The 
Jews call these precepts, The Ten Words. 
The usual division of the 10 command- 
ments among Protestants is that which Jo- 
sephus tells us was employed by the Jews 
in his day. Rome makes a different divis- 
ion, losing the 2d in the 1st— practically 
dropping it, in catechisms— and making 2 
of the 10th. The 10 commandments are a 
summary of human duties to God and to 
man so comprehensive, wise, just, and 
good as to demonstrate their divine ori- 
gin, and command the admiration of the 
world. Each one is grounded in the sound- 
est reason, and both fitted for and meant 
for the whole race of man in all ages. 



DEC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DEF 



They are not national and temporary, like 
the details of the Jewish civil and ceremo- 
nial laws, which have passed away, while 
their spirit is included in the gospel; "it 
is easier for heaven and earth to pass, than 
■one tittle of the law to fail," Luke 16:17. 
The Saviour himself reaffirms them all, 
and to annul any one of them, as some do 
the 4th commandment, is a defiance of the 
.malediction in Rev. 22:18, 19. 

DECAP'OLIS (from the Greek words, 
deka, ten, and polls, a city), a country in 
North Palestine, which contained 10 prin- 
cipal cities, chiefly on the east side of the 
Jordan, Matt. 4:25; Mark 5 : 20 ; 7:31. Ac- 
cording to Pliny, they were Scythopolis, 
Philadelphia, Raphanae, Gadara, Hippos, 
Dios, Pella, Gerasa, Canatha, and Damas- 
cus. Josephus inserts Otopos instead of 
Canatha. Though within the limits of Is- 
rael, the Decapolis was inhabited by many 
foreigners, and hence it retained a foreign 
appellation. This may also account for the 
numerous herds of swine kept in the dis- 
trict, Matt. 8 : 20 ; a practice which was for- 
bidden by the Mosaic law. It is now com- 
paratively uninhabited. 

DECEIVED', Jer. 20:7, R.V. mar. enticed. 

DE'DAN, I., the grandson of Cush, Gen. 
10:7; and II., the son of Jokshan, Abra- 
ham's son by Keturah, Gen. 25:3. Both 
were founders of tribes frequently named 
in Scripture. The descendants of the 
Cushite Dedan are supposed to have set- 
tled in Southern Arabia, near the Persian 
Gulf, in which there is an island called by 
the Arabs Daden. The descendants of the 
Abrahamite Dedan lived in the neighbor- 
hood of Idumaea, Jer. 49:8. It is not clear, 
in all cases where the name occurs, which 
of the tribes is intended. It was probably 
the Cushite tribe which was employed in 
trade. The " travelling companies " of 
Dedan are mentioned by Isaiah, 21:13. 
They are also named with the merchants 
•of Tarshish by Ezekiel, 38:13, and were 
celebrated on account of their trade with 
the Phoenicians. 

DEDICATION, a religious ceremony by 
which any person, place, or thing was de- 
voted to a holy purpose. Thus the taber- 
nacle and the 1st and 2d temples were ded- 
icated to God, Exod. 40 ; 1 Kin. 8 ; Ezra 6. 
The Jews also practised a certain dedica- 
tion of walls, houses, etc., Deut. 20:5; Neh. 
12:27. The " feast of the dedication," on 
the 25th of Chisleu, was a yearly commem- 
oration of the cleansing and rededication 
•of the temple, after it had been polluted 



by Antiochus Epiphanes, B. C. 167, John 
10:22. 

DEEP and DEPTHS. The deep, or the 
great deep, signifies in Scripture, hell, the 
place of punishment, the bottomless pit, 
Luke 8:31, compare Rev. 9:1; 11:7; 20:1; 
the under- world, Psa. 71:20; Rom. 10:7; 
the deepest parts of the sea, Psa. 69:15; 
107 : 26 ; chaos in the beginning of the world, 
Gen. 1:2. See Hell. 




THE FALLOW-DEER. 

DEER, a wild quadruped, of a middle 
size between the stag and the roebuck ; its 
horns turn inward, and are large and flat. 
The fallow-deer is naturally very timorous ; 
it was reputed clean, and good for food. 
Deut. 14:5; 1 Kin. 4:23. There are 2 spe- 
cies, now known as the Barbary stag and 
the Persian stag, bearing a general resem- 
blance to the fallow-deer, and which were 
doubtless known to the Jews. Young deer 
are noticed in Proverbs, Songs, and Isaiah, 
as beautiful creatures, and very swift, Prov. 
5:19. See Hind. 

DEFILE', DEFILE'MENT. Many were 
the blemishes of person and conduct which, 
under the Jewish ceremonial law, were es- 
teemed defilements: some were voluntary, 
some involuntary; some were inevitable, 
being defects of nature, others the conse- 
quences of personal transgression. Under 
the gospel, defilements are those of the 
heart, of the mind, the temper, the conduct. 
Moral defilements are as numerous, and 
as strongly prohibited under the gospel, as 
ever, though ceremonial defilements have 
ceased, Matt. 15:18; Rom. 1:24. See Clean. 

131 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DEL 



In i Cor. 3:17, "defile," A. V., and "de- 
stroy," are the same word in Greek, and 
both should be translated " destroy." 

DEGREE', 1 Tim. 3:13. "A good de- 
gree " is, a step in advance in spiritual 
life. 

DEGREES', Psalms of, is the title pre- 
fixed to 15 Psalms, from Psa. 120 to Psa. 
134 inclusive. Of this title commentators 
have proposed a variety of explanations. 
The most probable are the following : First, 
pilgrim songs, sung by the Israelites while 
going up to Jerusalem to worship ; com- 
pare Psa. 122:4; but to this explanation the 
contents of only a few of these Psalms are 
appropriate, as, for instance, of Psa. 122. 
Secondly, songs of the steps, meaning the 
15 steps leading from the court of the wo- 
men in the temple area to that of the men, 
on each of which steps some Jewish au- 
thors state that one of these Psalms was 
chanted. But, thirdly, Gesenius and some 
others suppose the title to refer to a species 
of rhythm in these Psalms, by which the 
sense ascends, one member or clause fre- 
quently repeating the words with which 
the preceding member closes. Thus in 
Psa. 121, 

1. I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills, 
From whence cometh my help. 

2. My help cometh from the Lord, 
Who made heaven and earth. 

3. He will not suffer thy foot to be moved ; 
Thy keeper will not slumber. 

4. Lo, not slumber nor sleep will the keeper of 

Israel. 

Yet even this solution does not well apply 
to all these Psalms. 

DEGREES', Shadow of. See Dial. 

DEHA'VITES, a people beyond the Eu- 
phrates, who furnished colonists for Sama- 
ria, 2 Kin. 17:24; Ezra 4:9; supposed to be 
the Dahae, on the east of the Caspian Sea, 
and under the Persian government. 

DELI'LAH, languishing, a Philistine wo- 
man in the valley of Sorek, whom Samson 
loved, and who betrayed him to the ene- 
mies of Israel for 5,500 silver shekels, 
Judg. 16. 

DEL'UGE, that universal flood which was 
sent upon the earth in the time of Noah, 
and from which there were but 8 persons 
saved. Moses' account of this event is re- 
corded in Gen. 6-8. See Ark of Noah. 
The sins of mankind were the cause of the 
deluge ; and most commentators place it 
A. M. 1656, B. C. 2348. After the door of 
the ark had been closed upon those that 
132 



were to be saved, the deluge commenced : 
it rained 40 days; "the fountains of the 
great deep were broken up, and the win- 
dows of heaven were opened." All men 
and all creatures living on the land per- 
ished, except Noah and those with him. 
For 5 months the waters continued to rise, 
and reached 15 cubits above the highest 
summits to which any could fly for refuge ; 
"a shoreless ocean tumbled round the 
world." At length the waters began to 
abate; the highest land appeared, and the 
ark touched ground upon Mount Ararat. 
In 3 months more the hills began to ap- 
pear. Forty days after, Noah tested the 
state of the earth's surface by sending out 
a raven ; and then thrice, at intervals of a 
week, a dove. At length he removed the 
covering of the ark, and found the flood 
had disappeared: he came forth from the 
ark, reared an altar, and offered sacrifices 
to God, who appointed the rainbow as a 
pledge that he would no more destroy man- 
kind with a flood. See Noah. 

Much labor has been expended in search- 
ing for natural causes adequate to the pro- 
duction of a deluge ; but we should beware 
of endeavoring to account on natural prin- 
ciples for that which the Bible represents 
as miraculous. It is indeed true that mod- 
ern science discovers many reasons for 
doubting the universality of the deluge — 
such as the apparent impossibility of find- 
ing room and food in the ark for the im- 
mense number of different animals now 
known to exist ; the apparent certainty that 
all fresh water fishes would have perished 
in the ocean, and with them the numerous 
species of marine animals which cannot 
live except along shore ; also that the sea 
water would have destroyed all vegetable 
life. And many of the real friends of the 
Bible believe that the flood covered only 
that portion of the globe then occupied by 
man. There is, however, no proof of this ; 
the requisite miracles, however many and 
great, were equally easy to God with those 
known to have been effected; and some 
excellent interpreters adhere to the natu- 
ral sense of the inspired narrative. In the 
New Testament, the deluge is spoken of as 
a stupendous exhibition of divine power, 
like the creation and the final burning of 
the world. It is applied to illustrate the 
longsuffering of God, and assure us of his 
judgment on sin, 2 Pet. 3:5-7, and of the 
2d coming of Christ, Matt. 24:38. 

Since all nations have descended from 
the family then preserved in the ark, it is 



DEM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DEU 



natural that the memory of such an event 
should be perpetuated in various national 
traditions. Such is indeed the fact. These 
traditions have been found among the Egyp- 
tians, Chaldaeans, Phoenicians, Greeks, Hin- 
doos, Chinese, Japanese, Scythians, and 
Celts, and in the western hemisphere among 
the Mexicans, Peruvians, and South Sea 
islanders. 

DE'MAS, a fellow-laborer with Paul and 
companion in his ist imprisonment at 
Rome, who after a while deserted him, 
either discouraged by the hardships of the 
work, or allured by the love of the world, 
Col. 4:14; 2 Tim. 4:10; Phile. 24. We 
may hope that his forsaking of Paul and of 
Christ was not final apostasy ; but the Bible 
leaves his case under a gloomy cloud — a 
serious warning to us. " This present 
world " tempting us not to follow Christ, 
is always a curse, and may be our ruin. 

DEME'TRIUS, I., a silversmith of Ephe- 
sus, who made silver models of the famous 
temple of Diana, which he sold to foreign- 
ers, Acts 19 : 24-41 . Observing the progress 
of the gospel, not in Ephesus only, but in 
the regions around, he assembled his fel- 
low-craftsmen, and represented that, by 
this new doctrine, not only their trade 
would suffer, but the worship of the great 
Diana of Ephesus was in danger of being 
entirely forsaken. This produced an up- 
roar and riot in the city, which the town- 
clerk with difficulty appeased by firmness 
and persuasion. 

II. A disciple, and probably a minister 
of high repute, 3 John 12. He may have 
been formerly the silversmith of Ephesus ; 
but this can be neither proved nor dis- 
proved. 

DEP'UTY, a pasha or governor, 1 Kin. 
22:47; Esth. 8:9; 9:3. The Greek word 
translated "deputy" in Acts 13:7, 8, 12; 
18:12; 19:38, was the " proconsul," the reg- 
ular title of the governor of a Roman prov- 
ince when appointed by the Senate. Its 
use in the above passages, instead of some 
vague or general title, is one of a multitude 
of undesigned evidences of the truthfulness 
of the sacred narrative. 

DER'BE, a small town of Lycaonia, in 
Asia Minor, to which Paul and Barnabas 
fled from Lystra, A. D. 41, Acts 14:20. It 
lay north of the Taurus Mountains, 16 or 
20 miles east of Lystra, and not far from 
the well-known pass called "the Cilician 
Gates." The two missionaries gained many 
disciples here, and among them perhaps 
Gaius, who afterwards labored with Paul, 



Acts 14:21; 20:4. Paul revisited Derbe on 
his 2d tour, and perhaps on the 3d, Acts 
16:1-4; 18:23; 19:1. 

DES'ERT. The Scriptures, by " desert," 
generally mean an uncultivated place, a 
wilderness, or grazing tract. Some des- 
erts were entirely dry and barren ; others 
were beautiful, and had good pastures, Joel 
2:22. David speaks of the beauty of the 
desert, Psa. 65:12, 13. Scripture names 
several deserts in the Holy Land. In 
Ezek. 47 : 8, the Jordan valley is meant. See 
Arabah. Other deserts particularly men- 
tioned are " that great and terrible wilder- 
ness " in Arabia Petraea, south of Canaan, 
Deut. 8:15, in passing through which for 
40 years the Israelites took with them 
flocks and herds, Exod. 12:38; Num. 11:22; 
32 : 1 ; also the region between Canaan and 
the Euphrates, Exod. 23:31; Deut. 11:24. 
The pastures of these "wildernesses" are 
clothed in winter and spring with rich and 
tender herbage ; but the heat of summer 
soon burns this up, and the Arabs are driv- 
en to seek pasturage elsewhere. Similar 
uninhabited spots lay near many of the 
towns in Palestine itself: as "the wilder- 
ness of Ziph," of Maon, Gibeon, etc. The 
" wilderness of Judah " was the mountain- 
ous tract west of the Dead Sea, 1 Sam. 
17:28; Matt. 2>'- 3- See also Luke 15:4; 
Acts 8:26. 

DESTRUCTION, ClTY OF, Isa. 19:18. 
See Heres. 

DEUTERON'OMY, second law, or the rep- 
etition of the law, the 5th book of the Pen- 
tateuch ; so called by the Greeks, because 
in it Moses recapitulates what he had or- 
dained in the preceding books, Deut. 1 : 1- 
6; 29: 1 ; 31:1; 33. This book contains the 
history of what passed in the wilderness 
from the beginning of the nth month to 
the 7th day of the 12th month, in the 40th 
year after the Israelites' departure from 
Egypt, that is, about 6 weeks, B. C. 1451. 
That part which mentions the death of Mo- 
ses was added afterwards, very probably 
by Joshua. 

The book of Deuteronomy is the sublime 
and precious valedictory address of the in- 
spired " man of God," now venerable for 
his age and experience, and standing al- 
most in the gate of heaven. He gives the 
people of God his fatherly counsel and 
blessing, and then goes up into Mount Pis- 
gah alone to die. He recounts the deal- 
ings of God with them, chs. 1-4; recapitu- 
lates His laws, chs. 5-26 ; shows them why 
they should love Him, and how they should 

133 



DEV 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DEV 



serve Him, chs. 27-34. It is full of tender 
solicitude, wise instruction, faithful warn- 
ing, and the zealous love of a patriot and 
a prophet for the people of God, whom he 
had borne on his heart so long. It is often 
quoted by later inspired writers, and by 
our Lord, Matt. 4:4, 7, 10. 

DEVIL, I., a fallen angel ; and particu- 
larly the chief of them, the devil, or Satan. 
He is the great leader of evil in the world ; 
and it is his grand object to counteract the 
good which God desires to do. He exerts 
himself, especially with his angels, to draw 
away the souls of men from embracing sal- 
vation through Jesus Christ. 

His name, from the, Greek diabolos, sig- 
nifies the false accuser — slandering God to 
men, as in Gen. 3, and men, especially good 
men, to God, Job 1:9, 10; Zech. 3:1; Rev. 
12: 10; as the Hebrew Satan means the ad- 
versary — of God and man. But the Scrip- 
tures give him various other appellations 
descriptive of his character. He is called, 
"The prince of this world," John 12:31; 
" The prince of the power of the air," Eph. 
2:2; " The god of this world," 2 Cor. 4:4; 
" The dragon, that old serpent," Rev. 20 : 2 ; 
" That wicked one," 1 John 5:18; "A roar- 
ing lion," 1 Pet. 5:8; " A" murderer," "a 
liar," John 8:44; "Beelzebub," Matt. 12:24; 
"Belial," 2 Cor. 6:15. He is everywhere 
shown to be full of malignity, cruelty, and 
deceit, hating God and man. He is cease- 
less in his efforts to destroy souls, and uses 
innumerable devices to adapt his tempta- 
tions to the varying characters and condi- 
tions of men, enticing wicked men, and 
even good men, as well as his own angels, 
to aid in his work. Almost the whole 
world has been under his sway. But he is 
a doomed foe. Christ "shall bruise the 
serpent's head;" shall dispossess him from 
the world, as He has done from individu- 
als, and at length confine him for ever in 
the place prepared for him and his angels, 
Matt. 25:41. 

II. The word " devils " in the gospels is 
the translation of a different Greek word 
from that used to denote the devil, and 
might be rendered "demons." See Idols. 
The Bible speaks of " the devil, and his 
angels," Matt. 25:41; Rev. 12:7, 9, and of 
Satan as "the prince of the devils," Mark 
3 : 22-30, representing the latter as like their 
leader in nature and actions — fallen an- 
gels, Luke 10:17, 18. In the gospels they 
are " unclean " spirits, full of active malig- 
nity; they believe and tremble, Jas. 2:19; 
they confess the deity of Christ, yield to 
134 



his authority, and dread his coming judg- 
ment, Matt. 8:29; Luke 4:41; Acts 19:15- 
See also Eph. 6: 12 ; Rev. 12:7-9. The word 
" devil " is also sometimes applied to idols, 
intimating the special interest of evil spir- 
its in the "lying wonders" and abomina- 
tions- of idol-worship, Deut. 32:17; 1 Cor.. 
10:20, 31 ; Rev. 9:20. 

There are many examples in the New 
Testament of persons possessed by demons. 
These men are often called demoniacs^ 
Some have argued that these were afflicted 
by natural diseases, such as epilepsy, in- 
sanity, etc., and were not possessed by 
evil spirits. But the demoniacs are clearly 
distinguished from those afflicted with epi- 
lepsy or any other disease, Matt. 4:24; 
Mark 1:32; 16:17, 18; Luke 6:17, 18; and 
our Saviour speaks to and commands the 
demons who actuated the possessed, which 
demons answered with superhuman knowl- 
edge, recognized the Son of God, obeyed 
his commands, and gave proofs of their 
presence by tormenting those whom they 
were obliged to quit. Christ alleges, as 
proof of his mission, that the demons are 
cast out ; he promises his apostles the same 
power that he himself exercised against 
those wicked spirits, Matt. 10:1, 8; Luke 
9:1 ; and his conversations with the Jews, 
and with his disciples when alone with 
him, imply the agency of evil spirits in the 
demoniacs, Matt. 12:22-29; 17:18-21. No 
one therefore can deny this fact without 
denying the inspiration of Scripture and 
the honesty of Christ. 

No cases of the same nature occur in our 
day. They were suffered to occur in 
Christ's time, since he came to save both 
the bodies and the souls of men and " to- 
destroy the works of the devil," and had 
need to exhibit his saving power by heal- 
ing diseases, forgiving sins, and casting 
out devils, Matt. 12:28; Luke 10:17, l8 J 
1 John 3:8. The possessed had probably 
invited the evil spirits by their vices and 
crimes, which had also brought upon them 
the diseases which in so many cases were 
found with the demoniacal possession. 

In all New Testament passages where- 
" devils " occurs, in the plural, the Greek 
denotes "demons;" also in the following 
passages where " devil " occurs, in the sin- 
gular: Matt. 9:32, 33; 11:18; 12:22; 15:22; 
17:18; Mark 5 : 15, 16, 18 ; 7 : 26, 29, 30 ; Luke 
4:33, 35; 7:33; 8:29; 9:42; 11:14; John 
7:2058:48,49,52; 10:20,21. 

In all other passages where " devil " oc- 
curs in the singular, Satan, diabolos, is de- 



DEV 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



D1A 



noted in the original, viz., Matt. 4: i, 5, 8, n ; 
i3 : 39,' 2 5 : 4 I ; Luke 4:2, 3, 5, 6, 13; 8:12; 
John 6:70; 8:44; 13:2; Acts 10:38; 13:10; 
Eph. 4 : 27 ; 6:11; 1 Tim. 3 : 6, 7 ; 2 Tim. 2 : 26 ; 
Heb. 2:14; Jas. 4:7; 1 Pet. 5:8; 1 John 3:8, 
10; Jude 9; Rev. 2:10; 12:9, 12; 20:2, 10. 

DEVO'TIONS, in Acts 17:23, objects of 
worship. 

DEW. The dews in Palestine and some 
other Oriental countries are very copious, 
and serve very greatly to sustain and pro- 
mote vegetation in seasons when little or 
no rain falls. Maundrell tells us that the 
tents of his company, when pitched on Ta- 
bor and Hermon, "were as wet with dew 
as if it had rained on them all night," Judg. 
6:38; Song 5:2. Dew was especially heavy 
near the mountains, and just before and 
after the rainy season ; and did not fall in 
the midsummer. It was prized as a pre- 
cious boon of Providence, Gen. 27 : 28 ; Deut. 
33:28; 1 Kin. 17:1; Job 29:19; Hag. 1:10; 
Zech. 8:12. The dew furnishes the sacred 
penmen with many beautiful allusions, 
Deut. 32:2; 2 Sam. 17:12; Psa. 110:3; Prov. 
19:12; Hos. 6:4; 14:5; Mic. 5:7. 

DI'ADEM, in the New Testament, the 
crown of kings, in distinction from con- 
querors, etc., Rev. 12:3; 13:1; 19:12. 




ANTIQUE STONE SUN-DIAL. 

DI'AL, an instrument much used before 
the invention of clocks, to tell the time of 
day by the progress of the sun's shadow. 
The dial of Ahaz, 2 Kin. 20:11 ; Isa. 38:1-9, 
seems to have been peculiar either in struc- 
ture or size, and was perhaps borrowed 
from Babylon or Damascus, 2 Kin. 16:10. 
The sun-dial is mentioned in the Assyrian 
tablets. The term " degrees," or steps, sug- 
gests its probable form, as that of a pair of 
stairs, with a gnomon or column casting its 
shadow on more Or fewer of them as the 



sun was low or high. Compare the many- 
storied temples of Babel. The causing the 
shadow upon it to go»back 10 degrees, to 
assure king Hezekiah of his recovery from 
sickness, was probably effected not by ar- 
resting and turning backwards the revolu- 
tion of the earth, but by a miraculous re- 
fraction of the sun's rays, observed only in 
Judaea, though the fame of it reached Bab- 
ylon, 2 Chr. 32:31. 

DI'AMOND, the hardest and most bril- 
liant of gems, very rare and costly, sup- 
posed to have been unknown to the Jews. 
Diamonds are used not only for ornaments, 
but for cutting and graving hard substan- 
ces, Jer. 17:1. The Hebrew word shamir, 
here used, is called "adamant" in Ezek. 
3:9; Zech. 7:12. See Adamant. There is 
another Hebrew word, yahalom, also trans- 
lated "diamond," Exod. 28:18; 39:11; 
Ezek. 28: 13, and thought by some to mean 
the topaz. 




DIANA: FROM STATUE IN NAPLES MUSEUM. 

DIA'NA, or Ar'temis, a celebrated god- 
dess of the Romans and Greeks, and one 
of their 12 superior deities. The Diana of 
Ephesus, however, was a very different 
deity from the fair and chaste huntress of 
the Greeks ; she was like the Syrian god- 
dess Ashtoreth, and appears to have been 
worshipped with impure rites and magical 
mysteries, Acts 19:19. Her image, fabled 

135 



DIB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DIS 



to have fallen down from Jupiter in heav- 
en, seems to have been a block of wood 
tapering to the foot, with a female bust 
above covered with many breasts, the head 
crowned with turrets, and each hand rest- 
ing on a staff. It was of great antiquity, 
and highly venerated. 

The temple of this goddess was the pride 
and glory of Ephesus. It was 425 feet long, 
and 220 broad, and had 127 graceful Ionic 
columns of white marble, each 60 feet high. 
Its treasures were of immense value. It 
was 220 years in building, and was one of 
the 7 wonders of the world. In the year 
when Alexander the Great was born, B. C. 
356, an earlier temple had been burned 
down by one Herostratus, in order to im- 
mortalize his name, but was afterwards 
rebuilt, as above described, with even 
greater splendor. Compare 1 Cor. 3:9-17, 
written there ; and Eph. 2 : 19-22. The " sil- 
ver shrines for Diana," made by Demetrius 
and others, were probably small models of 
the temple for domestic use, and for sale 
to travellers and visitors. Ancient coins of 
Ephesus represent the shrine and statue of 
Diana, with a Greek inscription, "of the 
Ephesians," Acts 19:28, 34, 35. Others 
bear the same words which Luke employs, 
translated " deputy " and " worshipper " of 
Diana ; and some, with the name and head 
of Nero, were struck perhaps while Paul 
was there. 

DIB'LATH, Ezek. 6 : 14, probably Rib- 
lah, which see. 

DI'BON, pitting, I., Di'mon, Isa. 15:9, 
and Di'bon-gad', Num. 33:45, 46, a town 
of Gad, Num. 32 :34, but afterwards of Reu- 
ben, Josh. 13:17. It lay in a plain just 
north of the Arnon, and was the 1st en- 
campment of the Israelites upon crossing 
that river. Later we find it in the hands of 
the Moabites, Isa. 15:2 ; Jer. 48:22. Traces 
of it remain at a place now called Diban. 
See Mesha. 

II. A town in Judah, Neh. 11:25, called 
Dimonah in Josh. 15:22. 

DID'YMUS, a twin. See Thomas. 

DIG'GING THROUGH HOUSES, Job 24:16. 

See Houses. 

DIK'LAH, a tribe descended from Jok- 
tan, Gen. 10:27, and dwelling in Southern 
Arabia, or perhaps near the head of the 
Persian Gulf, 1 Chr. 1:21. 

DI'MON, Isa. 15:9. See Dibon. 

DI'NAH, judged, daughter of Jacob by 
Leah, Gen. 30:21, his only daughter named 
in Scripture. While the family were so- 
journing near Shalem, she heedlessly asso- 
136 



ciated with the Canaanitish maidens, and 
fell a victim to the seductive arts of She- 
chem, a young prince of the land ; but was 
perfidiously and savagely avenged by Sim- 
eon and Levi, her full brothers, to the great 
grief of Jacob their father, Gen. 34; 49:5, 7. 
Her fall furnishes one of myriads of warn- 
ings not to associate with the irreligious 
and dissolute. She seems to have gone 
with the family to Egypt, Gen. 46: 15. 

DIONYS'IUS, devotee of Bacchus, a mem- 
ber of the court of the Areopagus at Ath- 
ens, converted under the preaching of Paul, 
Acts 17:34. See Areopagus. Tradition 
says that he was eminent for learning, that 
he was ordained by Paul at Athens, and 
after many labors and trials, suffered mar- 
tyrdom by fire. The works ascribed to 
him are spurious, being the product of 
some unknown writer in the 5th or 6th cen- 
tury. 

DIOT'REPHES, nourished by Jupiter, an 
influential member, perhaps minister, of 
some early church, censured by John for 
his jealous ambition and his violent rejec- 
tion of the best Christians, 3 John 9, 10. 

DIP'PING in the dish, Matt. 26:23. See 
Eating. 

DISCERN'ING OF SPIRITS, I Cor. 12:10, 
a miraculous gift of the Holy Ghost to 
certain of the early church, empowering 
them to judge of the real character of those 
who professed to love Christ and to be in- 
spired to teach in his name, 1 John 4:1; 
2 John 7. Compare Acts 5:1-10; 8:21; 
13:6-12. 

DISCI'PLE, a scholar, Matt. 10:24. In 
the New Testament it is applied princi- 
pally to the followers of Christ ; sometimes 
to those of John the Baptist, Matt. 9: 14, and 
of the Pharisees, Matt. 22:16. It is used in 
a special manner to point out the twelve, 
Matt. 11: 1 ; 20:17. A disciple of Christ 
may now be defined as one who believes 
his doctrine, rests upon his sacrifice, im- 
bibes his spirit, imitates his example, and 
lives to do his work. 

DIS'CIPLINE, Job 36:10, instruction. 

DISCOVER, Mic. 1:6, to uncover, or lay 
bare, Deut. 22:30; 2 Sam. 22:16. 

DISEAS'ES were introduced into the 
world by sin, and are greatly promoted by 
corrupt, indolent, and luxurious habits. 
Besides the natural causes of diseases, evil 
sprits were charged with producing them 
among the Hebrews, Job 2:7; Mark 9:17; 
Luke 13:16; 2 Cor. 12:7. The pious Jews 
recognized the hand of God in sending 
them, Psa. 39:9-11; 90:3-12; and in many 



DIS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DOE 



cases special diseases were sent in punish- 
ment of particular sins: to Abimelech, Ge- 
hazi, Jehoram, Uzziah, Miriam, Herod, the 
Philistines, etc., and those who partook of 
the Lord's Supper unworthily, i Cor. 11:30. 
Christ manifested his divine goodness and 
power by healing every form of disease ; 
and in these cases, as in that of king Asa, 
2 Chr. 16: 12, it is shown that all the skill of 
physicians is in vain without God's bless- 
ing. The prevalent diseases in Bible lands 
were malignant fevers, cutaneous diseases, 
palsy, dysentery, and ophthalmia. Almost 
every form of bodily disease has a coun- 
terpart in the maladies of the soul, and the 
Great Physician of souls has demonstrated 
his perfect ability to cure them all, Luke 
5:24. See Devil, II. 

DISPENSATION, the charge of proclaim- 
ing the gospel of Christ, 1 Cor. 9:17; Eph. 
3:2. Also the scheme or plan of God's 
dealings with men. In the Patriarchal, 
Mosaic, and Christian dispensations, God 
has commenced, enlarged, and perfected 
his revelation of himself and his grace to 
this world, Eph. 1 : 10 ; Col. 1 :25. The whole 
development of his great plan has been 
gradual, and adapted at every stage to the 
existing state of the human family. 

DISPER'SION, Jas. 1 : 1. See Captivity. 
The exiled Jews were not in Babylonia 
only, but in all lands around Palestine, far 
and near, Acts 2:9-11 ; and furnished many 
converts to the gospel who contributed 
greatly to its rapid spread, John 7:35. 

DISPOSITION, Acts 7:53, A. V., ordi- 
nance or ministration. 

DITCH, a pit or pool, Job 9:31 ; Isa. 22: 11 ; 
Luke 6:39. 

DIVINA'TION. The Eastern people were 
fond of magic, and the pretended art of in- 
terpreting dreams and acquiring a knowl- 
edge of futurity. When Moses published 
the law, to correct the Israelites' inclination 
to consult diviners, wizards, fortune-tellers, 
and interpreters of dreams, it was forbid- 
den them under very severe penalties", and 
the true spirit of prophecy was promised 
to them as infinitely superior, Exod. 22:18; 
Lev. 19:26, 31 ; 20:27. When this was for- 
feited by disobedience, and sorcery em- 
ployed instead, as by king Saul, ruin was 
not far off, 1 Sam. 28. See Acts 8 ; 13 ; 16; 
19. Those were to be stoned who pre- 
tended to have a "familiar spirit," or the 
"spirit of divination," Deut. 18:9-12; and 
the prophecies are full of invectives against 
the Israelites who consulted such, as well 
as against false prophets, who seduced the 



people, Isa. 8:19; 47:11-14; Ezek. 13:6-9. 
A fresh impulse to these superstitions was 
gained from intercourse with the Chaldae- 
ans, during the reign of the later kings of 
Judah and the captivities in Babylon, 2 Kin. 
21:6; 2 Chr. 33:6. See Magic, Sorcerers. 

Divination was of several kinds: by wa- 
ter, fire, earth, air ; by the flight of birds, 
and their singing ; by lots, dreams, arrows, 
clouds, entrails of sacrifices, pretended com- 
munication with spirits, etc., Ezek. 21:21. 
The art of divination was nothing but an 
imposing jugglery, having no basis but the 
credulity and superstitious fears of its 
dupes, and making an adroit use of some 
secret machinery or of scientific facts un- 
known to the mass. It was usually in the 
hands of a priestly caste, Gen. 41:8; Isa. 
47:13; Dan. 2:2, and gave them vast social 
and political power. In reference to his 
cup, Joseph spoke as a supposed Egyptian, 
Gen. 44:5. 

DIVORCE' was tolerated by Moses for 
sufficient reasons, Deut. 24:1-4; but our 
Lord has limited it to the single case of 
adultery, Matt. 5:31, 32 ; 19:3-9. Where for 
other causes a separation of husband and 
wife occurs, and they live asunder, neither 
is at liberty to marry another. Paul in 
1 Cor. 7:10-17 applies the law of Christ to 
cases where a Christian convert has a wife 
still an unbeliever : he is not to separate 
from her if she will remain with him ; if 
she will depart, he is not bound to insist 
on her remaining with him, but cannot 
marry another. 

DOCTOR, teacher. A Doctor of the 
law may perhaps be distinguished from a 
scribe, as rather teaching orally than giv- 
ing written opinions, Luke 2 : 46. It implies 
one learned in the divine law. Doctors of 
the law were mostly of the sect of the Phar- 
isees, but are distinguished from that sect 
in Luke 5:17, where it appears that the 
novelty of our Saviour's teaching drew to- 
gether a great company both of Pharisees 
and doctors of the law. See Rab and 
Scribes. 

DOCTRINE, teaching, its method and its 
substance, Matt. 7:28; Mark 4:2. 

DOD'ANIM, or Rod'anim, i Chr. 1:7, a 
people descended from Japhet through Ja- 
van, Gen. 10:4. They are associated, by 
the above passage, and by dim etymologi- 
cal inferences, with the island of Rhodes. 

DO'EG, fearful, an Edomite, overseer of 
Saul's flocks. At Nob he witnessed the 
relief kindly furnished to David when flee- 
ing from Saul, by Ahimelech the high- 

137 



DOG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DOV 



priest, and carried a malicious and distort- 
ed report of it to his master. The king 
gladly seized the opportunity to wreak his 
passion on a helpless victim ; and when the 
Jews around him refused to slay the priests 
of God, infamously used the willing servi- 
ces of this alien and heathen. Doeg not 
only slew Ahimelech and 84 other priests, 
but put the town in which they dwelt to the 
sword, 1 Sam. 21 ; 22. David forebodes his 
wretched fate, Psa. 52; 120; 140. 



«» 




nn-^< . — : 



A PERSIAN DOG. 

DOGS were held in great contempt by 
the Jews, but were worshipped, as well as 
cats, by the Egyptians. Among the Jews, 
to compare a person to this " unclean " an- 
imal, Lev. 11:26, 27; Isa. 66:3, was the 
most degrading expression possible, 1 Sam. 
17:43; 24:14; 2 Sam. 9:8. The state of 
dogs among the Jews was the same that 
now prevails in the East, where, often hav- 
ing no owners, they run about the streets 
in troops, and are fed by charity or caprice, 
or live on such offal as they can pick up. 
As they are often on the point of starvation, 
they devour corpses, and in the night even 
attack living men, Psa. 59:6, 14, 15; 1 Kin. 
14:11; 21:23. Yet dogs were kept some- 
times to guard flocks and houses, Job 30: 1 ; 
Isa. 56:10; Matt. 15:26, 27. In various 
places in Scripture the epithet " dogs " is 
given to certain classes of men, as express- 
ing their insolent rapacity, Psa. 22 : 16 ; Matt. 
7:6; Phil. 3 : 2, and their beastly vices, Deut. 
23:18; 2 Pet. 2:22; Rev. 22:15. 

DOOR. See Gates, House. 

DOR, a habitation, a royal city of the 
Canaanites, on the Mediterranean between 
Caesarea and Mount Carmel ; after the con- 
quest it was assigned to Manasseh, Josh. 
11:2; 12:23; I7 :I1 : 1 Kin. 4:11; 1 Chr. 
7 : 29. There is now a small port there, and 
a village with about 300 inhabitants, called 
Tantura. 

DOR'CAS in Greek, the same as Tabi- 
tha in Svriac, that is, gazelle, the name of 
138 



a pious and charitable woman at Joppa„ 
whom Peter raised from the dead, Acts 
.9:36-42. This miracle testified God's spe- 
cial approval of a life of practical and self- 
denying piety, and was followed by many 
conversions. 

DO'THAN, or Dotha'in, two wells, the 
place where Joseph was sold to the Ish- 
maelites, Gen. 37:17, and where the Syri- 
ans were smitten with blindness at Elisha's 
word, 2 Kin. 6:13. It was on the caravan- 
route from Syria to Egypt, about 15 miles 
north of Shechem, and 4 or 5 southwest of 
Engannim, now Jenin. Its ruins still bear 
the old name, Dothan, though uninhabited, 
and are on a large hill, 2 Kin. 6:15, 17, on 
the south edge of a very fertile plain, Gen. 
37:16, 17. Mr. Tristram met there " a long 
caravan of mules and asses laden, on their 
way from Damascus to Egypt." 




THE EASTERN CARRIER DOVE. 

DOVES were clean according to the Mo- 
saic ritual, and were offered in sacrifice, 
especially by the poor, Gen. 15:9: Lev. 5:7; 
12:6-8 ; Luke 2:24. Several kinds of doves 
or pigeons frequented the Holy Land; and 
the immense flocks of them sometimes wit- 
nessed illustrate a passage in Isaiah, 60:8. 
Their swift and long flight and their beau- 
tiful plumage are alluded to in Psa. 55:6; 
68:13, their tender eyes, mournful notes, 
etc., in Song 1:15; 2:14; Isa. 59:11. They 
are symbols of simplicity, innocence, and 
conjugal fidelity, Hos. 7:11; Matt. 10:16. 
The dove was the chosen harbinger of 
God's returning favor after the flood, Gen. 
8. and was honored as an emblem of the 
Holy Spirit, Matt. 3 : 16. See Turtle- 
dove. 



DOV 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DRO 



DOVES' DUNG. It is said, 2 Kin. 6:25, 
that during the siege of Samaria, "the 
fourth part of a cab," little more than half 
a pint, "of doves' dung was sold for five 
pieces of silver," about iVi dollars. As 
doves' dung is not a nourishment for man, 
even in the most extreme famine, the gen- 
eral opinion is, that it was a kind of lentil, 
or tare, which has very much the appear- 
ance of doves' dung. Two or three vegeta- 
ble substances are still so named by the 
Arabs. 

DOWRY, In Eastern countries the 
bridegroom was required to pay the father 
of his betrothed a stipulated portion, in 
money or other valuables, proportioned to 
the rank and station of the family to which 
she belonged ; this was the dowry. Jacob 
purchased his wives by his services to their 
father, Gen. 29:18-27; 34:12; Exod. 22:16, 
17; 1 Sam. 18:25; Hos. 3:2. Sometimes 
the father gave presents to his daughter, 
Judg. 1:15; 1 Kin. 9:16. 

DRACH'MA, Luke 15:8, 9. See Penny. 

DRAG, Hab. 1:15, 16; John 21:8, a net 
suspended and drawn near the bottom of 
the water. 

DRAG'ON answers, in the English Bible, 
to the Hebrew word signifying a sea- 
monster, huge serpent, etc.; in Gen. 1:21, 
" whales." Thus in Deut. 32:33; Jer. 51:34; 
Psa. 91:13; and Rev. 12, it evidently im- 
plies a huge serpent; in Isa. 27:1; 51:9; 
Ezek. 29:3; 32:2, it may mean the croco- 
dile, or any large sea-monster. A distinct 
Hebrew word is used in Job* 30: 29; Isa. 
13:22; 34:13; 43 :2 °; Jer.9:n; 10:22; 14:6; 
49 : 33', 5i:37; Lam. 4:3; Mic. 1:8, and 
seems to refer to some wild animal of the 
desert, probably the wolf or the jackal. 
The animal known to modern naturalists 
under the name of dragon is a harmless spe- 
cies of lizard, in Asia and Africa. It may be 
that some of the monstrous reptiles whose 
remains are from time to time unearthed, 
were known by Adam and his early de- 
scendants. The application of the term to 
Satan is a metaphor easily understood. 

DRAG'ON-WELL, Neh. 2:13, probably 
the fountain of Gihon, on the west side of 
Jerusalem. See Gihon. 

DRAM, Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:70, a gold coin 
of Persia, worth about $5. 

DRAUGHT, a cesspool, privy, or recepta- 
cle for filth, 2 Kin. 10:27; Matt. 15:17. Also, 
all the fishes taken at one drawing of a net, 
Luke 5:9. 

DREAM. The Orientals greatly regard- 
ed dreams, and applied for their interpre- 



tation to those who claimed power to ex- 
plain them. We see the antiquity of this 
custom in Job 4 : 13-15 ; 7:14; 33: 15-17, and 
in the history of Pharaoh's butler and ba- 
ker, and Pharaoh himself, Gen. 40 ; 41. God 
expressly forbade his people to observe 
dreams, and to consult heathen explainers 
of them. He condemned to death all who 
falsely pretended to have prophetic dreams, 
even though what they foretold came to 
pass, if they had any tendency to promote 
idolatry, Deut. 13:1-3. But the Jews were 
not forbidden, when they thought they had 
a significant dream, to address the prophets 
of the Lord, or the high-priest in his ephod, 
to have it explained. The Lord frequently 
made known his will in dreams, and ena- 
bled persons to explain them; as in the 
cases of Abimelech, Jacob, and Laban, 
Gen. 20:3-7; 28:12-15; 31:24; of the Mid- 
ianite, Judg. 7 : 13 ; of Nebuchadnezzar, 
Dan. 2 and 4; of Joseph, the Magi, Pilate's 
wife, and Paul, Matt. 1:20; 2:12; 27:19; 
Acts 27:23. Supernatural dreams are dis- 
tinguished from visions, in that the former 
occurred during sleep, and the latter when 
the person was awake. God spoke to 
Abimelech in a dream, but to Abraham by 
vision. In both cases he left on the mind 
an assurance of the certainty of whatever 
he revealed. Both are now superseded by 
the Bible, our sure and sufficient guide 
through earth to heaven. 

DREGS. In Isa. 51 : 17, R. V., " bowl." 

DRESS'ES. See Garments. 

DRINK, Strong. See Wine. 

DRINK'-OFFERING, a small quantity of 
wine, part of which was to be poured on 
the sacrifice or meat-offering, and the resi- 
due given to the priests, Exod. 29:40 ; Lev. 
23:18; Num. 15:5, 7. It may have been 
appointed as an acknowledgment that all 
the blessings of the earth are from God, 
Gen. 35:14. In heathen drink-offerings, 
blood was sometimes mingled with wine in 
making some fearful vow, Psa. 16:4. 

DROM'EDARY. See Camel. The He- 
brew word used in 1 Kin. 4:28 ; Esth. 8: 10, 
14; Mic. 1:13, is thought to mean swift 
horses. 

DROP'PING, Continual. See House. 

DROUGHT was an evil to which Pales- 
tine was naturally subject, as no rain fell 
from May to September. During these 
months of summer, the ground became 
parched and cleft, the streams and springs 
became dry, and vegetation was kept from 
extinction by the dews of night and by 
artificial irrigation. If rain did not come 

139 



DRU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DUS 



in its season and abundantly, the distress 
was general and dreadful. A drought, 
therefore, is threatened as one of God's 
sorest judgments, Job 24:19; Jer. 50:38; 
Joel 1 : 10-20 ; Hag. 1 : 11 ; and there are 
many allusions to its horrors in Scripture, 
Deut. 28:23; Psa. 32:4; 102:4. 

DRUNK'ENNESS is referred to in the 
Bible both in single instances and as a 
habit. Its folly is often illustrated, Psa. 
107:27; Isa. 19:14; 24:20; 28:7, 8, its guilt 
denounced, Isa. 5:22, its ill results traced, 

1 Sam. 25:36; 1 Kin. 16:9; 20:16, and its 
doom shown, 1 Cor. 6:9, 10. It is produced 
by wine, Gen. 9:21 ; 19:33; Jer. 23:9; Eph. 
5:18, as well as by "strong drink," 1 Sam. 
1:13-15; Isa. 5:11. Hence the use of these 
was forbidden to the priests at the altar, 
Lev. 10:9; and all are cautioned to avoid 
them, Prov. 20:1 ; 23:30. To tempt others 
to drunkenness is a sin accursed of God, 

2 Sam. 11:13; Hab. 2:15, 16. Its preva- 
lence in a community is inseparable from 
the habitual use of any inebriating liquor. 
Hence the efforts made by the wise and 
good to secure abstinence from all intoxi- 
cating drinks, 1 Cor. 8:13. See Wine. 

DRUSIL'LA, the youngest daughter of 
Herod Agrippa I., and sister of the younger 
Agrippa and Bernice, celebrated for her 
beauty. She was first given in marriage 
by her brother to Azizus king of Emessa. 
When Felix came as governor of Judaea, 
he persuaded her to abandon her husband 
and her religion and become his wife. 
Paul bore testimony before them to the 
truth of the Christian religion, Acts 24:24. 
She and Felix had a son Agrippa, who after- 
wards perished in an eruption of Vesuvius. 

DUKE. In Gen. 36:15-43, is a long list 
of "dukes" of Edom, Exod. 15:15; Josh. 
13:21 ; but the word duke, from the Latin 
diix, merely signifies a leader, and not an 
order of nobility, 1 Chr. 1:51. 

DUL'CIMER, Dan. 3:5, 10, an instrument 
of music, which the rabbins describe as a 
sort of bagpipe, composed of 2 pipes con- 
nected with a leathern sack, and of a harsh, 
screaming sound. The modern dulcimer 
is an instrument of a triangular form, strung 
with about 50 wires, and struck with 2 light 
and slender hammers. See Music. 

DU'MAH, silence, I., a tribe and country 
of the Ishmaelites in Arabia, Gen. 25:14; 
1 Chr. 1 : 30 ; Isa. 21:11 ; doubtless the same 
which is still called by the Arabs " Duma 
of the great stones " and "the Syrian Du- 
ma," situated on the confines of the Ara- 
bian and Syrian desert, with a fortress. 
140 



II. A town of Judah, a little southwest of 
Hebron, Josh. 15:52. 

DUNG. In Bible lands the dung of ani- 
mals was and is used not only for manure, 
but, when dried, for fuel. In districts 
where wood is scarce, the inhabitants are 
very careful in collecting the dung of cam- 
els or asses; it is mixed with chopped 
straw, and dried. It is not unusual to see 
a whole village with portions of this mate- 
rial adhering to the walls of the cottages to 
dry ; and in autumn it is piled in conical 
heaps on the roof. It is employed in heat- 
ing ovens, and for other similar purposes, 
Ezek. 4:12-16. The use of dung for ma- 
nure is intimated in Isa. 25:10. Hence 
"dung-gate," Neh. 2:13. To sit upon a 
dunghill was a sign of deep humiliation 
and misery, 1 Sam. 2:8; Psa. 113:7; Lam. 
4:5. See also Exod. 29:14; Deut. 23:12; 
2 Kin. 10:27; Dan. 2:5. 

DU'RA, the plain at Babylon where Neb- 
uchadnezzar set up his golden image, Dan. 
3:1. M. Oppert finds it at a mound called 
Duair, southeast of Babylon, where also he 
discovered what he took for the pedestal 
of a colossal statue. 

DUST, Josh. 7:6. Dust or ashes put 
upon the head was a sign of mourning; 
sitting in the dust, a sign of affliction, Lam. 
3:29; Isa. 47:1. " Dust " is also put for the 
grave, Gen. 3:19; Job 7:21. It signifies a 
multitude, Gen. 13:16, and a low and mean 
condition, 1 Sam. 2:8. To lick or kiss the 
dust expresses abject submission, Psa. 72:9. 
We have 2 remarkable instances of casting 
dust recorded in Scripture, and they illus- 
trate a practice common in Asia: those who 
demanded justice against a criminal were 
accustomed to throw dust upon him, signi- 
fying that he deserved to be cast into the 
grave. Shimei cast dust upon David when 
he fled from Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 16:13. The 
Jews treated the apostle Paul in a similar 
manner in the same city, Acts 22:22-24. 
To shake off the dust of the feet against 
another was expressive of entire renuncia- 
tion, Matt. 10:14; Mark 6:11; Acts 13:51. 
The threatening of God recorded in Deut. 
28:24, "The Lord shall make the rain of 
thy land powder and dust: from heaven 
shall it come down upon thee, until thou 
be destroyed," means that instead of fertil- 
izing rains, clouds of fine dust, raised from 
the parched ground and driven by fierce 
and burning winds, shall fill the air. See 
Wind. The dust of Egypt was turned into 
gnats at Moses' word, Exod. 8:16. See 
Lice. 



EAG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EAR 



E. 
EA'GLE, Job 39:27-30, a large and very 
powerful bird of prey, hence called the 
king of birds. Four species of eagles have 
been observed in Palestine. The "golden 
eagle " measures 8 feet 4 inches from wing 
to wing ; and from the tip of his tail to the 




point of his beak, when dead, 4 feet 7 
inches. In many passages the Griffon Vul- 
ture is probably intended. 

Of all known birds, the eagle flies not 
only the highest, Prov. 23:5; Jer. 49:16; 
Obad. 4, but also with the greatest rapid- 
ity. To this circumstance there are stri- 
king allusions in 2 Sam. 1:23; Job 9:26; 
Lam. 4: 19. Among the evils threatened to 
the Israelites for disobedience were ene- 
mies coming " as swift as the eagle flieth," 
Deut. 28:49; Jer. 4:13; 48:40; 49:22; Hos. 
8:1. This bird was a national emblem on 
Persian, Assyrian, and Roman standards, 
as it now is on United States coins. 

The eagle lives to a great age, and, like 
other birds of prey, sheds his feathers in 
spring, and thus assumes the appearance of 
youth, Psa. 103:5; Isa. 40:31. The careful 
pains of the eagle in teaching its young to 
fly, beautifully illustrate God's providential 
care over Israel, Exod. 19:4; Deut. 32:11, 12. 

The eagle is remarkable for its keen 
sight and scent, Job 39:29. It builds its 
nest on lofty crags, Prov. 23:5; Jer. 49:16; 
and often prefers to rob other birds of their 
prey rather than hunt for itself, Job 9 : 26. 
The vulture feeds on dead bodies, and is 
the chief scavenger in the East, Job 39:30; 
Matt. 24: 28. Its flesh, like that of all birds 
of pre} r , was unclean to the Jews, and is 
never eaten unless in cases of necessity, 
Luke 17:37. 



EAR'ING, an old agricultural term for 
ploughing, Gen. 45:6; Exod. 34:21; Deut. 
21:4; 1 Sam. 8:12; Isa. 30:24. 

EAR' NEST, a part of a debt, paid in as- 
surance of the payment of the whole ; or 
part of the price paid down to confirm a 
bargain ; or part of a servant's wages, paid 
at the time of hiring, to ratify the engage- 
ment. It differs from a mere " pledge," 
since it is identical in kind with the thing 
promised, while a pledge may be some- 
thing altogether different. It describes the 
gifts of God to his people here, as the assu- 
rance and commencement of the far supe- 
rior blessings of the life to come, 2 Cor. 
1:22; 5:5; Eph. 1:13, 14. 

EAR'RINGS. See RINGS, AMULETS. 

EARTH. In both Hebrew and Greek 
the same word is used to denote the earth, 
as a whole, Gen. 1:1, and a particular land 
or spot, Gen. 21:32; 23:15; 2,3:3. The con- 
text decides in which of these senses it is 
to be taken in a given passage. Thus in 
Matt. 27: 45 Ave might render either "there 
was darkness over all the land," or over 
all the "earth," as in Luke 23:44, A. V. 
See Mark 15:33. The R. V. has " land " in 
all 3 passages. The expression " all the 
earth " is sometimes used hyperbolically 
for a large portion of it, Ezra 1:2. The 
word is used of the whole world, or its sur- 
face, in distinction from the heavens ; of 
the people who inhabit the world, etc. In 
Job 26:7 the idea seems to be implied that 
the earth is freely suspended in space. 
But in their common language the He- 
brews spoke of it as a vast convex surface 
of unknown extent, with pillars and foun- 
dations, Job 9:6; 38:4, 6; Psa. 75:3; 104:5; 
with an abyss under all, Gen. 49:25; Psa. 
24 : 2 ; 136 : 6 ; and an arched firmament 
above, in which the stars were placed, and 
through whose windows the rain came. 
See Deep and Heavens. 

One Hebrew word, adamah, denotes the 
mould, dust, or arable land of the world ; 
hence Adam's name, Gen. 2:7; Eccl. 12:7. 
It is used of Noah, Gen. 9:20, as becoming 
a " man of the soil." And of this material 
altars were to be composed, Exod. 20:24; 
2 Kin. 5:17. 

In a moral sense, earthly is opposed to 
what is heavenly, spiritual, and holy, John 
3:31; 1 Cor. 15:47; Col. 3:2; James 3:15. 
" The lower parts of the earth," means the 
unseen world of the dead, Psa. 63:9; Isa. 
44:23; Eph. 4:9. 

EARTH'QUAKE, Scripture speaks of 
several earthquakes, Num. 16 ; 1 Kin. 19: n, 

141 



EAS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EAT 



12. One occurred in the 27th year of Uz- 
ziah, and is mentioned in Amos 1:1; Zech. 
14:5; and Josephus connects it with the 
crimes of Uzziah, 2 Chr. 26:16-20, and al- 
ludes to a shaking down of a part of the 
Mount of Olives at the time. Compare Jer. 
51 :25. A very memorable earthquake was 
that at our Saviour's death, Matt. 27:51, 
which some suppose extended throughout 
the world. Palestine has been often vis- 
ited by earthquakes. So late as 1837 one 
occurred in the vicinity of the Sea of Gal- 
ilee, by which about a third part of Tibe- 
rias was destroyed, and thousands of peo- 
ple perished. The subsidence of the south 
end of the Dead Sea shore was probably 
connected with an earthquake. Earth- 
quakes were among the calamities foretold 
as connected with the destruction of Jeru- 
salem, Matt. 24:7; and history proves the 
truth of the prediction. 

The word earthquake is also used figu- 
ratively to denote God's power and wrath, 
as in Psa. 18:7; 46:2; 104:32, etc., and as 
an emblem of a great civil or national ca- 
tastrophe, Matt. 24:7, 29; Rev. 16:18, 19. 

EAST. The Hebrews, in speaking of the 
different quarters of the heaven, always 
suppose the face to be turned towards the 
east. Hence "before," or "forwards," 
means the east; "behind" is the west, 
the right-hand is south, and the left-hand, 
north. Besides the ordinary meanings of 
the word east, Josh. 4:19; Psa. 103:12, the 
Jews often used it to designate a large re- 
gion lying northeast and southeast as well 
as east of Palestine, including Syria and 
Arabia near at hand, and Babylonia, As- 
syria, etc., with the whole region from the 
Caspian Sea to the Arabian Gulf, Gen. 
10:30; 29:1; Num. 23:7; Judg. 6:3; 7:12; 
8:10. Job was great among the children 
•of the East, Job 1:3. In Jer. 49:28, 29; 
Ezek. 25 : 4, the Bedouin-like tribes of North- 
ern Arabia are meant. The wise men who 
visited the infant Saviour dwelt beyond 
the Euphrates, and being " in the east," 
saw his star — not saw his star east of them. 
It guided them westerly to Jerusalem, Matt. 
2:1, 2. See 1 Kin. 4:30. 

EAST'ER is improperly put for Passover 
in Acts 12:4, for Herod and the Jews did 
not celebrate the resurrection of Christ. 
Easter, a word of uncertain derivation, is 
the modern name of a Christian festival, in 
-commemoration of Christ's resurrection 
and the events of Passover-week, and fixed 
at the same period of the year. 

EAST WIND. See Wind. 
142 



EAT'ING. The Jews would have consid- 
ered themselves polluted by eating with 
people of another religion, or with any who 
were ceremonially unclean or disreputa- 
ble — as with Samaritans, John 4:9, publi- 
cans, Matt. 9:11, or Gentiles, Acts 10:28; 
Gal. 2:12. "Eating and drinking," Matt. 
11:19, means freely mingling with society. 
Eating together was an established token 
of mutual confidence, a pledge of friendly 
relations between families, which their chil- 
dren were expected to perpetuate. The 
rites of hospitality were held sacred ; and 
to this day, among the Arabs, a fugitive is 
safe for the time if he gains the shelter of 
even an enemy's tent. The abuse of hos- 
pitality was a great crime, Psa. 41 : 9. 

To " eat " a book, is to make its precepts, 
promises, and spirit one's own, Jer. 15:16; 
Ezek. 3:1; John 4:14; Rev. 10:9. So to 
eat Christ's flesh and drink his blood, is to 
receive him as a Saviour, and by a living 
faith to be imbued with his truth, his Spir- 
it, and his heavenly life, John 6:32-58. 

Eating, Mode of. The Hebrews an- 
ciently sat at their meals, Gen. 43 : 33 ; 
1 Sam. 9:22; 20:25; Psa. 128:3; but after- 
wards adopted the practice of reclining on 
table-beds or divans, like the Persians, 
Chaldaeans, Romans, etc., Amos 6:4. The 
accompanying engraving of a Roman tri- 
clinium, three beds, will illustrate several 
points obscure to the modern reader of the 
Bible. It will be seen that 3 low tables are 
so placed as to form 3 sides of a hollow 
square accessible to the waiters. Around 
these tables are placed, not seats, but 
couches, or beds, one to each table, formed 
of mattresses stuffed, and often highly or- 
namented, Esth. 1:6; 7:1, 8. The guests 
reclined with their heads to the table, each 
one leaning on his left elbow, and therefore 
using principally his right hand in taking 
food. Observe also that the feet of the per- 
son reclining were readily reached by any 
one passing, Luke 7:36-5°; J ohn I2: 3- 

Thus it was easy for our Lord to wash 
the feet of his disciples at the last supper, 
John 13:5-12, and "wipe them with the 
towel wherewith he was girded." This 
also explains the position of John at the 
same supper; for if he reclined next in 
front of the Saviour, he lay as it were in 
his bosom, John 13:23, 25, and might read- 
ily lean back his head upon the Saviour's 
breast, a posture expressive of intimacy, 
friendship, and love, Luke 16:22; John 
1:18. 

It is unknown, however, how far or how 



EAT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EAT 




long this custom displaced the primitive 
Eastern mode still prevalent in Palestine 
and vicinity. The ordinary table was no 
more than a circular skin or carpet spread 
upon the floor, around which the family sat 
on the floor, or on rugs or cushions. Some- 
times there was a small table in the cen- 
tre, raising the principal dish a little above 
the floor. 

The meals of the Jews were generally 2, 
loosely distinguished as dinner and sup- 
per, Luke 14: 12 ; John 21 : 12. The 1st meal 
was usually light, consisting of milk, cheese, 
bread, or fruits, and eaten at various hours 
from early morning to the middle of the 
forenoon. In the early history of the He- 
brews, the principal meal, corresponding 
with our dinner, was eaten about noon, 
Gen. 43:25; 1 Kin. 20:16. At a later pe- 
riod, at least on festive occasions, it was 
taken after the heat of the day was over. 
This was the "supper." The Jews were 
wont to wash their hands before eating, a 
custom rendered necessary by their mode 
of eating, but made by the Pharisees a test 
of piety, Mark 7:2, 3; Luke 11:38. Devout 
Jews, not only in their sacred feasts, but in 
their daily enjoyments at the family meal, 
recognized the Giver of all good, and im- 
plored his blessing on their food, 1 Sam. 
9:13; Matt. 14:19; 15:36; 26:26; Luke 9:16; 
John 6:11; 1 Tim. 4:3. Some families re- 
peated the 23d Psalm as they seated them- 
selves at meals. The food consisted of 
flesh, fish, or fowls, butter, honey, bread, 



and fruits. See Food. Animal food was 
often cut into small pieces, or stewed, and 
served up in one large dish with melted 
butter, vegetables, etc. Knives, forks, and 
spoons were unknown as table-furniture; 
and the food was conveyed to the mouth 
by the right hand, Prov. 19:24. Each per- 
son took a portion from the dish either 
with his thumb and fingers, or with the 
help of a small piece of thin bread. Sev- 




MODERN SYRIANS AT DINNER. 

eral hands were occasionally plunged into 
the same dish at once, John 13:26. The 
head of the family was wont to send a dou- 
ble portion of food to a stranger, as an 
honor, and to furnish him a greater vari- 
ety, Gen. 43:31; 1 Sam. 1:4; 9:22-24; and 

143 



EBA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EBE 



often would select the choicest morsels and 
present them to his guest with his own fin- 
gers. Compare Ruth 2:14, and John 13:26. 
This is still customary in the East. After 
eating, the hands were again cleansed by 
pouring water upon them, 2 Kin. 3:11. See 
Feast, Washing. 

E'BAL, bare mount, Deut. 27 ; 28 ; a moun- 
tain in Ephraim, over against Mount Geri- 
zim, from which it is separated by a valley 
about 500 yards wide and 3 miles long, in 



which stands the town of Shechem. Both 
mountains are much alike in length, height, 
and form, and some 800 feet from the level 
of the valley. As you journey north from 
Jerusalem, and turn to pass into the valley 
west-northwest to Shechem, Ebal is on the 
right hand and Gerizim on the left. Some 
have described the mount of cursing as 
sterile and desolate, and Gerizim as smi- 
ling and fertile, Deut. 11:26-29. But at 
present they are alike steep and barren. 




EBAL ON THE RIGHT ; GERIZIM ON THE LEFT ; SHECHEM, AND THE MEDITERRANEAN. 



Mount Gerizim, however, is said to have a 
more fertile background, and to be a little 
lower than Mount Ebal — Ebal being 3,077 
feet, Gerizim 2,849, an d Nablus about 2,200 
feet above the sea. They are both ter- 
raced, and the base of Ebal is full of sepul- 
chral excavations. See Gerizim, She- 
chem. 

EBED'-MELECH, king's slave, an Ethio- 
pian servant of king Zedekiah, who saved 
the prophet Jeremiah from famishing in a 
filthy dungeon, and was therefore pre- 
served when Jerusalem was taken by Neb- 
uzar-adan, Jer. 38:7-13; 39:15-18. The 
Lord knoweth them that are his, and suc- 
cors those who succor his saints, Matt. 
10:41. 

EBEN-E'ZER, stone of help, the monu- 
144 



ment which Samuel erected in grateful re- 
membrance of the divine help, given in 
answer to prayer, in a great battle with 
the Philistines. The same place had be- 
fore witnessed the defeat of Israel and the 
capture of the ark, 1 Sam. 4:1 ; 5:1 ; 7:5- 
12; though it may not have been named 
Eben-ezer then, its original name having 
been displaced by the new one, at the time 
when the book was written. It was be- 
tween Mizpeh and Shen. 

E'BER, beyond, I., called HEBERin Luke 
3:35, A. V. ; son of Salah and father of Pe- 
leg in the patriarchal line, B. C. 2281-1817. 
The chief special interest in him is that the 
Hebrews claim to derive their name from 
him, Gen. 10:21, 24, 25; Num. 24:24; 1 Chr. 
1:19. See Hebrews. 



EBO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EGL 



II. i Chr. 5:13, in A. V. Heber, a chief 
;among the children of Gad, in Bashan. 

III. 1 Chr. 8:12, a Benjamite. 

IV. 1 Chr. 8:22, in A. V. Heber, a chief 
in Benjamin. B. C. about 600. 

EB'ONY, the wood of various trees grow- 
ing in India and Africa. The best ebony 
is the heart of the trunk in the Diospyros 
Ebenum, a large tree of Ceylon and South- 
ern India; it is black, hard, heavy, and fine- 
grained, and receives a beautiful polish. It 
was anciently highly prized, Ezek. 27:15, 
and is still much used for musical instru- 
ments and fancy articles. 

EBRO'NAH, Num. 33:34, 35, a resting- 
place of the Israelites near Ezion-geber, 
•on the Gulf of Akaba. 

ECCLESIAS'TES, the preacher, the name 
of a book of the Old Testament, ascribed 
to Solomon — his personal legacy to his 
-son Rehoboam, though many critics think 
it was the work of some later inspired 
writer, availing himself of Solomon's une- 
qualled experience, and speaking as in his 
person, Eccl. 1:1. Compare 1 Kin. 3:12 
and Eccl. 1:16; 1 Kin. 10:21, 27, and Eccl. 
2:4-9; 1 Kin. 11:3, 4, and Eccl. 7:26, 28. 
It appears to have been written by Solo- 
mon in his old age, when freed from the 
entanglements of idolatry, luxury, and lust, 
B. C. 977. It is a discourse upon the true 
wisdom, with many isolated precepts, illus- 
trated from his own unexampled experi- 
ence and from the most sagacious obser- 
vation of the course of life ; the whole 
demonstrating the vanity of all earthly 
good, and showing that there is a better 
life to come; that men should cheerfully 
enjoy the gifts of Providence, with deeds 
of love and charity, and without feverish 
longings ; and that the only true wisdom 
is to " fear God and keep his command- 
ments." This, he says, is the conclusion 
of the whole matter, Eccl. 12:13. In read- 
ing this book, care should be taken not to 
deduce opinions from detached sentiments, 
but from the general scope and combined 
force of the whole. 

ED, a witness, Josh. 22:34. 

E'DEN, delight, I., a province in Asia, in 
which was Paradise, Gen. 2:8. Its topog- 
raphy is thus described: "And a river 
went out of Eden to water the garden, and 
from thence it was parted, and became into 
four heads. The name of the first is Pison," 
etc. 

Such a region exists in the high lands of 
Armenia, west of Mount Ararat and 5,000 
feet above the sea. Here, within a circle 
10 



but a few miles in diameter, 4 large rivers 
rise: the Euphrates, and Tigris, or Hidde- 
kel, flowing south into the Persian Gulf; 
the Araxes, flowing northeast into the Cas- 
pian Sea; and the Phasis, or the Halys, 
flowing northwest into the Black Sea. 
This 4th river may have been the Pison 
of Eden ; and the Araxes may well be the 
Gihon, since both words mean the same, 
and describe its dart-like swiftness. This 
elevated country, still beautiful and fertile, 
may have been the land of Eden ; and in 
its choicest portion, towards the east, the 
garden may once have smiled. 

Another location of Eden is now pre- 
ferred by many interpreters — near the spot 
where the Euphrates and Tigris form a 
junction after their long wanderings, 120 
miles north of the Persian Gulf, and where 
the river Ulai flows in from the northeast. 
Wherever it was, it is there no more since 
the fall and the curse. The first chapters 
of the Bible show Paradise withdrawn from 
man's view, and no pilgrimage can dis- 
cover it upon earth. The last chapters of 
the Bible restore to our view a more glori- 
ous and enduring Paradise, secured to be- 
lievers by the Second Adam. " Blessed are 
they that do his commandments, that they 
may have right to the tree of life." 

II. A region, probably northwest of Mes- 
opotamia, alluded to as a mart of Tyre, 
and as ravaged by the Assyrians, 2 Kin. 
19:12; Isa. 37:12; Ezek. 27:23; Amos 1:5. 

III. Two Levites in Hezekiah's day, 
2 Chr. 29:12; 31:15. 

E'DOM, red, a name of Esau, Isaac's 
eldest son, appropriate on account of his 
complexion, but given, it would seem, from 
the current name of the food for which he 
sold his birthright—" that same red," Gen. 
25:25, 30. See Esau and Idum^ea. 

ED'REI, strong, I., one of the 2 capitals 
of Bashan, near which Og and his forces 
were destroyed, Num. 21 :33-35 ; Deut. 1 -.4.; 
3 :1 ~3', Josh. 12:4. It afterwards fell with- 
in the limits of Manasseh, Josh. 13:31. Its 
ruins, in almost inaccessible rocky fast- 
nesses, cover a large space ; it was a place 
of some note in the early ages of Christian- 
ity and in the era of the Crusades. It is 
now Edr'a, and lies about 35 miles east of 
the outlet of the Sea of Galilee. 

II. In Naphtali, near Kedesh, Josh. 19:37. 

EG'LAH, a heifer, one of David's wives 
at Hebron, and mother of Ithream, 2 Sam. 
3:5; 1 Chr. 3 : 3 . 

EG'LAIM, two ponds, Isa. 15:8. See En- 
eglaim. 

145 



EGL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EGY 



EG'LON, calf-like, I., a king of Moab, 
who, with the help of Ammon and Ama- 
lek, subdued the southern and eastern 
tribes of Israel. He made Jericho his seat 
of government, and held his power 18 
years, but was then slain by Ehud, and his 
people west of the Jordan destroyed, Judg. 
3:12-33. 

II. A town in the Shephelah or low coun- 
try of Judah, one of the 5 in league against 
Gibeon, Josh. 10:3-5; 15:39. It is now 
called Ajlan, 10 miles from Eleutheropolis 
and 14 from Gaza. 

E'GYPT, a celebrated country in the 
north of Africa, at the eastern part of the 
Mediterranean Sea. The Hebrews called 
it Mizraim, Gen. 10:6, and it is now called 
by the Arabs Misr. It is also called in 
Scripture "the land of Ham," Psa. 105:23, 
27; and " Rahab," Psa. 87:4. The Greeks 
and Romans named it iEgyptus ; but the 
origin of this name is unknown. 

The habitable land of Egypt is for the 
most part a great valley, through which 
the river Nile pours its waters, extending 



in a straight line some 450 miles from north 
to south, and skirted on the east and west 
by ranges of mountains, which approach 
and recede from the river more or less in 
different parts. Where this valley termi- 
nates, towards the north, the Nile divides 
itself, about 70 miles from the sea-coast, 
into several arms, which inclose the so- 
called Delta, in the form of the Greek letter 
A, delta. The ancients numbered 7 arms 
and mouths ; the eastern was that of Pelu- 
sium, now Tineh ; and the western that of 
Canopus, now Aboukir. The prophet Eze- 
kiel describes Egypt as extending from. 
Migdol, that is, Magdolum, not far from the 
mouth of the Pelusian arm, to Syene, now 
Essuan, namely, to the border of Ethiopia, 
Ezek. 29:10; 30:6, margin. Here the Nile 
issues from the granite rocks of the cata- 
racts, and enters Egypt proper. The length 
of the country, therefore, in a direct line is 
about 500 miles, and its area about 11,000 
square miles. The breadth of the valley,, 
between Essuan and the Delta, is very un- 
equal, varying from 2 to 12 miles, averaging 




ANCIENT STATUES OF MEMNON, IN THE PLAIN OF THEBES. 



perhaps 7 ; in some places the inundations 
of the river extend to the foot of the moun- 
tains ; in other parts there remains a strip 
of a mile or two in breadth which the wa- 
ter never covers, and which is therefore 
146 



always dry and barren. There are now 
about 5,600 square miles fit for cultivation, 
to which 1,500 might be added by suitable 
effort. Originally the name Egypt desig- 
nated only the valley and the Delta; but 



EGY 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EGY 




TEMPLE OF ABOO-SI.MBEL, NUBIA, HALF BURIED IN SAND; STATUES SIXTY FEET HIGH. 



at a later period it came to include also the 
region between this and the Red Sea on 
the east, and part of the desert on the 
west. 

The country around Syene and the cata- 
racts is highly picturesque ; the other parts 
of Egypt, and especially the Delta, are 
uniform and monotonous. The prospect, 
however, is extremely different according 
to the season of the year. From the mid- 
dle of spring, when the harvest is over, 
one sees nothing but a gray and dusty soil, 
full of cracks and chasms. At the time of 
the autumnal equinox, the country pre- 
sents nothing but an immeasurable surface 
of reddish or yellowish water, out of which 
rise date-trees, villages, and narrow dams, 
which serve as a means of communication. 
After the waters have retreated, and they 
usually remain only a short time at this 
height, you see, till the end of autumn, 
only a black and slimy mud. But in win- 
ter, nature puts on all her splendor. In 
this season, the freshness and power of the 
new vegetation, the variety and abundance 
of vegetable productions, exceed every- 
thing that is known in the most celebra- 
ted parts of the European continent ; and 
Egypt is then, from one end of the country 
to the other, like a beautiful garden, a ver- 
dant meadow, a field sown with flowers, or 
a waving ocean of grain in the ear, all de- 
pending upon the annual inundations of 



the Nile. Hence Egypt was called by He- 
rodotus "the gift of the Nile." See Nile. 

The sky is not less uniform and monoto- 
nous than the earth ; it is constantly a pure 
unclouded arch, of a color and light more 
white than azure. The atmosphere has a 
splendor which the eye can scarcely bear, 
and a burning sun, whose glow is tem- 
pered by no shade, scorches through the 
whole 4ay these vast and unprotected 
plains. The only tree is the date-tree, 
which is frequent; but with its tall, slen- 
der stem, and bunch of foliage on the top, 
this tree does very little to keep off the 
light, and casts upon the earth only a pale 
and uncertain shade. Egypt, accordingly, 
has a very hot climate ; the thermometer 
in summer standing usually at 8o° or 90° 
of Fahrenheit ; and in Upper Egypt still 
higher. The burning wind of the desert, 
Simoom or Khamsin, is also experienced, 
usually about the time of the vernal equi- 
nox. 

The provinces and cities of Egypt men- 
tioned in the Bible may be arranged under 
these 3 great divisions : 

I. Lower Egypt. The northeastern 
point of this was "the river of Egypt" 
(see below), on the border of Palestine. 
The desert between this point, the Red 
Sea, and the ancient Pelusium, seems to 
have been the desert of Shur, Gen. 20:1, 
now El-Djefer. Sin, " the strength [key] 

147 



EGY 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EGY 



of Egypt," Ezek. 30:15, was probably Pe- 
lusium. The land of Goshen appears to 
have lain between Pelusium, its branch of 
the Nile, and the Red Sea, having been 
skirted on the northeast by the desert of 
Shur; constituting perhaps a part of the 
province Rameses, Gen. 47:11. In this 
district, or adjacent to it, are mentioned 
also the cities Pithom, Raamses, Pi-Beseth, 
and On or Heliopolis. In the proper Del- 
ta itself lay Tahapanes, that is, Taphne or 
Daphne; Zoan, the Tanis of the Greeks; 
Leontopolis, alluded to perhaps in Isa. 
19: 18. West of the Delta was Alexandria. 

2. Middle Egypt. Here are mentioned 
Moph or Memphis, and Hanes, the Hera- 
cleopolis of the Greeks. 

3. Upper Egypt. The southern part of 



Egypt the Hebrews appear to have called 
Pathros, Jer. 44: 1, 15. The Bible mentions 
here only 2 cities, namely, No, or more 
fully No-Amon, for which the 70 put Di- 
ospolis, the Greek name for Thebes, the 
most ancient capital of Egypt (see Amon) ; 
and Syene, the southern city and limit of 
Egypt. 

The chief agricultural productions of 
Egypt are wheat, durrah, or small maize, 
Turkish or Indian corn, rice, barley, beans, 
cucumbers, water-melons, leeks, and on- 
ions; also sugar, flax, and cotton. The 
date-tree and vine are frequent. The pa- 
pyrus is still found in small quantity. See 
Book, Bulrush. The animals of Egypt, 
besides the usual kinds of tame cattle, are 
the wild ox or buffalo in great numbers, 




EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURE. 



the ass and camel, dogs in multitudes with- 
out masters, the ichneumon, the crocodile, 
and the hippopotamus — the last 2 only in 
the Upper Nile. Vultures and kites abound, 
also fishes and frogs; and in the desert, 
venomous serpents. Swarms of locusts are 
not rare. 

The modern inhabitants of Egypt may 
be considered as including 3 divisions : 
1. The Copts, or descendants of the ancient 
Egyptians. 2. The Fellahs, or husband- 
men, who are supposed to represent the 
people in Scripture called Phul. 3. The 
Arabs, or conquerors of the country, inclu- 
ding the Turks, etc. The Copts are nomi- 
nal Christians, and the clerks and account- 
ants of the country. They have seen so 
many revolutions in the governing powers 
that they concern themselves very little 
about the successes Of misfortunes of those 
who aspire to dominion. The Fellahs suffer 
so much oppression, and are so despised 
by the Bedouins or wandering Arabs, and 
by their despotic rulers, that they seldom 
acquire property, and very rarely enjoy it 
in security ; yet they are an interesting 
race, and devotedly attached to their na- 
tive country and the Nile. The Arabs hate 
the Turks ; yet the Turks enjoy most offi- 
ces of government, though they hold their 
superiority by no very certain tenure. Of 
late years there has been added a growing 
element of European and American resi- 
dents, occupied as missionaries and teach- 
ers, in mercantile life and government ser- 
148 



vice. The opening of the Suez canal to the 
commerce of the world, and the innova- 
tions brought by railroads and steamboats, 
are fast Europeanizing the land of the Pha- 
raohs ; and by the defeat of Arabi Pasha in 
1881, it has been brought into the condition 
of a virtual dependency of England. 

The most extraordinary monuments of 
ancient Egyptian power and industry were 
the pyramids, which still subsist, to excite 
the wonder and admiration of the world. 
No work of man now extant is so ancient 
or so vast as these mysterious structures. 
The largest of them covers a square area 
of 13 acres, and is still 474 feet high. It is 
generally believed that they were erected 
more than 2,000 years before Christ, as the 
sepulchres of kings. 

But besides these imperishable monu- 
ments of kings long forgotten, Egypt 
abounds in other structures hardly less 
wonderful ; on the beautiful islands above 
the cataracts, near Syene, and at other 
places in Upper Egypt; and especially in 
the valley of the Nile near Thebes, inclu- 
ding Carnac, Luxor, etc. The temples, 
statues, obelisks, and sphinxes that cover 
the ground astonish the beholder with their 
colossal height, their massive grandeur, 
and their vast extent ; while the dwellings 
of the dead, tombs in the rock occupied by 
myriads of mummies, extend far into the 
adjacent mountains. In 1881 a fresh dis- 
covery was made at Deir-el-Bahari, near 
Thebes, of a subterranean cavern into 



EGY 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EGY 



which had been gathered some 40 royal 
mummies and mummv-cases whose names 




AVENUE IN THE GREAT HALL OF COLUMNS AT 
CARNAC, THEBES. 

have been identified — among them kings 
and queens of the 17th, 18th, 19th, and 21st 
dynasties, including Thothmes III. and 
Rameses II., the most famous of Egyptian 
monarchs. Of these, 29 mummies, with 
sarcophagi and numerous relics, are in the 
museum at Boulak. 

The huge columns of the temples of 
Upper Egypt, their vast walls, and many of 
the tombs, are covered with sculptures and 
paintings which are exceedingly valuable 
as illustrating the public and the domestic 
life of the ancient Egyptians. See Shi- 
SHAK. With these are mingled many hie- 



roglyphic records, which have begun to 
yield their long-concealed meaning to the 
inquisitions of modern science. Some of 
these are mere symbols, comparatively 
easy to understand. But a large portion 
of them are now found to be written with 
a sort of pictorial alphabet — each symbol 
representing the sound with which its own 
name commences. Thus osir, the name 
of the Egyptian god Osiris, would be rep- 
resented by the picture of a reed, a child, 
and a mouth; because the initial sounds 
of the Coptic words for these 3 objects, 
namely Oke, Si, and Ro, make up the name 
osir. There is, however, great ambiguity 
in the interpretation of these records ; and 
in many cases the words, when apparently 
made out, are as yet unintelligible, and 
seem to be part of a priestly dialect under- 
stood only by the learned. These more 
ancient forms of writing gave way many 
years ago to the later alphabetic Coptic, in 
which many Christian authors wrote, and 
which is now obsolete. To-day the preva- 
lent language is the Arabic. 

The early history of ancient Egypt is 
involved in great obscurity. All accounts, 
however, and the results of all modern 
researches, represent its culture and civil- 
ization as having been of high antiquity. 
The country in the earliest times was pos- 
sessed by several contemporary kings or 
states, which at length were united into 
one great kingdom. The historian Mane- 
tho, an Egyptian priest 280 B. C, as quoted 
variously by Africanus and Eusebius, gives 
a list of 30 Egyptian dynasties ; and these, 
if successive, would carry back the 1st, 
that of Menes, to a very high antiquity. 
But the monumental inscriptions, as they 
are gradually deciphered, and Manetho 
himself in one place, seem to show that 
these dynasties, especially the early ones, 




EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS. 



were sometimes contemporaneous, not suc- 
cessive. For the later dynasties see Pha- 
raoh. 

The religion of ancient Egypt consisted 
in the worship of the heavenly bodies and 
the powers of nature ; the priests cultiva- 



ted at the same time astronomy and astrol- 
ogy, and to these belong probably the wise 
men, sorcerers, and magicians mentioned 
in Exod. 7:11, 22. They were the most 
honored and powerful of the castes into 
which the people were divided. It was 

149 



EGY 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EGY 




SCULPTURED TABLET, ON A 

probably this wisdom in which Moses also 
was learned, Acts 7:22. But the Egyptian 
religion adopted living animals as symbols 
of the real objects of worship. Many spe- 
cies of animals were sacred, and might 
not be killed without the punishment of 
death, and individual animals were kept 



TEMPLE IN UPPER EGYPT. 




SACRED BULL. 

in temples and worshipped with sacrifices 
as gods. See Exod. 12:12. Numerous pas- 
sages from the sacred " Books of the Dead," 
written on mummy wrappings and recently 
interpreted, prove that at least the better 
class of Egyptians preserved many truths 
revealed by God to mankind in the early 
150 



ages: they believed in one supreme God of 
infinite attributes, in the immortality of the 
soul, in future rewards and punishments ; 
and their conception of God as the final 
judge and the protector of faithful souls, 
under the name of Osiris, was like that of 
Job in ch. 19:25-27. 

This ancient and remarkable land is 
often mentioned in Scripture. A grand- 
son of Noah seems to have given it his 
name, Gen. 10:6. In the day of Abraham 
it was the granary of the world, and the 
patriarch himself resorted thither in a fam- 
ine, Gen. 12:10. His wife had an Egyp- 
tian handmaid, Hagar the mother of Ish- 
mael, who also sought a wife in Egypt, Gen. 
21:9, 21. Another famine, in the days of 
Isaac, nearly drove him to Egypt, Gen. 
26 : 2 ; and Jacob and all his household end- 
ed their days there, Gen. 39-50. After the 
escape of Israel from their weary bondage 
in Egypt, we read of little intercourse be- 
tween the 2 nations for many years. In 
the time of David and Solomon, mention is 
again made of Egypt. Solomon married 
an Egyptian princess, 1 Kin. 3:1; 9; II. 
But in the 5th year of his son Rehoboam, 
Judah was humbled at the feet of Shishak, 
king of Egypt, 2 Chr. 12; and for many 
generations afterwards the Jews were al- 



EGY 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ELA 



ternately in alliance and at war with that 
nation, until both were subjugated to the 
Assyrian empire, 2 Kin. 17; 18:21; 23:29; 
24; Jer. 25; 37:5; 44; 46. 

Egypt was conquered by Cambyses, and 
"became a province of the Persian empire 
about 525 B. C. Thus it continued until 
conquered by Alexander, 332 B. C, after 
whose death it formed, along with Syria, 
Palestine, Libya, etc., the kingdom of the 
Ptolemies. After the battle of Actium, 30 
B. C, it became a Roman province. In the 
time of Christ, great numbers of Jews were 
residents of Alexandria, Leontopolis, and 
other parts of Egypt ; and our Saviour him- 
self found an asylum there in his infancy, 
Matt. 2:13. Since that time it has ceased 
to be an independent state, and its history 
is incorporated with that of its different 
conquerors and possessors. In A. D. 640, 
it was conquered by the Arabs ; and in 
later periods has passed from the hands 
of the caliphs under the power of Turks, 
Arabs, Kurds, Mamelukes ; and since 1517 
has been governed as a province of the 
Turkish empire. Thus have been fulfilled 
the ancient predictions recorded in God's 
Word, Ezek. 29:14, 15; 30:7, 12, 13; 32:15. 
Its present population is over 5,000,000. 

" The river of Egypt," Num. 34:5; Josh. 
15:4, 47; 1 Kin. 8:65; 2 Kin. 24:7; Isa. 
27:12; Ezek. 47:19; 48:28, is generally 
thought to designate the short-lived brook 
El-Arish, emptying into the southeast cor- 
ner of the Mediterranean at Rhinocolura. 
In Gen. 15:18, a different word is used, 
signifying a permanent river — the Nile. 

EGYP'TIAN. In Acts 21:38, the leader 
of a popular tumult in the time of Felix. 
Josephus mentions him as an Egyptian and 
a juggler, at the head of a troop of assas- 
sins, with whom a mixed host of thousands 
were loosely joined; part of these were 
apparently slain or captured on the Mount 
of Olives, and the rest fled to the wilder- 
ness. 

E'HUD, union, a Benjamite, who deliv- 
ered Israel from the Moabites, by first slay- 
ing Eglon their king at Jericho, and then 
raising an army and defeating his people, 
1336 B. C. Jericho was in the territory of 
his tribe. He judged Israel with honor for 
many years, Judg. 3:12-31 ; 4:1. 

EK'RON, uprooted, the most northern 
city of the Philistines, allotted to Judah by 
Joshua, 15:45, but afterwards given to Dan, 
19:43, though it does not appear that the 
Jews ever peaceably possessed it. It is 
memorable for its connection with the cap- 



tivity of the ark and its restoration to the 
Jews, 1 Sam. 5:10; 6:1-18. The fly-god 
was worshipped here, 2 Kin. 1:2. Its ruin 
was foretold, Amos 1:8; Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 
9:5, 7. Robinson found its site at the Mos- 
lem village 'Akir, some 12 miles northeast 
of Ashdod. There are no ruins. 

EL, strength, one of the names of God, 
especially in poetry. In Gen. 33: 18-20, El- 
Elohe-Israel means, " The Mighty One, the 
God of Israel." This name of God is very 
often found in proper names, as Bethel, 
Daniel, Elijah, etc. Eloi, like Eli, means 
My God, Matt. 27:46; Mark 15:34. 

E'LAH, oak or terebinth, I., a valley in 
which David slew Goliath, 1 Sam. 17:2, 3, 
19; 21:9. It was probably about 16 miles 
southwest from Jerusalem, near Socoh and 
Gibeah ; now Wady Sumt. 

II. Son and successor of Baasha, king of 
Israel, B. C. 926. After reigning less than 
2 years, he was slain while intoxicated, by 
Zimri, one of his officers, who succeeded 
him as king. Zimri destroyed all the fam- 
ily of Baasha, according to the prediction 
of Jehu, 1 Kin. 16:6-10. Others of this 
name are mentioned in 1 Kin. 4:18; 2 Kin. 
15:30; 1 Chr. 1:52; 4:15; 9:8. 

E'LAM, age, the region afterwards called 
Persia, Gen. 14:1 ; Isa. 21:2. It was called 
Elam after a son of Shem, Gen. 10:22; 
i Chr. 1 : 17. It corresponded to the Ely- 
mais of Greek and Roman writers, which 
comprehended a part of Susiana, now 
Khusistan, or more probably included the 
whole of Susiana. The city Susa, or Shu- 
shan, was in it, Dan. 8:2 ; and thence it ex- 
tended southeast between Persia and the 
Persian Gulf. In Abraham's day it was 
the seat of a powerful monarchy. It long 
retained its own princes, but was reduced 
to a mere province of Babylonia, and after- 
wards of Persia. 

For other Elams and Sons of Elam, see 
1 Chr. 8:24; 26:3; Ezra 2:7, 31 ; 8:7; 10:2, 
26; Neh. 7:12, 34; 10:14. See also Ezra 
4:9; Acts 2:9. 

E'LATH, or E'LOTH, a grove, a city of 
Idumaea, situated at the northern extrem- 
ity of the eastern gulf of the Red Sea, the 
Elanitic Gulf, now the Gulf of Akaba. 
Ezion-geber was also situated here, and 
very near Elath, Deut. 2:8; 1 Kin. 9:26. 
This gulf, although known to the ancients, 
has been almost unknown to modern geog- 
raphers until the time of Burckhardt. This 
enterprising traveller explored it, and gave 
the first full account of it. The great sand 
valley called El-Arabah, and towards the 

151 



ELD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ELE 



north El-Ghor, runs from this gulf to the 
Dead Sea. Elath was annexed to Judah 
by David, who established there an exten- 
sive commerce, 2 Sam. 8: 14. Solomon also 




AKABA: ENTRANCE TO THE FORT. 

built ships there, 2 Chr. 8:17, 18. In the 
reign of Joram the Edomites recovered it, 
but lost it again to Uzziah, 2 Kin. 8:20; 
14:22; and he to Rezin, 16:6. Under the 
rule of the Romans it was a nourishing 
commercial town, named Elana, with the 
ordinances of Christianity. In 630 A. D. it 
fell under the power of Mohammed, and is 
now in ruins. The fortress of Akaba, near 
by, now often visited by travellers from 
Mount Sinai to Palestine, serves for the 
protection of pilgrims to Mecca. 

EL'DAD, loved of God, and ME'DAD, 
love, 2 of the 70 elders appointed to aid 
Moses in governing the people. The Spirit 
of God coming upon them, they prophe- 
sied in the camp at a distance from Moses. 
Joshua censured them for this as an irregu- 
larity, but they were nobly vindicated by 
Moses, Num. 11:24-29. 

EL'DERS of Israel, the heads of tribes, 
who, before the settlement of the Hebrew 
commonwealth, had a government and 
authority over their own families and the 
people, like the modern sheikh, the old 
man. Moses and Aaron treated the elders 
as representatives of the nation, Exod. 
3:16; 4:29; 12:21. When the law was 
given, God directed Moses to take the 70 
elders, as well as Aaron, and Nadab and 
Abihu his sons, that they might be wit- 
nesses, Exod. 24: 1, 9. For some time after- 
wards we find this number of 70, or rather, 
72, elders, 6 from each tribe, but we have 
no certain information how long this con- 
152 



tinued. There were always, however, el- 
ders in each tribe and city. For instances- 
of their agency and power, see Josh. 9:18; 
Judg. 2:7; Ruth 4:2-11; 1 Sam. 4:3; 8:4; 
30:26; 1 Kin. 8:1, 3; 20:7; 
2 Kin. 23:1. In New Testa- 
ment times there were " elders, 
of the Jews," apparently dis- 
tinct from the Sanhedrin, but 
cooperating with it, Matt. 16:21; 
21:23; 26:59; Luke 22:66; Acts- 
22:5. 

In imitation of the Jewish el- 
ders, the ordinary pastors and 
teachers of the Christian church 
are called elders, or presbyters,. 
Acts 20:17, 28; Titus 1:5, 7; 
1 Pet. 5:1 ; 2 John 1. 
" Eldest " and " last," in John 
:g, mean the highest and low- 
est in social rank. In Matt. 
15:2; Heb. 11:2, the men of an- 
cient times are meant. 

ELEA'LEH, the ascending of 
God, a town of the Amorites, near Hesh- 
bon their capital, assigned to the tribe of 
Reuben, Num. 32:3, 37, and long after- 
wards threatened as a city of Moab, Isa. 
15:4; 16:9; Jer. 48:34. Its ruins, now El- 
A'al, are a mile or more northeast of Hesh- 
ban. 

ELEA'ZAR, help of God, I., the 3d son 
of Aaron, and high-priest after him, Exod. 
6:23; Num. 20:25-28. His mother Elishe- 
ba was daughter of Amminadab, of the 
tribe of Judah. He performed important 
priestly duties both before and after Aaron's 
death, Num. 3: 32 ; 26:3; 27:22; 31:21 ; Josh. 
14:1. The high-priesthood continued in 
his family 7 generations, till the time of Eli, 
when we find it transferred to the line of 
Ithamar. In the reigns of Saul and David 
it was restored to the line of Eleazar, and 
so continued till after the captivity. 

II. A son of Abinadab, honored with the 
charge of the ark while it was in his fa- 
ther's house, 1 Sam. 7:1. 

III. One of David's champions, 2 SarrL 
23:9; 1 Chr. 11 :ii-i8. 

Three or 4 others are mentioned' in 
1 Chr. 23:21, 22; Ezra 8:33; Neh. 12:42; 
Matt. 1:15. 

ELECT', chosen. Usually applied in the 
New Testament to those who are not only 
" called " to come to Christ by the offer of 
free pardon, but who actually come to him 
and are saved, Matt. 22:14. They were 
" chosen " in Christ from eternity, Eph. 
1:4, 5, and are beloved of God like Christ 



ELH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ELI 



himself, Luke 23:35; 1 Pet. 2:6. "The 
election " is used by Paul in Rom. 11:7 for 
" the elect." " The elect lady " in 2 John 1 
was probably some woman eminent for her 
Christian virtues. But some understand 
the words to mean "The lady Electa;" 
and others some Christian church personi- 
fied. Compare ver. 13. 

ELHA'NAN, I., one of David's heroes, 
who slew a brother of Goliath, 2 Sam. 
21:19; ! Chr. 20:5. 

II. The first-named of David's 30 mighty 
men, son of Dodo of Bethlehem, 1 Sam. 
23:24; 1 Chr. 11 :26. 

E'LI, asce?ision, a high-priest of the Jews, 
the 1st in the line of Ithamar, 1 Sam. 2:27- 
36; 2 Sam. 8:17; 1 Chr. 24:3. He was also 
a judge of Israel 40 years, and was emi- 
nent for piety and usefulness, but crimi- 
nally negligent of family discipline. For 
this the judgments of God afterwards fell 
upon his house, 1 Sam. 3:11-18. In battle 
with the Philistines his 2 sons were slain, 
and Israel was defeated; but it was the 
capture of the ark of God that broke his 
heart, 1 Sam. 4. He was 98 years old. The 
divine threatening was fully performed in 
the day of Abiathar, which see. Also El. 

ELI'AB, my God is father, the oldest 
brother of David, towards whom his con- 
duct was passionate and jealous, thus con- 
firming the judgment of Him who looks 
not on the appearance, but the heart, 1 Sam. 
16:6, 7; 17:28. Five others are named in 
Num. 1:9; 26:8, 9; 1 Chr. 6:27 ; 12:9 ; 15: 18. 

ELI'AKIM, raised up by God, I., a king 
of Judah, 2 Kin. 23:34. See Johoiakim. 

II. A son of Hilkiah ; an officer of high 
repute in king Hezekiah's court, called by 
God "my servant Eliakim," Isa. 22:20, 21; 
and appointed with others to treat with 
Rabshakeh, general of the Assyrian forces 
then besieging Jerusalem, 2 Kin. 18; 19; 
Isa. 36 ; 27. See Sennacherib. 

Eliakim is the name also of 3 others 
named in Neh. 12:41; Matt. 1:13; Luke 
■5-3o. 

ELI'AS. See Elijah. 

ELI'ASHIB, whom God restores, a high- 
priest in the days of Nehemiah, who took 
part in rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem, 
Neh. 3:1; Ezra 10:6. The same person 
probably was afterwards censured for pro- 
faning the temple, by giving the use of one 
of its chambers to a heathen and an Am- 
monite, his relative, Deut. 23:3, 4; Neh. 
12:10; 13:1-9, 28. 

ELIE'ZER, my God is my help, I., of Da- 
mascus, or Damascus Eliezer, the lawful 
7* 



heir of Abraham, should he die childless,. 
Gen. 15:2. He is generally assumed to 
be the "eldest servant," who was sent, 65 
years afterwards, to obtain a wife for Isaac, 
Gen. 24. " Steward of my house " and 
"born in my house" — literally son of my 
house, Gen. 15:2, 3 — may mean the same 
thing, the lawful family heir. 

II. Second son of Moses and Zipporah; 
his name was a grateful memorial of deliv- 
erance, Exod. 18 : 1-4. Some of his posterity 
were noteworthy, 1 Chr. 23:17; 26:25-28. 

III. Several others of this name are men- 
tioned, 1 Chr. 7:8; 15:24; 27:16; 2 Chr. 
20:37; Ezra 8:16; 10:18,23,31; Luke 3:29. 

ELI'HU, God is He, of the family or city 
of Buz, Gen. 22:21, located probably in or 
near Edom, Jer. 25:23. Compare also Jer. 
49:7, 8, 13. He came to condole with Job 
in his calamities. Young, ardent, saga- 
cious, and devout, he listened attentively 
to the discourses of Job and his 3 friends ; 
and at length broke in, with profuse apolo- 
gies, to set them all right, Job 32. His ad- 
dress to Job is friendly and soothing, yet 
faithful ; he censures him for justifying 
himself, rather than God. The adversaries 
of Job he blames for condemning him as a 
hypocrite, in their ignorance of the won- 
ders of God's disciplinary providence. In 
several sentences he beautifully expresses 
his faith in the pardoning and restoring 
grace of God towards sinners, Job 33:23, 
24, 27-30, passages in this oldest book of 
the Bible in the very spirit of the parable 
of the prodigal son. 

Other Elihus are named in 1 Sam. 1:1; 
1 Chr. 12:20; 26:7; 27:18. 

ELI'JAH, my God is Jehovah, the re- 
nowned prophet, by birth a highlander of 
Tishbeh, in the mountains of Gilead, 1 Kin. 
17:1. He is described as long-haired and 
tall, roughly-robed, 2 Kin. 1:8, w T ith a 
sheepskin girdle and mantle, 1 Kin. 18:46; 
19:13; in appearance as well as spirit a 
type of the true Hebrew seer. His parent- 
age and early history are unknown. Ap- 
pearing suddenly as a stern witness for 
God, when Israel had lapsed not only into 
the worship of the golden calves as symbols 
of God, but into the grosser idolatry of the 
Phoenician Baal, his bold faithfulness pro- 
voked the wrath of Ahab and Jezebel, espe- 
cially when he threatened several years of 
drought and famine as a punishment for the 
national sins, B. C. 908. By the divine direc- 
tion the prophet took refuge on the bank of 
the brook Cherith, where he was miracu- 
lously fed by ravens. Thence he resorted 

153 



ELI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ELI 



to Zarephath, in Phoenicia, within the grasp 
of Ahab and Jezebel, where one miracle 
provided him with sustenance, and anoth- 
er restored to life the child of his hostess. 
Returning to king Ahab, he procured the 
great assembling at Mount Carmel, where 
God " answered by fire," and the prophets 
of Baal, 450 in number, and of Ashtoreth 
400, were destroyed. See Carmel. Now, 
too, the long and terrible drought was bro- 
ken, and a plentiful rain descended at the 
prophet's prayer. Finding that not even 
these mighty works of God would bring 
the nation and its rulers to repentance, Eli- 
jah was almost in despair. He fled into the 
wilderness, and was brought to Horeb, the 
mount of God, where he was comforted by 
a majestic and significant vision of God's 
power and grace. Three charges of great 
importance were here given him: to sum- 
mon Elisha to become his successor, and 
to anoint Jehu king of Israel in the place 
of Ahab, and Hazael king of Syria instead 
of Ben-hadad. The first of these he did at 
once, and the others by the agency of Eli- 
sha, the appointed time not arriving till 
after his translation. Six years after his 
visit he denounces Ahab and Jezebel for 
their crimes in the matter of Naboth ; and 
afterwards again is seen foretelling the 
death of king Ahaziah, and calling fire 
from heaven upon 2 bands of guards sent 
to arrest him. Being now forewarned of 
the approach of his removal from earth, he 
gives his last instructions to the school of 
the prophets, crosses the Jordan miracu- 
lously, and is borne to heaven in a fiery 
chariot without tasting death, leaving his 
mantle and office to Elisha, 1 Kin. 17-19; 
21 ; 2 Kin. 1 ; 2. 

His translation occurred about B. C. 896. 
Previously, it is supposed, he had written 
the letter which, 8 years afterwards, an- 
nounced to king Jehoram his approaching 
sickness and death, 2 Chr. 21:12-19. Oth- 
ers think Jehoram had long been joined 
with his father on the throne, 2 Kin. y.7; 
8:16. 

Elijah was one of the most eminent and 
honored of the Hebrew prophets. He was 
bold, faithful, stern, self-denying, and zeal- 
ous for the honor of God. His whole char- 
acter and life are marked by peculiar moral 
grandeur. He bursts upon our view with- 
out previous notice; he disappears by a 
miracle. He bears the appearance of a 
supernatural messenger of heaven, who has 
but one work to do, and whose mind is en- 
grossed in its performance. His history is 
154 



one of the most extraordinary on record, 
and is fraught with instruction. It was a 
high honor granted to Moses and Elijah, as 
representatives of " all the law and the 
prophets," that they alone should appear 
on the Mount of Transfiguration, many cen- 
turies after they had gone into heaven — to 
bear witness of its existence, and commune 
with the Saviour concerning his atoning 
death, Luke 9:28-35. 

John the Baptist was foretold under the 
name of Elias, or Elijah, from his resem- 
blance in character and life to the an- 
cient prophet of Israel, Mai. 4:5, 6; Matt. 
17:10-13. 

E'LIM, trees, a station of the Israelites, 
on their way from Egypt to Mount Sinai, 
Exod. 15:27; 16:1; Num. 33:9, generally 
taken to be the present Wady Ghurundel, 
a broad valley, the first of 4 running south- 
west to the sea, about 40 miles southeast 
of Suez. Here are fountains and a brook, 
many bushes and shrubs, and a few tama- 
risks and palms. Laborde thinks it was 
Wady Useit, the second of the 4. 

ELIM'ELECH, my God is King, an emi- 
nent Bethlehemite, husband of Naomi, 
Ruth 1:2. 

EL/IPHAZ, God is his strength, a native 
of Ternan, and friend of Job, Job 2:11. 
Compare Gen. 36 : 10 ; Jer. 49 : 20. He seems 
to have been older than Bildad and Zophar, 
and was the first to address Job, chs. 4, 5, 
15, 22. 

ELIS'ABETH, the oath of God, a devout 
woman, "of the daughters of Aaron," the 
wife of Zacharias, mother of John the Bap- 
tist, and a relative of Mary our Lord's mo- 
ther, Luke 1 : 5-25, 36, 39-80. 

ELISE'US, the Greek New Testament 
form of Elisha, Luke 4:27. 

ELI'SHA, God saves or sees, the pupil 
and successor of Elijah, a prophet of Is- 
rael during the reign of Jehoram, Jehu, 
Jehoahaz, and Joash, B. C. 903-838. He 
was a native of Abel-meholah, where he 
was at work ploughing when Elijah called 
him to become a prophet, 1 Kin. 19:16, first 
following him as his attendant. Some 7 or 
8 years afterwards he witnessed the mirac- 
ulous ascension of Elijah, divided the Jor- 
dan with his mantle, and took his place at 
the head of the schools of the prophets. 
The " double portion " he asked for seems 
to have meant the " firstborn's share," to 
continue the sacred inheritance, 2 Kin. 2:9. 
During his long ministry he acted an im- 
portant part in the public affairs of Israel. 
Many miracles also were wrought at his 



ELI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EMB 



word ; some of these were, healing the 
waters of Jericho ; supplying the widow's 
•cruse with oil, and the allied armies of Ju- 
■dah, Israel, and Edom with water ; gaining 
a son for the woman of Shunem, and restor- 
ing him to life ; healing the leprosy of Naa- 
man ; detecting and punishing Gehazi. His 
history is recorded in 2 Kin. 2-9; 13:14-21. 
He died lamented by king Joash and the 
people; and a year afterwards, a corpse 
deposited in the same sepulchre was at 
once restored to life. In 2 miracles— heal- 
ing the leprosy and multiplying barley- 
loaves — he alone of all the prophets antici- 
pated some of the miracles of Christ, whom 
also he reminds us of by the gentleness 
and kindness of his disposition. There is 
a marked contrast between Elijah and Eli- 
sha in the general aspect of their charac- 
ter and history: the first was the whirl- 
wind and the fire, the second the still small 
voice; Elijah broke up the fallow ground 
and sowed the seed, and Elisha garnered 
the harvest. 

ELI'SHAH, eldest son of Javan, Gen. 
10:4. "The isles of Elishah," which sent 
purple and scarlet stuffs to Tyre, Ezek. 
27:7, are supposed to mean Greece and 
the adjacent islands. 

ELISH'EBA, the wife of Aaron, Exod. 
6:23, and sister of Nahshon the prince of 
Judah, Num. 2:3. Elisabeth is the same 
name in Greek, Luke 1:5. 

ELKA'NAH, God provided, I., probably 
a grandson of Korah, Num. 26:11. Com- 
pare Exod. 6:24; 1 Chr. 6:22, 23. 

II. A Kohathite Levite, husband of 2 
wives, and father of Samuel the prophet; 
a man of piety and of means, 1 Sam. 1 ; 2. 

III. Others are mentioned in 1 Chr. 6:26, 
35; 9:16; 12:6; 15:23; 2 Chr. 28:7. 

EL/KOSH, the home of Nahum, ch. 1:1, 
probably a village in Galilee. Many Jews 
visit as pilgrims a place called Alkush, 2 
miles north of Mosul, where is a so-called 
tomb of Nahum, and a synagogue. 

EL/LASAR, Gen. 14:1, 9, the home of 
king Arioch, perhaps the same country as 
Thelassar, 2 Kin. 19:12; Isa. 37:12. But 
Rawlinson locates it at Larsa, now Senke- 
reh, on the west bank of the Euphrates, 
between Ur and Erech. Its ruins show its 
very high antiquity. The Arabic version 
-calls it Armenia. 

ELM, Hos. 4:13. The original Hebrew 
word here, elsewhere translated oak, prob- 
ably denotes the terebinth. See Oak. 

ELMA'DAM, A. V. Elmodam, ancestor of 
Jesus, Luke 3:28. 



ELNA'THAN, God hath given, I., of Je- 
rusalem, 2 Kin. 24:8, a leader in the reign 
of Jehoiakim. He was his agent in perse- 
cuting the prophet Urijah, but protested 
against the burning of Jeremiah's proph- 
ecy, Jer. 26:20-23; 36:20-25. 

II. Three Levites in Ezra's day, Ezra 
8:16. 

E'LOI. See El. 

E'LON, I., Gen. 36:2. See Bashemath, 

II. Second son of Zebulun, Gen. 46:14; 
Num. 26:26. 

III. " The Zebulunite " who judged Israel 
10 years, Judg. 12:11, 12. 

IV. A border town of Dan, Josh. 19:43. 
E'LUL, a Hebrew month, the 12th of the 

civil year, and 6th of the ecclesiastical, 
Neh. 6:15. It included the time from the 
new moon nearest to the 1st day of Sep- 
tember to that of October. 

EL'YMAS, wise, the Arabic name of a 
Jewish sorcerer, Bar-jesus, in the retinue 
of Sergius Paulus, the Roman proconsul 
at Paphos in Cyprus. He was sharply re- 
proved by Paul, and struck with instant 
blindness for opposing the religious inqui- 
ries of the proconsul, who was abandoning 
idolatry and superstition, and embracing 
the gospel, Acts 13:6-12. His blindness 
was to continue " for a season," and may 
have led to his spiritual illumination. In 
spite of his opposition the proconsul was 
converted, the island was opened to the 
gospel, and Gentiles as well as Jews wel- 
comed it. Thus the Head of the church 
often makes obstacles in its way the very 
means of advancing it. 

EMBALM'ING. The process of embalm- 
ing dead bodies among the Egyptians was 
as follows : The embalmers, who were 
looked upon as sacred officers, drew the 
brains through the nostrils with a hooked 
piece of iron, and filled the skull with 
astringent drugs ; they drew out all the 
entrails, except the heart and kidneys- 
through a hole cut in the left side, washed 
them in palm-wine, and replaced them, 
filling the cavity with astringent and pre- 
servative drugs. The body was anointed 
repeatedly with oil of cedar, myrrh, cinna- 
mon, etc., about 30 days, and was then put 
into nitre for about 40 days ; by which pro- 
cess it was preserved from decay, retain- 
ing at the same time a lifelike appearance. 
When Moses says that 40 days were em- 
ployed in embalming Jacob, he probably 
speaks of the 40 days of his continuing in 
the salt of nitre, not including the 30 days 
spent in the previous ceremonies ; so that, 

155 



EMB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ENC 



in the whole, they mourned 70 days for 
him in Egypt, Gen. 50:2, 3. 

The body was afterwards taken out of 
the salt, washed, wrapped up in long linen 
bandages, dipped in myrrh, and closed 
with gum. It was then restored to the rel- 
atives, who inclosed it in a coffin, and kept 




it in their houses, or deposited it in a tomb. 
Thus the body of Joseph was preserved, to 
be conveyed into the land of promise after 
nearly 2 centuries, Gen. 50 : 26. Great num- 
bers of mummies are still found in Egypt, 
in the subterraneous vaults where they 
were deposited 2,000 or 3,000 years ago. 

The common people of that country were 
embalmed by means of bitumen, a cheap 
material and easily managed. With this 
the corpse and its envelopes were smeared, 
with more or less care and diligence. Sep- 
ulchres have been opened in which thou- 
sands of bodies had been deposited in rows, 
one on another, without coffins, preserved 
in this manner. 

The usual embalming of the Jews was 
less elaborate and effectual. It consisted 
mainly in wrapping the body in many folds 
of linen, with a profusion of aromatic spi- 
ces — myrrh, aloes, etc. Thus the body of 
the Saviour was embalmed entire by Jo- 
seph and Nicodemus, while, ignorant of 
this, the 2 Marys and their friends were 
prepared to render him a similar honor 
when the Jewish Sabbath was past, John 
19:38-40. The practice, even in this form, 
does not appear to have been prevalent 
among the Jews. See Burial. 

EMBROI'DERY, and "needlework" in 
156 



Exod. 26; 27; 36-39, are distinguished in 
Hebrew from " cunning work ;" both prob- 
ably denoting work with the loom, the for- 
mer with various patterns and colors, the 
latter with cherubim or other figures in 
gold thread. 

EM'ERALD, Rev. 4:3; 21:19, a precious, 
stone of a fine green color, found anciently 
in Ethiopia, but in modern times only in 
South America, Exod. 28:18; Ezek. 27:16; 
28: 13. Josephus and the 70 make it a gem 
like a burning coal — the Indian ruby, or 
carbuncle. 

EM'ERODS, that is, hemorrhoids, the 
name of a painful disease occasioned by 
tumors, no doubt the piles, Deut. 28:27; 
1 Sam. 5: 12. 

E'MIM, terrors, a gigantic and warlike 
race, who in the time of Abraham occupied 
the country beyond the Jordan, afterwards 
possessed by the Moabites, Gen. 14:5-7; 
Deut. 2:10-12, 20-23. 

EMMAN'UEL, Matt. 1:23, A. V., better 
as in the Old Testament, Immanuel, God 
with us. It is applied to the Messiah, as. 
having united the divine with the human 
nature, and having come to dwell with 
men, Isa. 7:14 ; 8:8. 

EM'MAUS, hot springs, the village where 
our Lord revealed himself to 2 of his dis- 
ciples, on the afternoon of his resurrection- 
day. It lay about 7^ miles, 60 furlongs, 
northwest from Jerusalem, Luke 24:13-33, 
perhaps Kubaibeh. Some manuscripts, in- 
cluding the Codex Sinaiticus, read 160 fur- 
longs, instead of 60; and Eusebius and 
Jerome locate Emmaus at the ancient Ni- 
copolis, 20 miles north-northwest of Jeru- 
salem, where a village called Amwas still 
exists. Dr. Robinson inclines to this loca- 
tion, though its distance from the city seems 
too great. The 2 disciples could not return 
to it in less than 6 or 7 hours, long after 
midnight. 

EM'PEROR, the, in R. V. put for "Au- 
gustus" in Acts 25:21, 25, where Nero is 
the emperor intended. 

EN, a fountain, see AlN, compounded 
with many names of towns and places, as 
En-dor, En-gedi. 

ENA'BLE, empower or authorize, 1 Tim, 
1 : 12. 

ENCHANT'MENTS, deceptive arts, mut- 
tered spells, and charms practised by de- 
signing men, and classed in the Bible with 
sorcery, magic, divination, witchcraft, and 
necromancy, or professed communication 
with departed spirits. All these are ex- 
pressly forbidden and denounced in Scrip- 



END 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ENR 



ture, Exod. 22:18; Lev. 19:26, 31; 20:27; 
Deut. 18:10, 11. The pretended power and 
skill of enchanters was ascribed to infernal 
agency, and the art was essentially hostile 
to true religion. Their seeming wonders 
were usually wrought by juggling tricks or 
sleight of hand, or by mysteries of science, 
known to but few. The magicians of Egypt 
are said to have done several things "with 
their enchantments," Exod. 7-9; Acts 19:19. 
See Divination. 

EN'-DOR, home spring, a city of Manas- 
seh, Josh. 17:11, 4 miles south of Mount 
Tabor, near Nain, in the way to Scythopo- 
lis, Psa. 83:9, 10. Here the witch lived 
whom Saul consulted, 1 Sam. 28. The pre- 
tence of this sorceress that she could call 
up the spirits of the dead from their re- 
pose w r as evidently false. She was amazed 
and appalled when the form of Samuel 
really appeared, sent by God himself to 
put her to shame, and bring to king Saul 
his last warning, The ruins of a large vil- 
lage called Endur are still found, on the 
north slope of Jebel el-Duhy, 8 miles north 
of Gilboa. Caves abound in the mountain 
above it. 

EN-EGLA'IM,yb?^z/ of two calves, Ezek. 
47 : 10, a town on the Dead Sea, west of the 
Jordan's mouth. 

EN-GAN'NIM, fount of gardens, I., a 
town in the low country of Judah, Josh. 
I5:34- 

II. A city of the Levites, in Issachar; 
now Jenin, 16 miles south of Mount Tabor, 
Josh. 19:21; 21:29. The same as Anem, 
1 Chr. 6:73. 

EN-GE'DI, fountain of the kid, 1 Sam. 
24:1, 2; called also Hazezon-Tamar, that 
is, the city of palm-trees, there being great 
numbers of palm-trees around it, Gen. 
14:7; 2 Chr. 20:1, 2, and flocks of wild 
goats. It stood near the middle of the 
western shore of the Dead Sea, about 24 
miles southeast of Jerusalem, in the edge 
of the loftiest part of the wilderness of 
Judaea, a region full of rocks and caverns, 
1 Sam. 23:29; Ezek. 47:10. See cut in' 
Sea, III. Predatory bands from the east 
still, as of old, pass around the south end 
of the Dead Sea, and up its west shore to 
Ain Jidy, and there ascend to the high 
ground. The heights of En-gedi are 1,500 
feet above the Dead Sea. At 400 feet from 
the sea a fine and copious fountain, still 
bearing its ancient name, flows down to 
the sea, watering in its course a fruitful 
valley and a plain half a mile square, in 
"both of which ruins are found. The moun- 



tain-side was formerly terraced, and the 
whole spot was an oasis of fertility, the 
only place in Palestine where camphire 
now grows, Song 1 : 14. See Ziz. 

EN'GINES, 2 Chr. 26:15. See Batter- 
ing-ram and War. 

ENGRA'VER, in Exod. 35:35; 38:23, a 
carver on wood, stone, and gems. So in 
Zech. 3:9. The fine graving of signets 
and precious stones is implied in Gen. 
38:18; 41:42; Exod. 28:11, 21, 36. The art 
was a familiar one to all ancient nations. 

EN-HAKKO'RE the fountain of him that 
called, opened at Samson's call, after his 
exploit at Lehi, Judg. 15: 19. See Lehi. 

EN-MISH'PAT. See Kadesh. 

E'NOCH, dedicated, I., a son of Cain, in 
honor of whom the first city named in the 
Bible was called Enoch, Gen. 4:17. 

II. " The seventh from Adam," a son of 
Jared, and the father of Methuselah ; . emi- 
nent as a patriarch who lived near to God, 
through faith in a Redeemer to come, Heb. 
11:5, 13. It was a testimony to his rare 
piety in an ungodly age that he was trans- 
lated without seeing death, like Elijah, 
these 2 eminent men of God being honored 
in this visible demonstration of a future 
life. He had lived only 365 years, A. M. 
622-987, Gen. 5:18-24. Jude, ver. 14, 15, 
quotes a traditionary prophecy of Enoch, 
showing his belief in a judgment to come. 
There is an apocryphal book bearing the 
name of Enoch, which quotes the same tra- 
dition. It was probably written by some 
devout believer of the 1st century, or per- 
haps shortly before the coming of Christ, 
and is only valuable for the light it throws 
on the beliefs of the time. It was never 
received as canonical. It was probably 
written in Hebrew; but the original, and 
the Greek version known by the fathers, 
are lost. The text has been recovered 
from Ethiopic versions. It is an exhibition 
of the universal providence of God. 

E'NON, springs, the place where John 
baptized, near Salim, on the west side of 
the Jordan, John 1 : 28 ; 3 : 22, 26. It is sup- 
posed by some to have been 8 or 10 miles 
south of Beth-shean ; but is rather 'Aynun, 
east of Nablus in Wady Farah. See Sa- 
lim. 

E'NOS, man, Heb. Enosh, i Chr. 1:1, 
the grandson of Adam. He lived 905 
years, A. M. 235-1140. Adam, Seth, and 
Enoch were outlived by him. Noah was 
contemporary with him 84 years. Gen. 
4:26; 5:6-11; Luke 3:38. 

EN -RO' GEL, fuller's fountain, by many 
157 



ENS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EPH 



believed to be the " well of Nehemiah," 
now called Bir Eyub, Job's well, in the val- 
ley of the Kidron, just below its junction 
with the valley of the son of Hinnom, on 
the southeast corner of Jerusalem, Josh. 
15:7; 18:16. It is mentioned in the Bible 
in connection with the conspiracy of Absa- 
lom, 2 Sam. 17:17, and afterwards with 
that of Adonijah, 1 Kin. 1:9. This well is 
situated in what is now the prettiest and 
most fertile spot around Jerusalem. It is 
125 feet deep, with 50 feet of water, or at 




times full and overflowing; it is walled up 
with large squared stones, which on one 
side rise and form an arch, and is appar- 
ently of great antiquity. Others, however, 
now identify En-rogel with the " Foun- 
tain of the Virgin," a living spring near 
the road to Mount Olivet, higher than the 
King's garden which was watered from it, 
and still much resorted to by the women of 
Jerusalem for washing. 

EN-SHE'MESH,/o»«/ of the sun, in the 
border of Judah and Benjamin, Josh. 15:7; 
18:17, located a mile below Bethany, to the 
east. 

EN'SIGN, a signal, or beacon on a hill- 



top, Num. 21:8, 9; Isa. 13:2; 



Ezek. 



27:7. Another Hebrew word, generally 
translated standard, means a military stand- 
ard, as for the 4 divisions of the Israelites 
in the desert, Num. 1:52; 2:2. It is not 
supposed that these were flags, but em- 
blematic devices in wood or metal, at the 
top of a pole — as a lion for the tribe of 
Judah, an eagle for Dan. See Abomina- 
tion. 

ENSUE', follow and secure, 1 Pet. 3:11. 

ENTREAT' is often used in the Bible in- 
158 



stead of treat, Gen. 12:16; Acts 27:3. 
Sometimes it means prevail upon, Isa. 
19:22. 

EN'VY, sometimes hatred or ill-will. 

EPiE'NETUS, praiseworthy, saluted by 
Paul in his epistle to Rome, Rom. 16:5, and 
called " the firstfruits of Achaia," that is, 
one of his first converts there. Many of 
the best manuscripts and versions read 
Asia instead of Achaia, and the revised 
version has Asia. 

EP'APHRAS, supposed to have founded 
the church at Colossae, and denominated 
by Paul his " dear fellow-servant," and " a 
faithful minister of Jesus Christ," Col. 1:7; 
4:12. He was for a time an inmate of 
Paul's house at Rome, Phile. 23, 24. 

EPAPHRODI'TUS, a member of the 
church at Philippi, charged with the sup- 
plies from that church for the relief of 
Paul while imprisoned at Rome, Phil. 2:25; 
4:18. This labor of love brought on him 
a serious illness at Rome, on which occa- 
sion we see how much he was esteemed 
and beloved both by Paul and the Philip- 
pians, Phil. 2:25-30. On his return he was 
the bearer of the epistle to them. 

E'PHAH, darkness, I., a measure of ca- 
pacity used among the Hebrews, contain- 
ing 3 pecks and 3 pints. The ephah was 
a dry measure, as of barley, Ruth 2:17; 
and meal, Num. 5:15; Judg. 6:19; and 
was of the same capacity with the bath in 
liquids. See Bath and Measures. 

II. The son of Midian, and grandson of 
Abraham, Gen. 25:4, who settled and gave 
his name to a region in Arabia supposed to 
have been near Midian, Isa. 60:6. 

Two others of this name are mentioned 
in 1 Chr. 2:46, 47. 

E'PHER, a calf, 2d son of Midian, Gen. 
25:4; 1 Chr. 1:33. His location is un- 
known. Another Epher was a son of Ezra, 
and a 3d was head of a family in Manas- 
seh, east of Jordan, 1 Chr. 4:17; 5 :2 4- 

E'PHES-DAM'MIM, cessation of blood, 
where David slew Goliath, 1 Sam. 17:1; 
called Pas-oammim in 1 Chr. 11:13- See 
Elah, Socoh. 

EPHE'SIANS, Epistle to the. This 
epistle was written by Paul at Rome, Acts 
28:16, probablv A. D. 62, at the same time 
with that to the Colossians, which it greatly 
resembles, and both being sent by Tychi- 
cus. Though written primarily for the 
church he himself had founded and long 
labored with, and which he parted from so 
tenderly, Acts 18:19; 19:1-20; 20:18-35, 
this epistle seems to have been intended 




FOUNTAIN OF THE VIRGIN: JERUSALEM. 



EPH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EPH 



also for the neighboring churches, and is 
now addressed to and intelligible by every 
one who studies it. The ist part of it is a 
grateful discourse upon the vast scheme 
of divine grace, and the blessings flowing 
from it. The latter part inculcates Chris- 
tian consistency and steadfastness, and a 



faithful discharge of all relative duties. It 
is one of the richest and most valuable of 
the epistles, having a singular fulness of 
matter, depth of doctrine, sublimity of 
style, and warmth of emotion, which ren- 
der it precious to the Christian of every 
land. 




EPHESUS AND 

i. Grove of Diana. 2. Temple of Diana. 4. City 

8. Theatre. 

EPH'ESUS, the capital of Ionia, a cele- 
brated city of Asia Minor, situated near 
the mouth of the Cayster, about 40 miles 
southeast of Smyrna. It was celebrated 
for the worship and temple of Diana, which 
last was one of the 7 wonders of the world. 
See Diana. The " Ephesian letters " or 
amulets are often mentioned by classical 
writers, and the "magical arts" which 
Luke also refers to, books of magic to the 
value of $30,000 having been burned by 
penitent sorcerers. Paul first visited Eph- 
esus about A. D. 54, Acts 18:19, 21. This 
ist brief visit was followed by a longer one 
towards the close of the same year, and 



ITS ENVIRONS. 

Port. 5. Great Gymnasium. 6, 7. Market-places. 
9. Stadium. 

continuing through the 2 following years, 
Acts 19:10; 2.0:31. The church thus early 
established, enjoyed the labors of Aquila 
and Priscilla, of Tychicus and Timothy. 
It was favored with one of the best of 
Paul's epistles ; its elders had an inter- 
view with him at Miletus, before he saw 
Rome, and he is supposed to have visited 
them after his ist imprisonment. Among 
his friends here were Trophimus, Tychi- 
cus, and Onesiphorus; and his enemies, 
Sceva, Hymenaeus and Alexander, Phy- 
gelus and Hermogenes. Here the apostle 
John is said to have spent the latter part of 
his life, and written his gospel and epis- 

159 



EPH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EPH 




SITE OF EPHESUS. 



ties ; and having penned Christ's message 
to them in the isle of Patmos, to have re- 
turned and died among them. Christ gives 
the church at Ephesus a high degree of 
praise, coupled with a solemn warning, 
Rev. 2:1-5, which seems not to have pre- 
vented its final extinction, though it re- 
mained in existence 600 years. But now 
its candlestick is indeed removed out of its 
place. The site of that great and opulent 
city is desolate. Its harbor has became a 
pestilential marsh; the lovely and fertile 
level ground south of the Cayster now lan- 
guishes under Turkish misrule ; and the 
heights upon its border bear only shape- 
less ruins. The outlines of the immense 
theatre, Acts 19:29, 660 feet in diameter, 
yet remain in the solid rock, and a few 
remains of the temple of Diana have been 
unearthed. 

EPH'OD, an ornamental part of the dress 
worn by the Hebrew priests. It was worn 
above the tunic and the robe {viell), was 
without sleeves, and open below the arms 
on each side, consisting of 2 pieces, one of 
which covered the front of the body and 
the other the back, joined together on the 
shoulders by golden buckles set with gems, 
and reaching down to the middle of the 
thigh. A girdle was inwoven with it, by 
which it was fastened around the body, 
Exod. 28:6-12. There were 2 kinds of 
ephod : one plain, of linen, for the priests, 
1 Sam. 22:18; another for the high-priest, 
richly embroidered, and with golden clasps 
and rings to hold in place the 12-gemmed 
breastplate. Young Samuel wore an eph- 
160 



od, though only a Levite and a child, 1 Sam. 
2:18. David, in transferring the ark to 
Jerusalem, was "girt with a linen ephod," 
2 Sam. 6:14. The Jews had a peculiar 
superstitious regard for this garment, and 
employed it in connection with idolatrous 
worship. Gideon's ephod became a snare 
to Israel; and Micah made one, that his 
idol might be duly worshipped, Judg. 8:27; 
17:5; 18:17. 

EPH'PHATHA, be opened, a Syro-chal- 
daic word, which our Saviour pronounced 
when he cured one deaf and dumb, Mark 

7 : 34- 

E'PHRAIM, double fruitj 'illness, the 2d 
son of Joseph and Asenath, born in Egypt, 
Gen. 41:52. Although the younger, he yet 
had the chief prophetic blessing of his 
grandfather Jacob, at whose death he was 
about 21 years old ; and his tribe was al- 
ways more distinguished than that of his 
brother Manasseh, Gen. 48:8-20; Num. 
2:18-21. Under the leadership of the no- 
ble Joshua, who was an Ephraimite, the 
tribe rapidly advanced in numbers and in- 
fluence. The portion of Ephraim was large 
and central, and embraced some of the 
most fertile land in all Canaan, Deut. 33 : 13- 
17. It extended from the Mediterranean 
across to the Jordan, north of the portions 
of Dan and Benjamin, and included Shi- 
loh, Shechem, etc. A range of mountain- 
ous country which runs through it, be- 
tween the plain of Sharon on the west and 
the Jordan valley on the east, is called 
"the mountains of Ephraim," or "Mount 
Ephraim." This extends also farther south 



EPH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EPI 



into the portion of Judah, and is there 
called " the mountains of Judah." See 
Tribe. This ambitious tribe took the lead 
in the revolt of the 10 tribes from Reho- 
boam, and indeed formed the heart and 
strength of the new nation ; Tirzah and Sa- 
maria, the capitals, were within its bounds, 
and the name of Ephraim was often used 
for the whole kingdom of Israel, Isa. n : 13 ; 
Jer. 31:6; 50:19. Its decline and fall are 
most touchingly lamented in Hos. 11:1-8. 

The forest of Ephraim, where Absa- 
lom lost his life, was on the east side of 
the Jordan, near Mahanaim, 2 Sam. 18:6-8, 
still a well-wooded region. 

The town called Ephraim, to which the 
Saviour withdrew from his enemies, John 
11:54, was probably the same place men- 
tioned in 2 Chr. 13:19, and called Ophrah 
in Josh. 18:23; 1 Sam. 13:17. See also 
2 Sam. 13:23. It is supposed to be the 
present Taiyibeh, on a hill overlooking the 
Jordan valley, 5 miles northeast of Bethel. 

EPH'RATH, or Eph'ratah, fruitful, I., 
the 2d wife of Caleb, and mother of Hur, 
1 Chr. 2:19; supposed by some to have 
given her name to the city of Ephrath or 
Bethlehem, 1 Chr. 2:50, 51 ; 4:4. But com- 
pare Gen. 35:16, 19; 48:7. Elimelech was 
an Ephrathite of Bethlehem, Ruth 1:2; 
4:11; so also was David, 1 Sam. 17:12. 

II. A name of Ephraim and Ephraim- 
ites, 1 Sam. 1:1; 1 Kin. 11:26; Psa. 132:6. 

EPH' RON, fawnlike, a Hittite at Hebron 
in the time of Abraham, Gen. 23. The 
charming account of his transaction with 
Abraham — as full of Oriental compliments 
and ceremony as those of to-day in the 
same land, and much fuller of sincerity — 
together with the subsequent mention of 
his name, point him out as a prince in the 
land. 

EPICURE'ANS, a celebrated sect of an- 
cient Greek philosophers. They were 
materialists, and virtually atheists — believ- 
ing that the atoms of nature existed from 
eternity, and that from their incidental 
union all things are formed, both visible 
and invisible ; and that the gods, wrapped 
in eternal repose, have nothing to do with 
this world. They denied a divine Provi- 
dence and man's immortality, and believed 
there was no after-judgment, and no soul 
but what was material, like the body, and 
perishable with it at death. Their rule of 
life was self-gratification — the pursuit of 
pleasure, properly regulated and governed. 
Vicious indulgences were condemned only 
inasmuch as they on the whole lessen one's 
11 



happiness. Epicurus, their founder, was a 
learned and moral man, who died at Ath- 
ens, B. C. 271, at the age of 73. His fol- 
lowers, however, easily disregarded the 
limitations he imposed, and pursued pleas- 
ure without restraint. At Paul's time they 
had become exceedingly corrupt, and of 
course their philosophy and their life both 
led them to oppose with violence his great 
truths concerning God, the resurrection, 
and the judgment, Acts 17:16-34. 

EPIS'TLE, a letter, first mentioned in the 
history of Uriah, 2 Sam. 11:14; and then 
of Jezebel, 1 Kin. 21:8, 9; of Elijah, Heze- 
kiah, Ezra, Nehemiah, etc. See Letters. 
But the term is applied particularly to the 
inspired letters in the New Testament, 
written by the apostles on various occa- 
sions, to approve, condemn, or direct the 
conduct of Christian churches. The Holy 
Spirit has thus provided that we should 
have the great doctrines of the true gospel 
not only historically stated by the evange- 
lists, but applied familiarly to the various 
emergencies of daily life. It is not to be 
supposed that every note or memorandum 
written by the hands of the apostles, or by 
their direction, was divinely inspired, or 
meant for preservation to distant ages. 
Compare 1 Cor. 5:9; Col. 4:16. Those 
only have bjeen preserved by the over- 
ruling hand of Providence which were so 
inspired, and from which useful directions 
had been drawn, and might in after ages 
be drawn, as from a perpetual directory, 
for faith and practice — always supposing 
that similar circumstances require similar 
directions. In reading an Epistle, we ought 
to consider the occasion of it, the circum- 
stances and relations to each other of the 
writer and those to whom it was addressed, 
the time when written, the general scope 
and design of it, as well as the intention of 
particular arguments and passages. We 
ought also to observe the style and man- 
ner of the writer, his modes of expression, 
the peculiar effect he designed to produce 
on those to whom he wrote, to whose tem- 
per, manners, general principles, and ac- 
tual situation he might address his argu- 
ments, etc. 

Of the books of the New Testament, 21 
are epistles; 14 of them by Paul, 1 by 
James, 2 by Peter, 3 by John, and 1 by 
Jude. Being placed in our canon without 
reference to their chronological order, they 
are perused under considerable disadvan- 
tages ; and it would be well to study them 
occasionally in connection with what the 

161 



ER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EST 



history in the Acts of the Apostles relates 
respecting the several churches to which 
they are addressed. This would also give 
us nearly their order of time, which should 
also be considered, together with the situ- 
ation of the writer; as it may naturally 
be inferred that such compositions would 
partake of the writer's recent and present 
feelings. The epistles addressed to the 
dispersed Jews by John and James, by 
Peter and Jude, are very different in their 
style and application from those of Paul 
written to the Gentiles ; and those of Paul 
no doubt contain expressions and allude to 
facts much more familiar to their original 
readers than to later ages. See Paul. 

ER, watchful, son of Judah and a Ca- 
naanite woman, Gen. 38:3, 7, slain by the 
Lord, 1 Chr. 2:3. 

ERAS'TUS, beloved, a Christian friend 
and fellow-laborer of Paul, a Corinthian, 
and chamberlain — that is, steward or treas- 
urer — of the city. He followed Paul to 
Ephesus, and attended Timothy in a mis- 
sion to Macedonia, Acts 19:22. He was at 
Corinth when Paul wrote to the Romans, 
16 : 23 ; and remained there when Paul went 
as a prisoner to Rome, 2 Tim. 4:20. 

E'RECH, length, one of Nimrod's cities 
in the plain of Shinar, Gen. 10:10. Its 
probable site is found in the. mounds of 
primeval ruins now called Warka, a few 
miles east of the Euphrates, midway be- 
tween Babylon and the junction of the 
Euphrates and Tigris. 

ESA'IAS, the Greek New Testament form 
of Isaiah. 

E'SAR-HAD'DON, victor, son of Sennach- 
erib, and his successor as king of Assyria, 
2 Kin. 19:37; Isa. 37:38, B. C. 680-667. It 
is only said of him in Scripture that he sent 
colonists to Samaria, Ezra 4:2, but he was 
one of the most powerful of all the Assyri- 
an kings. The stone-records state that he 
built a magnificent palace at Babylon, and 
made it his joint capital with Nineveh, and 
hither, not to Nineveh, though this would 
otherwise have been expected from an As- 
syrian king, his generals brought Manas- 
seh king of Judah as a captive for a time, 
2 Chr. 33 : 1 1 ; also that he captured Thebes, 
Nah. 3:8-10, and all Western Asia. 

E'SAU, hirsute, the son of Isaac, and 
twin brother of Jacob, Gen. 25. He was 
the elder of the two, and was therefore 
legally the heir, but sold his birthright to 
Jacob. We have an account of his ill-ad- 
vised marriages, Gen. 26:34; of his loss of 
his father's chief blessing, and his conse- 
162 



quent anger against Jacob, Gen. 27 ; of 
their subsequent reconciliation, Gen. 32 ; 
33 ; and of his posterity, Gen. 36. He is 
also called Edom ; and settled in the moun- 
tains south of the Dead Sea, extending to 
the Gulf of Akaba, where he became very 
powerful. This country was called from 
him the land of Edom, and in Greek Idu- 
m^ea, which see ; also Jacob. 

ESCHEW, shun, Job 1:1, 8; 1 Pet. 3:11. 

ESDRAE'LON, Plain of. SeejEZREEL. 

ESH'BAAL, Baal's man, 1 Chr. 8:33, the 
4th son of Saul, generally called Ishbo- 
sheth. The word Baal, the name of an 
idol, was not pronounced by scrupulous 
Jews ; they substituted Bosheth, confu- 
sion. For Meribbaal they said Mephibo- 
sheth, etc. See Ishbosheth. 

ESH'COL, a cluster, I., an Amorite prince 
near Hebron, who joined Abraham in pur- 
suing the eastern host who had ravaged 
Sodom and taken Lot captive, Gen. 14:13, 
14. 

II. The small and well-watered valley 
from which the Hebrew spies obtained the 
specimen of grapes which they suspended 
from a staff borne by 2 men for safe car- 
riage to Moses, Num. 13:22-27; 32:9; Deut. 
1:24. This valley is believed to be one 
which closely adjoins Hebron on the north, 
and still furnishes the finest grapes in the 
country, as well as pomegranates, figs, 
olives, etc. 

ESH'TAOL, a pass, a town on the west- 
ern border of Judah, afterwards given to 
Dan, Josh. 15:33; 19:41- It is named in 
the history of Samson, Judg. 13:25; 16:31. 

ESHTEMO'A, obedience, a city of the 
priests in Judah, Josh. 15:50; 21:14; 1 Sam. 
30:28; traced by Robinson in the modern 
village Semua, 9 miles south of Hebron. 

ESPOU'SALS. See Betrothing, Mar- 
riage. 

ESTATE', or state, usually a settled 
condition in life, 1 Chr. 17:17; Esth. 1:19; 
Luke 1:48; Rom. 12:16; Jude 6. Some- 
times a special class or official body of 
men, Mark 6:21; Acts 22:5. 

ES'THER, star, a Persian name of Ha- 
dassah, myrtle, a daughter of Abihail, of 
the tribe of Benjamin. The family had 
not returned to Judaea after the permission 
given by Cyrus, and she was born proba- 
bly beyond the Tigris, and nearly 500 B. C. 
Her parents being dead, Mordecai, her 
excellent cousin, took care of her educa- 
tion. See Adoption. After Ahasuerus 
had divorced Vashti, he selected Esther as 
queen, and married her with royal mag- 



ETA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ETH 



nificence, bestowing largesses and remis- 
sions of tribute on his people. She was 
thus in a position which enabled her 5 
years afterwards to do a signal favor to 
her people, then very numerous in Persia. 
Their deliverance is still celebrated by the 
Jews in the yearly festival called Purim, 
which was instituted at that time. The 
husband of Esther is supposed to have been 
the Xerxes of secular history. 

Esther, the book of, has always been 
esteemed canonical, both by Jews and 
Christians, though certain additions to it, 
found in some versions and manuscripts, 
are apocryphal. Who was its writer is not 
certainly known. It has been ascribed to 
Ezra, to a high-priest named Jehoiakim, 
and to Mordecai. This last opinion is sup- 
ported by the internal evidence ; the book 
having every appearance of having been 
written in Persia, by an eye-witness of the 
scenes it describes. It presents a graphic 
picture of the Persian court and customs, 
and is intensely Jewish in its spirit. The 
■chief value of the book is to illustrate the 
wonder-working providence of God, his 
control of human passions, his righteous 
judgment of sinners, and his care for his 
covenant people — whom, even when cap- 
tives in a strange land, he can exalt above 
all their foes. Yet the name of God is not 
once mentioned in it. 

E'TAM, lair, I., a town in Judah near 
Bethlehem and Tekoa ; a favorite resort of 
Solomon, and fortified by Rehoboam, 1 Chr. 
4:3; 2 Chr. 11:6. Located at Urtas, or 
perhaps at 'Ain Atan, south of Solomon's 
Pools. " The rock Etam" to which Sam- 
son withdrew, Judg. 15:8-19, may have 
been in this vicinity, or on the north of 
Eshtaol, where caverns and rock tunnels 
are found. 

II. There seems to have been another 
Etam, 1 Chr. 4:32, in Simeon. 

ETER'NAL. See Everlasting. 

E'THAM, limit of the sea, a station of the 
Israelites on their way out of Egypt, Exod. 
13:20; Num. 33:6. It lay near the head 
of the west gulf of the Red Sea, near Ismai- 
lia on the Suez canal, and the wilderness 
east of it was often called by the same 
name. 

E'THAN, constant, I., one of 4 men re- 
nowned for wisdom, though excelled by Sol- 
omon, 1 Kin. 4:31 ; 1 Chr. 2:6. He appears 
to have been a son of Zerah or Ezra, and 
grandson of the patriarch Judah, Psa. 89. 

II. A Levite, son of Kishi, and one of the 
3 masters of the temple music, 1 Chr. 6:44; 



I 5 :I 7 _I 9- He would seem to be the same 
as Jeduthun, 1 Chr. 25 : 1 ; 2 Chr. 35 : 15. 

ETH'ANIM, constantly flowing, a month 
so named before the captivity, because the 
autumnal rains then begin to fill the dry 
river channels. It was afterwards called 
Tishri, and answers nearly to our October, 
often including part of September. It was 
the beginning of the civil year. On this 
month Solomon's temple was dedicated, 
1 Kin. 8:2. See Tishri and Expiation. 

ETH'BAAL, with Baal, king of Zidon, 
and usurper of the throne of Tyre, B. C. 
940-908. Jezebel was his daughter. 

ETHIO'PIA, burnt faces, one of the great 
kingdoms in Africa, frequently mentioned 
in the Scripture under the name of Cush, 
which see. Ethiopia proper lay south of 
Egypt, on the Nile ; and was bounded north 
by Egypt, at the cataracts near Syene ; east 
by the Red Sea, and perhaps a part of the 
Indian Ocean ; south by the regions of the 
Blue and White Nile ; and west by Libya 
and deserts. It comprehended the modern 
countries of Nubia, Sennaar, and Abys- 
sinia. It chief city was Meroe, on the isl- 
and or tract of the same name, between the 
Nile and the Astaboras, now the Tacazze, 
not far from the modern Shendi, Isa. 18; 
Zeph. 3:10. 

The name of Seba was given to the north- 
ern part of Ethiopia, afterwards Meroe, by 
the eldest son of Cush, Gen. 10:7. This 
country was in some parts mountainous, 
and in others sandy; but was to a great 
extent well-watered and fertile. Ebony, 
ivory, spices, gold, and precious stones 
were among its articles of traffic. Its his- 
tory is much involved with that of Egypt, 
and the 2 countries are often mentioned 
together in the Bible, Isa. 20:3-6; 43:3; 
45:14; Ezek. 30; Dan. 11:43. 

Zerah "the Ethiopian" who invaded Ju- 
dah in the reign of Asa, B. C. 944, 2 Chr. 
14:9-15, is thought by some to have been 
an Egyptian king of an Ethiopian dynasty ; 
by others, to have been a king of Ethiopia 
on both sides of the Red Sea ; that is, of 
the Arabian as well as African Cush. This 
would explain how he could obtain access 
to the land of Palestine without passing 
through Egypt. But the whole question is 
involved in uncertainty. The Ethiopian 
queen Candace, whose treasurer is men- 
tioned in Acts 8:27, was probably queen 
of Meroe, where a succession of females 
reigned who all bore this name. As this 
courtier is said to have gone up to Jerusa- 
lem "to worship," he was probably a Jew 

163 



EUB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EUP 



by religion, if not by birth. There appear 
to have been many Jews in that country. 
The gospel gained adherents among them; 
and early in the 4th century the entire Bi- 
ble was translated into the ancient Ethiopic 
language, from the Greek. 

The Ethiopia of Gen. 2:13 is not Ethio- 
pia in Africa, but one of the regions in the 
East, called in Hebrew Cush. 

EUBWLUS, prudent, 2 Tim. 4:21. 

EU'NICE, good victory, the mother of 
Timothy and daughter of Lois. A Jewess, 
though her husband was a Greek, Acts 
16:1; 2 Tim. 1:5, she transmitted to her 
son the lessons of truth she herself had re- 
ceived from a pious mother. 

EU'NUCH, bed-keeper, in charge of the 
interior apartments of Eastern palaces ; 
often the tools of their masters for all sorts 
of vice and crime. But the word often de- 
notes merely a court officer. Such were 
Potiphar, Joseph's master, Gen. 39:17, and 
the treasurer of queen Candace, Acts 8:27. 
Our Saviour speaks of some who volunta- 
rily abstained from marriage, in order more 
effectually to labor for the kingdom of God, 
Matt. 19:12; and the apostle Paul com- 
mends the same abstinence in certain ex- 
ceptional cases in times of persecution, 
1 Cor. 7:26, 27. See Gaza. 

EUO'DIA, good journey. See Syntyche. 

EUPHRA'TES, copious, a famous river of 
Asia, which has its sources in the moun- 
tains of Armenia, one near Ararat and the 
other near Erzeroum, runs along the fron- 
tiers of Cappadocia, Syria, Arabia Deserta, 
Chaldaea, and Mesopotamia, and falls into 
the Persian Gulf. It re- 
ceives the Tigris at a place 
called Kurnah, the united 
stream being called Shat- 
el-Arab. Five miles below, 
the Shat-el-Arab receives 
from the northeast the Ker- 
khah, which has a course 
of upwards of 500 miles. 
Sixty-two miles below the 
mouth of the Kerkhah, an- 
other large river, the Ku- 
ran, comes in from the east. 
At present it enters the 
Shat-el-Arab 40 miles above 
its mouth ; but formerly it 
flowed into the Persian Gulf 
by a separate channel, east 
of the main stream. According to the view 
which places the garden of Eden near the 
junction of the Tigris with the Euphrates, 
these might be regarded as the 4 rivers of 
164 



Paradise. Scripture often calls the Eu- 
phrates simply "the river," Exod. 23:31; 
Isa. 7:20; 8:7; Jer. 2:18; or "the great riv- 
er," and assigns it for the eastern boun- 
dary of that land which God promised to 
the Hebrews, Deut. 1:7; Josh. 1:4. It over- 
flows in summer, when the snow on the 
mountains of Armenia begins to melt. The 
nearest springs of this river and the Tigris 
are but a few miles apart. 

The Euphrates is a river of consequence 
in Scripture geography, being the utmost 
limit, east, of the territory of the Israel- 
ites. It was indeed only occasionally that 
the dominion of the Hebrews extended so 
far; but it would appear that even Egypt, 
under Pharaoh-necho, made conquests to 
the western bank of the Euphrates. The 
river is about 1,800 miles long. Its general 
direction is southeast ; but in a part of its 
course it runs westerly, and approaches 
the Mediterranean near Cilicia. It is ac- 
companied in its general course by the 
Tigris. There are many towns on its 
banks, which are in general rather level 
than mountainous. The river does not 
appear to be of very great breadth, vary- 
ing, however, from 60 to 600 yards. Its 
ordinary current, after reaching the plains 
of Mesopotamia, is somewhat sluggish — 
3^ miles an hour — and in this part of its 
course many canals, etc., were dug, to pre- 
vent injury and secure benefit from the 
yearly overflows. At Seleucia, and Hilleh 
the ancient Babylon, it approaches near the 
Tigris, and some of its waters are drawn 
off by canals to the latter river. Again, 




A GOAT-SKIN FLOAT. 



however, they diverge, and only unite in 
the same channel about 120 miles from the 
Persian Gulf. It is not well adapted for 
navigation, yet light vessels go up about 



EUR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EXC 



1,000 miles, and the modern steamboat, 
which now ascends from the ocean, meets 
the same kind of goat-skin floats on which 
produce was rafted down the river thou- 
sands of years ago. 

EUROC'LYDON, the wave-stirring east- 
er, R. V. Euraquilo, a tempestuous wind 
which came down on Paul's ship on the 
south shore of Crete, and at length wrecked 
her on Malta, Acts 27. Its course then was 
east-northeast. It would now be called 
there a Levanter. 

EU'TYCHUS, fortunate, a young man 
who was killed at Troas by falling from 
the window of a room in the 3d story, 
where Paul was preaching. His life was 
miraculously restored, Acts 20:6-12. 

EVAN'GELIST, one who proclaims good 
news, either by preaching or writing. There 
were orginally evangelists or preachers 
who, without being fixed to any church, 
preached wherever they were led by the 
Holy Spirit, like some missionaries in our 
own day, Eph. 4:11. Such was Philip, Acts 
21 : 8. Timothy also is exhorted to " do the 
work of an evangelist," 2 Tim. 4:5. We 
commonly call Matthew, Mark, Luke, and 
John "the Evangelists," because they were 
the writers of the 4 gospels, which bring 
to men the glad tidings of eternal salva- 
tion. Wickliffe calls them " gospellers." 

EVE, living, Gen. 3:20, the first mother 
of our race, and the cause of our fall. Her 
history is so closely connected with that of 
Adam that the remarks made in the arti- 
cle Adam apply also to her. She was made, 
we are told in Gen. 2:18-22, both for man 
and of him ; subordinate and weaker, and 
yet to be loved as his own body. The his- 
tory of woman in all ages has been a stri- 
king fulfilment of the distinct penalties 
pronounced upon her, Gen. 3:16, and of 
the promises made to her, Gen. 3:15. See 
also 2 Cor. 11:3; 1 Tim. 2:13. 

EVE'NING. The Hebrews reckoned 2 
evenings in each day ; as in the phrase 
"between the two evenings," Exod. 12:6; 
Num. 9:3; 28:4, margin. In this interval 
the passover was to be killed, and the daily 
evening sacrifice offered, Exod. 29:39-41, 
Hebrew. According to the Cara'ites, this 
is the interval from sunset to complete 
darkness, that is, the evening twilight. 
Compare Deut. 16:6; Psa. 59:6. Accord- 
ing to the Pharisees and the rabbins, the 
first evening began when the sun began to 
descend more rapidly, that is, at the 9th 
hour; while the second or real evening 
commenced at sunset. See Day. 



EVERLASTING, ETER'NAL. The He- 
brew olam, world, and the Greek aiox, 
age, in various forms (often " for ever and 
ever," to the ages of the ages), denote long- 
continued duration, usually without fixed 
end. As applied to certain things known 
to be transitory, they do not preclude the 
idea of an end, though long continuance is 
the thought conveyed, as in Gen. 17: 13, 19 ; 
49 : 26. But as applied to God and his attri- 
butes they imply absolutely limitless dura- 
tion, Psa. 90:2; 145:13; Isa. 40:28; Dan. 
4:3,34; Heb. 1:8; 9:14. The phrase " for 
ever and ever " is used 20 times in the 
New Testament. In 16 of these it is spo- 
ken of God himself, in one case of the fu- 
ture bliss of the redeemed, and in two of 
the future woe of the ungodly — all alike 
unending. The decisions of the judgment 
day are final, in regard to both, Matt. 25:46; 
1 John 3:15; 5:11. 

E'VIL-MERO'DACH, the son and succes- 
sor of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, 
B. C. 561. His friendly treatment of Jehoi- 
achin the captive king of Judah, in relea- 
sing him from prison and variously distin- 
guishing him above other captives, is men- 
tioned to his praise, 2 Kin. 25:27; Jer. 
52 : 3 1-34. His reign and life were cut short 
by a conspiracy, headed by Neriglissar his 
sister's husband, who succeeded him, B. C. 

559- 

EXCEEDING, EX'CELLENT, surpassing 
description, Gen. 15:1; 2 Sam. 8:8; Job 
37:23; Dan. 2:31 ; 2 Pet. 1:17. 

EXCOMMUNICA'TION, an ecclesiastical 
penalty, by which they who incur the guilt 
of any heinous sin are separated from the 
church, and deprived of its spiritual ad- 
vantages. Thus the Jews " put out of the 
synagogue" those they deemed unworthy, 
John 9:22; 12:42; 16:2. There were sev- 
eral degrees of excommunication among 
them : one a temporary and partial exclu- 
sion from ecclesiastical privileges, and 
from society; the last, a complete excision 
from the covenant people of God and their 
numerous privileges, and abandonment to 
eternal perdition. See Anathema. 

The right and duty of excommunication 
when necessary were recognized in the 
Christian church by Christ and his apos- 
tles, Matt. 18:15-18; 1 Cor. 5:1-13; 16:22; 
Gal. 5:12; 1 Tim. 1:20; Titus 3:10. The 
offender, found guilty and incorrigible, was 
to be excluded from the Lord's Supper and 
cut off from the body of believers. This 
excision from Christian fellowship does not 
release one from any obligation to obey 

165 



EXE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EXO 



the law of God and the gospel of Christ ; 
nor exempt him from any relative duties, 
as a man or a citizen. The censure of the 
church, on the other hand, is not to be ac- 
companied, as among papists, with enmity, 
curses, and persecution. It implies a with- 
drawal from those offices of civility and fra- 
ternity which a man is at liberty to pay or 
to withhold, but not from the indispensable 
duties of humanity, founded on nature, the 
law of nations, and the spirit of Christian- 
ity, 2 Thess. 3:6, 15; 2 John 10, 11. 

EXECU'TIONER, Mark 6:27, soldier of 
the guard. 

EX'ODUS, going out, the name of the 2d 
book of Moses and of the Bible, which nar- 
rates the departure of the Israelites from 
Egypt. It continues the wonderful and 
important history begun in Genesis, now 
assuming a national rather than personal 
or family form, and rehearsing the steps 
which led on the establishment of the He- 
brew Theocracy. It was evidently written 
by an eye-witness, and comprises a period 
of about 145 years, from the death of Jo- 
seph to the erection of the tabernacle in 
the desert, A. M. 2369-2514. The various 
topics of the book may be thus presented : 
(1.) The oppression of the Israelites, under 
the change of dynasty which sprung up 
after the death of Joseph. (2.) The youth, 
education, patriotism, and flight of Moses, 
ch. 2-6. (3.) The commission of Moses, 
the perversity of Pharaoh, and the inflic- 
tion of the 10 plagues in succession, ch. 
7-11. (4.) The institution of the Passover, 
the sudden departure of the Israelites, the 
passage of the Red Sea, and the thanksgiv- 
ing of Moses and the people on the oppo- 
site shore, after the destruction of Pharaoh 
and his host, ch. 12-15. (5-) The narration 
of various miracles wrought in behalf of 
the people during their journeyings to- 
wards Sinai, ch. 15-17. (6.) The promul- 
gation of the law on Mount Sinai. This 
includes the preparation of the people by 
Moses, and the promulgation, first of the 
moral law, then of the judicial law, and 
subsequently of the ceremonial law, inclu- 
ding the instructions for the erection of the 
tabernacle and the completion of that house 
of God, ch. 19-40. 

The scope of the book is not only to pre- 
serve the memorial of the departure of the 
Israelites from Egypt, but to present to 
view the church of God in her afflictions 
and triumphs ; to point out the providen- 
tial care of God over her, and the judg- 
ments inflicted on her enemies. It clearly 
166 



shows the accomplishment of the divine 
promises and prophecies delivered to Abra- 
ham : that his posterity would be numer- 
ous, Gen. 15:5; 17:4-6; 46:27; Num. 1:1-3, 
46; and that they should be afflicted in a 
land not their own, whence they should 
depart in the 4th generation with great 
substance, Gen. 15:13-16; Exod. 12:40,41. 
Their exodus in many particulars well illus- 
trates the beginning, progress, and end of 
the believer's salvation, and the history of 
Christ's church in the wilderness of this 
world, until her arrival in the heavenly 
Canaan. See 1 Cor. 10; and also the Epis- 
tle to the Hebrews. The book of Exodus 
brings before us many and singular types 
of Christ: Moses, Deut. 18:15; Aaron, Heb. 
4:14-16; 5:4, 5; the paschal lamb, Exod. 
12:46; John 19:36; 1 Cor. 5:7, 8; the man- 
na, Exod. 16:15; 1 Cor. 10:3; the rock in 
Horeb, Exod. 17:6; 1 Cor. 16:4; the mercy- 
seat, Exod. 37:6; Rom. 3:25; Heb. 4:16; 
the tabernacle, Exod. 40, " The Word tab- 
ernacled among us," John 1 : 14. 

This departure from Egypt, and the sub- 
sequent wanderings of the children of Is- 
rael in the desert, form one of the great 
epochs in their history. They were con- 
stantly led by Jehovah, and the whole se- 
ries of events is a constant succession of 
miracles. From their breaking up at Ram- 
eses, to their arrival on the confines of the 
promised land, there was an interval of 40 
years, during which one whole generation 
passed away, and the whole Mosaic law 
was given, and sanctioned by the thunders 
and lightnings of Sinai. There is no por- 
tion of history extant which so displays 
the interposition of an overruling Provi- 
dence in the affairs both of nations and of 
individuals, as that which recounts these 
wanderings of Israel. 

The 430 years referred to in Exod. 12:40, 
date, according to the received chronol- 
ogy, from the time when the promise was 
made to Abraham, Gen. 15:13- From the 
arrival of Jacob in Egypt, to the exodus of 
his posterity, was about 215 years. The 
75 souls had now become 600,000, besides 
women, children, and old men. They took 
with them great numbers of cattle, and 
much Egyptian spoil. It was only by the 
mighty hand of God that their deliverance 
was effected ; and each of the miracles ex- 
ecuted judgment on the beastly gods of the 
people, Exod. 12:12, while the death of the 
firstborn in each house must have seemed 
to them an avenging of their slaughter of 
the Hebrew infants, Exod. 12:12. 



EXO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EXO 




After the ioth and decisive plague had 
been sent, the Israelites were dismissed 
from Egypt in haste. They are supposed 
to have been assembled at Rameses, a 
chief city in the land of Goshen, about 50 
miles northwest of Suez, on the ancient 
canal which united the Nile with the Red 
Sea. They set off on the 15th day of the 
1st month, the day after the Passover, that 
is, about the middle of April. Their course 
was southeast as far as Etham ; but then, 
instead of keeping on directly to Sinai, 
they turned to the south, Exod. 14:2, on 
the west side of the Red Sea, which they 
reached 3 days after starting, probably 
near Suez. Here, by means of a strong 
east wind, God miraculously divided the 
waters of the sea in such a way that the 
Israelites passed over the bed of it on dry 
ground ; while the Egyptians, who attempt- 
ed to follow them, were drowned by the 



returning waters. The arm of the sea at 
Suez is now only 3 or 4 miles wide, and at 
low water may be forded. It is known to 
have been formerly wider and deeper; but 
the drifting sands of ages have greatly 
filled and altered it. The miracle here 
wrought was an amazing one, and revealed 
the hand of God more signally than any of 
the 10 plagues had done. It should here 
be stated, also, that some geographers think 
this miracle took place below Mount Ata- 
kah, 8 or 10 miles south of Suez, where 
the sea is about 6 miles wide. This opin- 
ion is liable to several objections, though 
it cannot be proved to be false. At this 
late day the precise locality may be undis- 
coverable, like the point of a soul's transi- 
tion from the bondage of Satan into the 
kingdom of God ; but in both cases the 
work is of God, and the glory of it is his 
alone. 

167 



EXO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EXP 



Having offered thanksgiving to God for 
their wonderful deliverance, the Israelites 
advanced along the eastern shore of the 
Red Sea, and through the valleys and des- 
ert to Mount Sinai. This part of their route 
may be readily traced, and Marah, Elim, 
and the desert of Sin have been with much 
probability identified. They arrived at 
Mount Sinai in the 3d month, or June, prob- 
ably near the beginning of it, having been 
1% months on their journey. Here the law 
was given, and here they abode during all 
the transactions recorded in the remainder 
of Exodus, in Leviticus, and in the first 9 
chapters of Numbers, that is, until the 20th 
day of the 2d month (May) in the follow- 
ing year, a period of about 11 months. 

Breaking up at this time from Sinai, they 
marched northwards through the desert of 
Paran, or perhaps along the eastern arm of 
the Red Sea and north through El-Arabah, 
to Kadesh-barnea, near the southeast bor- 
der of Canaan. Rephidim near Mount Si- 
nai, and Taberah, Kibroth-hattaavah, and 
Hazeroth, on their journey north, were the 
scenes of incidents which may be found 
described under their several heads. From 
Kadesh-barnea, spies were sent out to view 
the promised land, and brought back an 
evil report, probably in August of the same 
year. The people murmured, and were di- 
rected by Jehovah to turn back and wander 
in the desert, until the carcasses of that 
generation should all fall in the wilder- 
ness, Num. 14:25. This they did, wander- 
ing from one station to another in the great 
desert of Paran, lying south of Palestine, 
and also in the great sandy valley called 
El-Ghor and chiefly El-Arabah, which ex- 
tends from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of 
Akaba, the eastern arm of the Red Sea. 
See Jordan. Where and how these long 
years were spent we are not informed, nor 
by what routes they traversed the desert, 
nor how they were furnished with food ex- 
cept manna. Moses says they " compassed 
Mount Seir many days," always under the 
guidance of the pillar of fire and cloud, 
Num. 9:22; he also gives a list of 17 sta- 
tions, mostly unknown, where they rested 
or dwelt before reaching Ezion-geber, Num. 
33 :I 9~35: an d then mentions their return 
to Kadesh, ver. 36, 37, in the 1st month, 
Num. 20:1, after an interval of almost 38 
years. While thus a second time encamped 
at Kadesh, Moses sent to the king of Idu- 
maea, to ask liberty to pass through his 
dominions, that is, through the chain of 
mountains (Mount Seir) lying along the 
1 68 



eastern side of the great valley El-Arabah. 
See Idum^ea. This was refused ; and Is- 
rael, feeling too weak to penetrate into Pal- 
estine from the south, in face of the power- 
ful tribes of Canaanites dwelling there, 
was compelled to take the southern pas- 
sage around Edom, Num. 21 14. Soon after 
turning they came to Mount Hor, where 
Aaron died and was buried, Num. 20 : 20-28. 
Proceeding southward along the valley El- 
Arabah to Ezion-geber, at the head of the 
eastern gulf of the Red Sea, they here 
passed through the eastern mountains, and 
then turned north along the eastern desert, 
by the route which the great Syrian cara- 
van of Mohammedan pilgrims now passes 
in going to Mecca. They arrived at the 
brook Zered, on the southern border of 
Moab, just 40 years after their departure 
from Egypt. 

See a tabular view of the various en- 
campments of the Israelites, under Wan- 
derings. 

EXOR'CISTS, from a Greek word signi- 
fying to conjure, to use the name of God or 
certain magical ceremonies with design to 
expel devils from places or bodies which 
they possess. The apostles were enabled 
to cast out evil spirits in Christ's name, 
Matt. 10:1; Mark 16:17; Luke 10:17; an d 
designing men, both before and after the 
Saviour's death, pretended to exercise the 
same power, Matt. 12:27; Mark 9:38; Luke 
9:49, 50; Acts 19:13-17. Exorcists were 
thought to have gained this power by secret 
studies respecting the nature of demons, 
and the powers of certain herbs, drugs, and 
stones, and were accustomed to use vari- 
ous forms of adjuration and incantation in 
their unlawful art ; but the whole was de- 
lusion and imposture, and strictly forbid- 
den. See Divination. 

EXPIA'TION, an act by which satisfac- 
tion is made for a crime, and the liability 
to punishment for it is cancelled. It sup- 
poses penitence and faith on the sinner's 
part. Among the Jews, expiation was ef- 
fected by a divinely appointed and typical 
system of sacrifices, all pointing to Christ. 
The New Testament shows him to be the 
true sin-offering for mankind, "the Lamb 
of God," "our Passover," offering " his own 
blood," and putting away " sin by the sac- 
rifice of himself," John 1:29; 1 Cor. 5:7; 
Eph. 1:7; Heb. 9:26. 

The day of Expiation, or atonement, 
was a yearly solemnity, observed with rest 
and fasting on the 10th day of Tishri, 5 days 
before the Feast of Tabernacles, Lev. 23 : 27 ; 



EYE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EZE 



25:9; Num. 29:7. This would now be in 
the early part of October. The ceremonies 
of this all-important day are minutely de- 
scribed in Lev. 16. On this day alone the 
high-priest entered the Most Holy Place, 
Heb.9:7; but the various rites of the day 
required him to enter several times, robed 
in white : first with a golden censer and a 
vessel filled with incense; then with the 
blood of the bullock, which he had offered 
for his own sins and those of all the priests, 
in which he dipped his finger, and sprin- 
kled it 7 times below and once above 
the mercy-seat. This done, he left the ba- 
sin of blood behind, and withdrew again. 
The 3d time he entered with the blood of 
the ram which he had offered for the sins 
of the nation, with which hie sprinkled to- 
wards the veil of the tabernacle 8 times ; 
and having mixed it with the blood of the 
bullock, he sprinkled again towards the 
horns of the altar of incense 7 times, and 
once above it towards the east ; after which, 
having again left the sanctuary and taken 
with him the basins of blood, he poured 
out the whole on the floor of the altar of 
burnt-offering. The 4th time he entered 
to bring out the censer and vessel of in- 
cense ; and having returned, he washed 
his hands and performed the other servi- 
ces of the day. The ceremony of the scape- 
goat also took place on this day. Two goats 
were set apart, one of which was sacrificed 
to the Lord, while the other, the goat " for 
complete separation," which was chosen 
by lot to be set at liberty, was sent into the 
desert burdened with the sins of the peo- 
ple, Num. 29:7-11. All these solemn rites 
pointed to Christ, and in every age there 
were many believers who had spiritual 
discernment of their sacred meaning, Heb. 
9-1 1. They looked unto Him whom they 
had pierced, and mourned. As this day of 
expiation was the great fast-day of the 
Jewish Church, so godly sorrow for sin 
characterizes the Christian's looking unto 
the Lamb of God, and " the rapture of par- 
don " is mingled with " penitent tears." 

EYE. The same Hebrew word means 
both eye and fountain. Besides its com- 
mon use, to denote the organ of sight, it is 
often used figuratively in the Bible. Most 
of these passages, however, require no ex- 
planation. The eyes of criminals or cap- 
tives are still sometimes put out in the 
East, as of old, Judg. 16:21; Jer. 52:11. 
The expression in Psa. 123:2, is elucidated 
by the fact that many Eastern servants are 
taught to stand always upon the watch. 



and are in general directed by a nod, a 
wink, or some slight motion of the fingers 
imperceptible to strangers. Many Scrip- 
ture phrases intimate the soul-like nature 
of the eye, quickly and truly expressing 
the thoughts of the heart: such as "the 
bountiful eye " and the " evil eye," Prov. 
22:9; 23:6; " haughty eyes " and " wanton 
eyes," Prov. 6:17; Isa. 3:16. " The lust of 
the eyes," 1 John 2:16, expresses a craving 
for any of the gay vanities of this life. 
The threatening against "the eye that 
mocketh at his father," Prov. 30:17, is ex- 
plained by the habit of birds of prey, which 
attack the eyes of a living enemy, and 
quickly devour those of the dead. A " sin- 
gle " eye, Matt. 6:22, is one which is clear, 
and sees every object as it is. See Apple. 
Jezebel, 2 Kin. 9:30, is said to have 
"painted her face," literally "put her eyes 
in paint." This was sometimes done to 
excess, Jer. 4:30; and was practised by 
abandoned women, Prov. 6:25, A small 
probe of wood, ivory, or silver is wet with 
rose-water, and dipped in an impalpable 




powder; this is then drawn between the 
lids of the eye nearly closed, and leaves a 
narrow black border, which is thought to 
make the eyes appear large and lustrous. 
The powder for this purpose, called kohl, 
is deposited like lampblack over the flame 
of a kind of aromatic resin, and sometimes 
is medicated by lead ore and other sub- 
stances for the benefit of the eyes. 

EYE-SER'VICE, performing duties reluc- 
tantly, under watch, Eph. 6:6; Col. 3:22. 

EZE'KIEL, the strength of God, son of 
169 



EZI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FAI 



Buzi, a prophet of the sacerdotal race, was 
carried captive to Babylon by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, with Jehoiachin king of Judah, B. C. 
598, and placed by the river Chebar. See 
Nineveh. He began his ministry " in the 
thirtieth year " — of his age, according to 
the general account; or rather, in the 30th 
year after the covenant was renewed with 
God in the reign of Josiah, Ezek. 1:1, which 
answers to the 5th year of Ezekiel's captiv- 
ity. The elders of Israel resorted to him 
for direction, Ezek. 8:1 ; 14:1 ; 20:1 ; 33:31. 
He prophesied 22 years, B. C. 595-573, till 
the 14th year after the final captivity of 
Jerusalem. During the first 8 years he was 
contemporary with Jeremiah. Daniel also 
lived at the same time, Ezek. 14:14, 16; 
28:3, though most of his predictions are of 
a later date. The manner in which his 
messages were received is described in 
ch. 33:30-32. There is wonderful vehe- 
mence in his writings, and a profusion of 
allegories and symbols. He was zealous 
for the honor of God, and ready for any 
sacrifice for the good of his people, ch. 4:4- 
6; 24:15-18. He was one of the four "great- 
er prophets," so called, and a priest. 

The book of Ezekiel abounds with 
sublime visions of the divine glory, and 
awful denunciations against Israel for their 
rebellious spirit against God, and the abom- 
inations of their idolatry, ch. 1-24. It con- 
tains also similar denunciations against 
Tyre and other hostile nations, ch. 25-32. 
The latter part of the book contains oracles 
respecting the return and restoration of the 
people of God, ch. 33-48, with a symbolical 
description of the New Jerusalem, not in- 
tended to be taken literally. 

EZ'ION-GE'BER, or -GA'BER, a man's 
spine, a city at the northern extremity of 
the Elanitic or eastern fork of the Red Sea, 
and close by Elath. The Israelites rested 
here in the last year of their wanderings 
from Egypt to Canaan, Num. 33:35; Deut. 
2:8. At this port Solomon equipped his 
fleets for the voyage to Ophir, 1 Kin. 9:26. 
A similar enterprise of Jehoshaphat failed, 
1 Kin. 22:48; 2 Chr. 20:36. See Elath 
and Exodus. 

EZ'RA, help, a celebrated priest and lead- 
er of the Jewish nation. He was " a ready 
scribe in the law," a learned, able, and 
faithful man, and appears to have enjoyed 
great consideration in the Persian court. 
During the 80 years embraced in his nar- 
rative, most of the reign of Cyrus passed, 
and the whole reign of Cambyses, Smerdis, 
Darius Hystaspis, Xerxes, and 8 years of 
170 



Artaxerxes Longimanus. From this last 
king he received letters, money, and every 
desirable help, and went at the head of a 
large party of returning exiles to Jerusa- 
lem, B. C. 457 ; Ezra 7. Here he instituted 
many reforms in the conduct of the people 
and in the public worship, establishing 
synagogues, with reading of Scripture and 
prayers, Ezra 8-10; Neh. 8. After this he 
is generally believed to have written the 
books of Chronicles, Ezra, and part of 
Nehemiah ; and to have collected and re- 
vised all the books of the Old Testament 
Scripture which form the present canon. 
In his work he was aided by Nehemiah 
and probably by Malachi. 

The book of Ezra contains a history, 
written partly in Chaldee, of the return of 
the Jews from the time of Cyrus, ch. 1-6 ; 
then, 60 years later, and comprising a sin- 
gle year, ch. 7-10, an account of his own 
subsequent proceedings, B. C. 456. There 
are 2 apocryphal books ascribed to him 
under the name of Esdras, the Greek form 
of his name. 

Two others of this name are mentioned 
in 1 Chr. 4:17; Neh. 12:1. 

F. 

FA'BLE, in the New Testament an idle, 
groundless, and worthless story, like the 
mythological legends of the heathen and 
the vain traditions of the Jews. These 
were often not only false and weak, but 
pernicious, 1 Tim. 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim. 4:4; 
Titus 1:14; 2 Pet. 1 : 16. In the Old Testa- 
ment there occur 2 fables in the better 
sense of the word : that of Jotham, Judg. 
9:8-15, the oldest on record; and that of 
Jehoash, 2 Kin. 14:9. 

FACE, and presence, expressed by the 
same word in Hebrew, are often put for 
the person himself, Gen. 48:11; Exod. 
33:14; Isa. 63:9. No man has seen the 
face of God, that is, had a full revelation 
of his glory, Exod. 33 : 20 ; John 1 : 18 ; 1 Tim. 
6: 16. To see him " face to face," is to en- 
joy his presence, Gen. 32:30; Num. 14:14; 
Deut. 5:4, and have a clear manifestation 
of his nature and grace, 1 Cor. 13:12. 
Those who rightly "seek his face" are 
blessed, 1 Chr. 16:11; 2 Chr. 7:14; Psa. 
24:3-6. " Open face," in 2 Cor. 3: 18, A. V., 
is properly " unveiled face." Compare ver. 
14. A similar word is used in ch. 4:3, " if 
our gospel is veiled, it is veiled." 

FAIN, Job 27:22; Luke 15:16, gladly. 

FAIR, Isa. 54:11, beautiful. A fair com- 



FAI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FAN 



plexion, not darkened by exposure to the 
sun, was highly prized not only as a beauty, 
but as a proof of rank, Gen. 12:11, 14. 
Compare Song 1 :5, 6, 8. 

FAIR-KA'VENS, a roadstead or small 
bay, near the town of Lasea, midway on 
the southern coast of Crete, where Paul 
wished to winter when on the voyage to 
Rome, Acts 27:8. This harbor is 4 or 5 
miles east of Cape Matala, where the coast 
turns to the north, and Paul's vessel on 
passing it would again encounter the north- 
west wind. The sailors preferred Phenice 
as safer, and were wrecked in consequence. 
Fair -havens still retains its old Greek 
name. 

FAIRS, though not intended by the He- 
brew word so translated in Ezek. 27, which 
rather signifies wares, were doubtless com- 
mon in the East in ancient times, as now. 

FAITH is the assent of the understand- 
ing to any truth. Religious faith is assent 
to the truth of divine revelation and of the 
events and doctrines contained in it. This 
may be merely historical, without produ- 
cing any effect on our lives and conversa- 
tion; and it is then a dead faith, such as 
even the devils have. But a living or sav- 
ing faith not only believes the great doc- 
trines of religion as true, but embraces 
them with the heart and affections ; and is 
thus the source of sincere obedience to the 
divine will, exhibited in the life and conver- 
sation. Faith in Christ is a grace wrought 
in the heart by the Holy Spirit, whereby we 
receive Christ as our Saviour, our Prophet, 
Priest, and King, and love and obey him 
as such. This living faith in Christ is the 
means of salvation — not meritoriously, but 
instrumentally. Without it there can be 
no forgiveness of sins, and no holiness of 
life; and they who are justified by faith, 
live and walk by faith, Mark 16:16; John 
3:15,16; Acts 16:31; 1 John 5:10. 

True faith is an essential grace, and a 
mainspring of Christian life. By it the 
Christian overcomes the world, the flesh, 
and the devil, and receives the crown of 
righteousness, 2 Tim. 4:7, 8. In virtue of 
it, worthy men of old wrought great won- 
ders, Heb. 11; Acts 14:9; 1 Cor. 13:2, being 
sustained by Omnipotence in doing what- 
ever God enjoined, Matt. 17 : 20 ; Mark 9 : 23 ; 
11 :23, 24. In Rom. 1:8, faith is put for the 
exhibition of faith, in the practice of all the 
duties implied in a profession of faith. In 
Heb. 10:23, "profession of our faith" 
should read, as in R. V., " confession of 
our hope." 



FAITH'FUL, in many passages in the 
Bible, means "believing." Thus in Gal. 
3:9, believers are said to be blessed with 
Abraham, because of his preeminent dis- 
tinction above all men for steadfast faith 
in God. This appellation is given in Scrip- 
ture to true Christians, to indicate not only 
their saving faith in Christ, but their trust- 
worthy and consistent Christian character, 
Acts 16:15; 1 Cor. 4:17; Eph. 6:21; Col. 
4:9; 1 Pet. 5:12. "A faithful saying" is 
one that cannot prove false, 1 Tim. 1 : 15; 
2 Tim. 2: 11. 

FAITH'FULNESS is an infinite attribute 
of Jehovah ; adapted to make perfect both 
the confidence of those who believe his 
word and rely on his promises, and the 
despair of those who doubt his word and 
defy his threatenings, Deut. 28:26; Num. 
23:19; Psa. 89:33, 34; Heb. 10:23. 

FAITH'LESS, means not false-hearted, 
but unbelieving, Mark 9:19. 
FAL'LOW-DEER'. See ROE. 
FAL'LOW GROUND, land suitable for 
cultivation, but not sowed, Hos. 10:12. 

FAME, rumor, tidings, Gen. 45:16; Mark 
1:28. 

FAMIL'IAR SPIRIT, household sprite or 
attendant. See Divination. 

FAM'INE. Scripture records several 
famines in Palestine and the neighboring 
countries, Gen. 12:10; 26:1; Ruth 1:1; 
2 Kin. 6 : 25 ; Acts 1 1 : 28. The most remark- 
able one was that of 7 years in and around 
Egypt, while Joseph was governor, Gen. 41. 
It was distinguished for its duration, ex- 
tent, and severity ; particularly as Egypt is 
one of the countries least subject to such a 
calamity, by reason of its general fertility. 
Famine is sometimes a natural effect, as 
when the Nile does not overflow in Egypt, 
or rains do not fall in Judaea, at the cus- 
tomary season; or when caterpillars, lo- 
custs, or other insects destroy the fruits. 
But all natural causes are under the con- 
trol of God ; and 
he often so di- 
rects them as 
to chastise the 
rebellious with 
want, 2 Kin. 8: 1, 
2 ; Ezek. 6:11; 
Matt. 24:7. The 
worst famine is 
a spiritual one, 
Amos 8:11. 
FAN, an in- 
strument used for winnowing grain. In 
the East, fans are of two kinds : one, a sort 

171 




FAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FAV 



of fork, having several prongs, and a han- 
dle 4 feet long; with this they throw up 
the grain to the wind, that the chaff may 
be blown away : the other sort of fan is 
formed to produce wind when the air is 
calm, Isa. 30:24. This process illustrates 
the complete separation which Christ the 
Judge will effect between the righteous 
and the wicked, Jer. 15:7; Matt. 3:12. See 
Threshing. 




FARTHING (ASSARION). 

FAR'THING. Two different Roman 
brass coins are represented by this word: 
one of these, the assarton, Matt. 10:29, 
Luke 12:6, was worth a cent and a half; 
the other, the kodrantes, Matt. 5:26, was 
probably nearly 4 mills. 

FASH'ION, Phil. 2:8, make or form. 

FAST'ING has in all ages, and among all 
nations, been practised in times of sorrow 
and affliction, Jonah 3:5. It may be re- 
garded as a dictate of nature, which under 
these circumstances refuses nourishment, 
suspends the cravings of hunger, and 
prompts to abstinence in other respects. 
In the Bible no example is mentioned of 
fasting, properly so called, before Moses. 
His 40 days' fast, like that of Elijah and 
of our Lord, was miraculous, Deut. 9:9; 
1 Kin. 19:8; Matt. 4:2. The Jews often had 
recourse to this practice, when they had 
occasion to humble themselves before God, 
to confess their sins and deprecate his dis- 
pleasure, Judg. 20:26; 1 Sam. 7:6; 2 Sam. 
12:16; Neh. 9:1; Jer. 36:9. Especially in 
times of public calamity, they appointed 
extraordinary fasts, and made even chil- 
dren at the breast fast, Joel 2:16; but see 
Dan. 10:2, 3. They began the observance 
of their fasts at sunset, and remained with- 
out eating until the same hour the next 
day. The great day of expiation was prob- 
ably the only annual and national fast-day 
among them, Acts 27:9; though there were 
several partial fasts in memory of the de- 
struction of Jerusalem, etc., Jer. 39 : 2 ; 
52:12-14; Zech. 7:3-5- 

In New Testament times strict Jews fast- 
ed twice a week, on the 2d and 5th days, 
Luke 18:12. It does not appear by his 
own practice or by his commands that our 
172 



Lord instituted any particular fast. On 
one occasion he intimated that his disciples 
would fast after his death, Luke 5:34, 35. 
Accordingly, the life of the apostles and 
first believers was a life of self-denials, suf- 
ferings, and fastings, 2 Cor. 5:7; 11:27. 
.Our Saviour recognized the custom, and 
the apostles practised it as occasion re- 
quired, Matt. 6:16-18; Acts 13:3; yet they 
did not enjoin it as imperative, Rom. 14:1- 
3; 1 Tim. 4:3, 4. We should always re- 
member that abstinence or entire fasting 
has no virtue by itself, but is valuable only 
as a help to penitence and holiness, Isa. 
58:4-7. One mark of the great apostasy 
is " commanding to abstain from meats," 
1 Tim. 4:3. The word fasting is omitted 
in R. V. in 1 Cor. 7:5. 

FAT. The fat portions of animals offered 
in sacrifice were always to be consumed, 
as being the choice part and especially sa- 
cred to the Lord. The blood was also 
sacred, as containing the life of the animal. 
The Jews were forbidden to eat either, Lev. 
3:16, 17; 7:23-27. This prohibition applied 
to the fat lying in masses and easily sep- 
arated, not to that intermixed with the lean, 
Neh. 8 : 10. The " fat of the wheat," " of the 
mighty," etc., denotes the choicest. In Psa. 
17:10, a dull and sluggish heart is meant. 

FAT, or VAT, Joel 2:24; 3:13; Mark 12:1, 
a receptacle into which the juice of grapes 
flowed from the wine-press. 

FA'THER, is often synonymous with an- 
cestor, founder, or originator, as Gen. 4:20, 
21; John 8:56; Rom. 4:16. Joseph was a 
father to Pharaoh, Gen. 45:8, as his coun- 
sellor and provider. God is the Father 
of men, as their Creator, Deut. 32:6; Isa. 
63:16; 64:8; Luke 3:38. But as we have 
forfeited the rights of children by our sins, 
it is only through Christ that we can call 
God by that endearing name, " our Fa- 
ther," John 20:17; Rom. 8:15-17. 

In patriarchal times, a father was master 
and judge in his own household, and exer- 
cised an authority almost unlimited over 
his family. Filial disobedience or disre- 
spect was a high offence. Under the law, 
certain acts of children were capital crimes, 
Exod. 21:15-17; Lev. 20:9; and the father 
was required to bring his son to the public 
tribunal, Deut. 21:18-21. It is a first duty 
of parents to imbue their children with re- 
ligious truth and train them to the service 
of God, Exod. 12:26, 27; Deut. 4:9, 10; 6:6, 
7; 11:18,19; Psa. 78:5-8; Eph. 6:4, and to 
hope for success, Prov. 22 : 6. See Mother. 

FA'VOR, usually grace or good-will ; in 



FEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FEA 



several passages literally face, or propi- 
tious countenance, Psa. 45:12; 119:58; 
Prov. 19 : 6 ; 29 : 26. The same Hebrew 
word is rendered face in Gen. 43:3, 5; 
Num. 6 : 25 ; Job 33 : 26 ; Ezek. 39 : 29. 

FEAR, Gen. 31:42, 53> the being who is 
feared, i. <?., worshipped. 

FEAR OF GOD is of two kinds. In un- 
renewed men and in devils, Acts 24:25; 
Jas. 2:19, it is the sure consequence of sin, 
and leads to no repentance or faith. The 
heathen colonists of Samaria " feared the 
Lord," and offered some forms of worship, 
but " served their own gods " and sins also, 
2 Kin. 17:25, ^. This fear mingles often 
with the feelings of true Christians, Rom. 
8:15; 1 John 4:18, but ought to be ban- 
ished. True filial fear is implanted by 
God himself, Psa. 86:11; Jer. 32:40; re- 
strains from sin, Psa. 4:4; 2 Cor. 7:1; is 
associated with love, Deut. 10:12, trust, 
Prov. 14:26, and obedience, and is often 
spoken of as the synonym of all true reli- 
gion, Gen. 22:12 ; Psa. 25:14; 112:1. Christ 
himself was the model in this fear, Isa. 
11:2; Heb. 5:7; and they who thus fear 
God have nothing else to fear, Isa. 51 : 7, 12, 
13; Luke 12:4-7. 

Sinners ought indeed to tremble before 
a just and holy God, Gen. 3:10; Matt. 10 : 28, 
and to fear their inevitable doom, Zeph. 
1:12; Mai. 4:1; Rev. 6:15-17; but this fear 
is remorse and despair, and can only be 
" the beginning of wisdom " when trans- 
formed by penitence, love, and trust in his 
mercy through the Redeemer, John 3:16, 
18; so that they can serve him with the 
reverence and godly fear of his children, 
Eph. 5:1; Heb. 12:28, 29. 

FEASTS. God appointed several festi- 
vals, or days of rest and worship, among 
the Jews, to perpetuate the memory of 
great events : the Sabbath commemorated 
the creation of the world ; the Passover, 
the departure out of Egypt ; the Pentecost, 
as many think, the law given at Sinai, etc. 
At the 3 great feasts of the year, the Pass- 
over, the Pentecost, and that of Taberna- 
cles, all the males of the nation were re- 
quired to visit the temple, Exod. 23: 14-17 ; 
Deut. 16:16, 17; and to protect their bor- 
ders from invasion during their absence, 
the shield of a special providence was al- 
ways interposed, Exod. 34:23, 24. The 
other festivals were New Moons, the Feast 
of Trumpets, Purim, Dedication, the Sab- 
bath year, and the year of Jubilee. These 
are described elsewhere. The observance 
of these sacred festivals was adapted not 



merely to freshen the remembrance of their 
early history as a nation, but to keep alive 
the influence of religion and the expecta- 
tion of the Messiah, to deepen their joy in 
God, to dispel animosities and jealousies, 
to promote beneficence, and to form new 
associations between the . different tribes 
and families. See also Day of Expiation. 

In the Christian church we have no fes- 
tival that clearly appears to have been in- 
stituted by our Saviour or his apostles; but 
as we commemorate his death as often as 
we celebrate his supper, he has hereby 
seemed to institute a perpetual feast. Chris- 
tians have always celebrated the memory 
of his resurrection by regarding the Sab- 
bath, which we see, from Rev. 1:10, was in 
John's time known as "the Lord's day." 

Feasts of love, Jude 12, were public 
banquets of a frugal kind, instituted by 
the primitive Christians, and connected by 
them with the celebration of the Lord's 
Supper. The provisions were contributed 
by the more wealthy, and were common to 
all Christians, whether rich or poor, who 
chose to partake. Portions were also sent 
to the sick and absent members. These 
love-feasts were intended as an exhibition 
of mutual Christian affection ; but they 
became subject to abuses, and were after- 
wards generally discontinued, 1 Cor. 11:17- 

34- 

The Hebrews were a hospitable people, 
and were wont to welcome their guests 
with a feast, and dismiss them with anoth- 
er, Gen. 19:3; 31:27; Judg. 6:19; 2 Sam. 
3:20; 2 Kin. 6:23. The returning prodigal 
was thus welcomed, Luke 15:23. Many 
joyful domestic events were observed with 
feasting: birthdays, etc., Gen. 21:8; 40:20; 
Job 1:4; Matt. 14:6; marriages, when the 
festival often continued a week, Gen. 29 : 22 ; 
Judg. 14:10; John 2:1-10; sheep-shearing 
and harvesting, Judg. 9:27; 1 Sam. 25:2, 
36; 2 Sam. 13:23. A feast was also provi- 
ded at funerals, 2 Sam. 3:35; Jer. 16:7. 
Those who brought sacrifices and offerings 
to the temple were wont to feast upon them 
there, with joy and praise to God, Deut. 
12:6, 7; 1 Sam. 16:5; 2 Sam. 6:19. They 
were taught to invite all the needy to par- 
take with them, Deut. 16:11; and even to 
make special feasts for the poor, Deut. 
12:17-19; 14:28, 29; 26:12-15; a custom 
which the Saviour specially commended, 
Luke 14:12-14. Most of these feasts were 
not merely seasons of social enjoyment, 
but occasions hallowed by religious emo- 
tions and services. 

173 



FEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FES 



The manner of holding a feast was an- 
ciently marked with great simplicity. But 
at the time of Christ many Roman customs 
had been introduced. The feast or "sup- 
per" usually took place at 5 or 6 in the 
afternoon, and often continued to a late 
hour. The guests were invited some time 
in advance ; and those who accepted the 
invitation were again notified by servants 
when the hour arrived, Matt. 22:4-8 ; Luke 
14:16-24. The door was guarded against 
uninvited persons; and was at length 
closed for the day by the hand of the mas- 
ter of the house, Matt. 25:10; Luke 13:25. 
Sometimes very large numbers were pres- 
ent, Esth. 1:3, 5; Luke 14:16-24; and on 
such occasions a " governor of the feast " 
was appointed, whose social qualities, tact, 
firmness, and temperance fitted him to pre- 
side, John 2:8. The guests were arranged 
with a careful regard to their claims to 
honor, Gen. 43:33 ; 1 Sam. 9:22; Prov. 25:6, 
7; Matt. 23:6; Luke 14:7; in which mat- 
ter the laws of etiquette are still jealously 
enforced in the East. Sometimes the host 
provided light, rich, loose robes for the 
company; and if so, the refusing to wear 
one was a gross insult, Eccl. 9:8; Matt. 
22:11; Rev. 3:4, 5. The guests reclined 
around the tables ; water and perfumes 
were served to them, Mark 7:2; Luke 7 : 44- 
46 ; and after eating, the hands were again 
washed, a servant pouring water over 
them. See illustration in Bed. During 
the repast and after it various entertain- 
ments were provided; enigmas were pro- 
posed, Judg. 14:12; Eastern tales were 
told; music and hired dancers, and often 
excessive drinking, etc., occupied the time, 
Isa. 5:12; 24:7-9; Amos 6:5. A mission- 
ary attending a wedding at Calcutta once 
saw an illustration in modern life of Luke 
14:8-11. While conversing with the host 
in the gallery reserved for the more favored 
guests, she saw one man removed from the 
gallery who had no claim to be there, and 
another in the court below invited "up 
higher." See Eating, Food. 

FE'LIX, happy, a Roman governor of Ju- 
daea, originally a slave, but manumitted and 
promoted by Claudius Caesar, from whom 
he received the name of Claudius. He is 
described by the historian Tacitus as cruel, 
licentious, and base, and as having harmed 
Judaea by his mismanagement. In Judaea 
he married Drusilla, sister of the younger 
Agrippa, having enticed her from her hus- 
band Azizus. Paul having been sent by 
Lysias to Caesarea, then the seat of govern- 
174 



ment, Felix gave him an audience, and was 
convinced of his innocence. Nevertheless 
he kept him a prisoner, though with many 
alleviations, in hopes that his friends would 
purchase his liberty by a heavy bribe. 
Meanwhile his wife Drusilla, who was a 
Jewess, desired to hear Paul explain the 
new religion ; and the apostle being sum- 
moned before them, discoursed with his 
usual boldness on justice, chastity, and the 
final judgment. Felix trembled, but hasti- 
ly remanded Paul to confinement, and sti- 
fled his convictions — a melancholy instance 
of the power of lust and the danger of de- 
lay. In rejecting Paul, he rejected Christ 
and heaven — it is to be feared, for ever ! 
Two years after, A. D. 60, he was recalled 
to Rome ; and left Paul in prison, in order 
to appease the Jews. He was brought to 
trial, however, for maladministration, found 
guilty, and barely escaped death through 
the intercession of his brother Pallas, an- 
other royal favorite, Acts 23 : 26 ; 24. 

FENCED, Num. 32:17, 36, fortified. 

FEN'CES, for the protection of vineyards 
and gardens, were often made of stones, or 
large cakes of sun-dried earth, with the 
addition in some cases of a thorn hedge, 
Psa. 80:12; Mic. 7:4. They were a favor- 
ite resort of serpents and locusts, Eccl. 
10:8; Nah. 3:17. 

FER'RET, a sort of weasel, Lev. 11:30. 
The Hebrew word means rather a species 
of lizard, the gecko, which Moses forbids 
as unclean. 

FES'TUS, Porcius, succeeded Felix in 
the government of Judaea, A. D. 60. To 
oblige the Jews, Felix, when he resigned 
his government, left Paul in bonds at Caesa- 
rea in Palestine, Acts 24:27; and when 
Festus arrived, he was entreated by the 
principal Jews to condemn the apostle, or 
to order him up to Jerusalem— they having 
conspired to assassinate him in the way. 
Festus, however, answered that it was not 
customary with the Romans to condemn 
any man without hearing him ; and prom- 
ised to hear their accusations at Caesarea. 
Five days after, on hearing Paul and learn- 
ing the nature of the charges against him, 
and wishing like Felix to conciliate the 
Jews, he proposed to him to abide the issue 
of a trial before the Jewish Sanhedrin. But 
Paul appealed to Caesar, and so secured 
himself from the prosecution of the Jews 
and the intentions of Festus. The gover- 
nor gave him another hearing during a 
congratulatory visit of king Agrippa, in 
order to make out a statement to be for- 



FIE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FIR 



warded with him to Rome. Finding how 
greatly robberies abounded in Judaea, Fes- 
tus very diligently pursued the thieves; 
and he also suppressed a magician, who 
drew the people after him into the desert. 
Josephus speaks well of his brief adminis- 
tration. He died in Judaea, A. D. 62, and 
was succeeded by Albinus. 

FIELD, ground cultivated, but not in- 
closed ; contrasted with the wilderness, 
Gen. 33:19; 36:35, and with a vineyard, 
Num. 22 : 2t„ 24, or a city, Deut. 28 : 3, 16. 
Bounds were marked by stones, to remove 
which was a great crime, Deut. 27 : 17. 
Fields were often traversed by public 
roads, Luke 6:1, and were much exposed 
to straying cattle, which therefore needed 
constant watching, Exod. 22:5. 

FIG. The fig-tree is common in Pales- 
tine and the East, and flourishes with the 
greatest luxuriance in those barren and 
stony situations where little else will grow. 
Its large size, and its abundance of 5-lobed 
leaves, render it a pleasant shade-tree ; and 
its fruit furnished a wholesome food, very 
much used in all the lands of the Bible. 
Thus it was a symbol of peace and plenty, 
1 Kin. 4:25; Mic. 4:4; Zech. 3:10; John 
1:49-51. Figs are of 2 sorts, the "boc- 
core" and the "kermouse." The black 
and white boccore, or early fig, is pro- 
duced in June; though the kermouse, the 
fig properly so called, which is preserved 
and made up into cakes, is rarely ripe be- 
fore August. There is also a long dark- 
colored kermouse, that sometimes hangs 
upon the trees all winter. 




The fruit of the fig-tree is one of the del- 
icacies of the East, and is very often spo- 
ken of in Scripture. The early fig was 
especially prized, Isa. 28:4; Jer. 24:2; Nah. 



3: 12, though the summer fig is most abun- 
dant, 2 Kin. 20:7 ; lsa. 38:21. It is a pecu- 
liarity of the fig-tree that its fruit begins 
to appear before the leaves, and without 
any show of blossoms. It has, indeed, 
small and hidden blossoms, but the pas- 
sage in Hab. 3:17 should read, according 
to the original Hebrew, "Although the fig- 
tree should not dear," instead of " blos- 
som." Its leaves come so late in the spring 
as to justify the words of Christ, " Ye know 
that summer is nigh," Matt. 24:32; Song 
2: 13. The fresh fruit is shaped like a pear. 
The dried figs of Palestine were probably 
like those which are brought to our own 
country ; sometimes, however, they are 
dried on a string. We likewise read of 
" cakes of figs," 1 Sam. 25 : 18 ; 2 Kin. 20 : 7 ; 
1 Chr. 12:40. These were probably formed 
by pressing the fruit forcibly into baskets 
or other vessels, so as to reduce them to a 
solid cake or lump. In this way dates are 
still prepared in Arabia. 

The barren fig-tree which was withered 
at our Saviour's word, as an awful warn- 
ing to unfruitful professors of religion, 
seems to have spent itself in leaves. It 
stood by the wayside, free to all— a single 
tree seen " afar off" to be in full leaf while 
others were not, Mark 11:13; hence it 
was reasonable to expect to find figs upon 
it. Yet there was " nothing thereon, but 
leaves only," Matt. 21:19. Fig-trees still 
overhang the path over the Mount of Ol- 
ives, where this parable was spoken, Matt. 
21:21. It furnishes a striking type of the 
Jewish nation, specially cared for by God, 
Isa. 5, and full of leaves, but not of the 
expected fruit. 

FILE, literally notchedness, 1 Sam. 13:21. 
This verse means simply, " when the mat- 
tocks, etc., were dull." 

FINE, FI'NER, FI'NING, refine, etc., Job 
28:1. 

FIR, an evergreen tree, of beautiful ap- 
pearance, whose lofty height and dense 
foliage afford a spacious shelter and shade. 
The Hebrew word often seems to mean 
the Cypress, which see. It was used for 
shipbuilding, Ezek. 27:5; for musical in- 
struments, 2 Sam. 6:5; for beams and raft- 
ers of houses, 1 Kin. 5:8, 10; 9:11; Song 
1:17. In Nah. 2:3, "fir-trees" means lan- 
ces made of cypress. 

FIRE, in Scripture, is often connected 
with the presence of Jehovah ; as in the 
burning bush, the pillar of fire, and on 
Mount Sinai, Exod. 3:2; 13:21; 19:18; in 
Psalm 18, and the ode of Habakkuk. The 

175 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FIR 



2d coming of Christ will be "in flaming 
fire,'" 2 Thess. 1:8; Dan. 7:9, 10. In the 
New Testament it illustrates the enlight- 
ening, cheering, and purifying agency of 
the Holy Spirit, Matt. 3:11 ; Acts 2:3. By 
sending fire from heaven to consume sac- 
rifices, God often signified his acceptance 
of them, as probably in the case of Abel, 
Gen. 4:4; Abraham, Gen. 15:17; Manoah, 
Judg. 13:19, 20; Elijah, 1 Kin. 18:38; and 
at the dedication of the tabernacle and the 
temple, Lev. 9:24; 2 Chr. 7:1. Hence the 
Hebrew for "accept" is "turn to ashes," 
Psa. 20:3, margin. The fire on the altar 
of burnt offering was to be preserved by 
the priests with the utmost care, Lev. 6:12, 
13. Nadab and Abihu were slain for using 
other fire in burning incense, Lev. 10:1, 
16: 12, or in some way violating the divine 
command, Exod. 30:7, 8. Fire symbolizes 
the sin-consuming holiness of God, his re- 
fining of his people, and punishment of the 
unbelieving, Psa. 66:10; Isa. 31:9; 48:10; 
Mai. 3:1, 2; Heb. 12:29. In many ancient 
religions fire was worshipped ; and children 
were made to pass through the fire to Mo- 
loch, 2 Kin. 17:17; Jer. 7:31; Ezek. 16:21; 
2 3 : 37- T # he Jews had occasion for fires, 
except for cooking, only during a small 
part of the year. Besides their ordinary 
hearths and ovens, they warmed their apart- 
ments with " a fire of coals " in a brazier, 
Jer. 36:22, 23; John 18:18. They were for- 
bidden to kindle a fire on the Sabbath, 
Exod. 35:3 — a prohibition perhaps only of 
cooking on that day, but understood by 
many Jews even now in the fullest extent ; 
it is evaded by employing Gentile servants. 
Another provision of the Mosaic law was 
designed to protect the standing corn, etc., 
in the dry summer season, Exod. 22 : 6. The 
earth is to be destroyed by fire, 2 Pet. y.j', 
of which the destruction of Sodom, and the 
volcanoes and earthquakes which so often 
indicate the internal commotions of the 
globe, may serve as warnings. In Isa. 
24:15, for "fires" say "East." 

FIR'KIN, John 2:6, a Greek measure, 
equivalent to the Hebrew bath, and con- 
taining about 8 gallons. The quantity of 
wine produced by the miracle at Cana was 
large : but the assemblage was also large ; 
the festivities continued, it maybe, a whole 
week, Judg. 14:12; and many might be 
drawn to the scene by hearing of the mir- 
acle. 

FIR'MAMENT, Gen. 1 : 17, the expanse of 
the heavens immediately above the earth. 
The Hebrews seem to have viewed this as 
176 



an immense crystalline dome, studded with 
stars, resting on the far-distant horizon all 
around the spectator, and separating the 
waters above us from those on the earth. 
Through its windows the rain descend- 
ed. It is not necessary to suppose they 
thought it was solid, Psa. 19:1 ; Isa. 40:22. 
It is not the aim of Scripture to give sci- 
entific statements of natural phenomena. 
Teaching religion, not astronomy or phys- 
ics, it does not anticipate modern discover- 
ies, but speaks of natural objects and oc- 
currences in the common language of men 
everywhere. Hence, in part, its attractive- 
ness in all ages as a book for the people. 

FIRSTBORN. This phrase is not always 
to be understood literally ; it is sometimes 
taken for the preeminent, most excellent, 
most distinguished of things, Exod. 4:22; 
Psa. 89:27; Rom. 8:29; Heb. 1:4-6. Thus 
Jesus Christ is " the firstborn of every crea- 
ture," Col. 1:15, inasmuch as he was the 
" Only-begotten " of the Father before any 
creature was produced. He is " the first- 
born from the dead," Col. 1 : 18, because he 
is the beginning, and the author of the 
resurrection of all who die in faith. 

After the destroying angel had slain the 
firstborn of the Egyptians, God ordained 
that all the Jewish firstborn, both of men 
and of beasts for service, should be conse- 
crated to him, an acknowledgment of his 
right as owner and Lord of all, Exod. 
4:22, 23; 19:6; but the male children only 
were subject to this law, and he set apart 
the tribe of Levi to minister to him, in lieu 
of the firstborn, Num. 3:12, 45. If a man 
had several wives, he was obliged to pre- 
sent the firstborn son of each one of them 
to the Lord. Every firstborn son was pre- 
sented at the temple, and redeemed for 5 
shekels. The firstling of a clean beast 
was offered at the temple, not to be re- 
deemed, but to be sacrificed to the Lord, 
Deut. 12:6; 15:19-21; an unclean beast, a 
horse, an ass, or a camel, was either re- 
deemed or exchanged ; an ass was redeem- 
ed by a lamb or 5 shekels ; if not redeemed, 
it was put to death, Exod. 13:2, 11, etc. 
The firstborn son among the Hebrews, as 
among all other nations, enjoyed special 
privileges and honors. See Birthright. 

The "firstborn of death," Job 18:13, 
seems to mean the chief of deadly dis- 
eases; the "firstborn of the poor," Isa. 
14:30, the poorest. 

FIRST-FRUITS were presents made to 
God of part of the fruits of the harvest, to 
express the submission, dependence, and 



FIR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FIT 



thankfulness of the offerers. The portion 
given was instead of the whole, in ac- 
knowledgment that all was due to God. 
They were offered in the tabernacle or 
temple before the crop was gathered, and 
when the harvest was over, before the peo- 
ple began to use their corn. The first of 
these first-fruits, offered in the name of 
the nation, was a sheaf of barley, gathered 
on the 15th of Nisan, in the evening, and 
threshed in a court of the temple. After it 
was well cleaned, about 3 pints of it were 
roasted, and pounded in a mortar. Over 
this was thrown a measure of olive oil and 
a handful of incense ; and the priest, ta- 
king the offering, waved it before the Lord 
towards the 4 cardinal points, throwing a 
handful of it into the fire on the altar, and 
keeping the rest. After this, all were at 
liberty to get in the harvest. When the 
wheat harvest was over, on the day of Pen- 
tecost they offered as first-fruits of another 
kind, in the name of the nation, 2 loaves, 
of about 3 pints of flour each, made of 
leavened dough, Lev. 23:10, 17. In addi- 
tion to these first-fruits, every private per- 
son was obliged to bring his first-fruits to 
the temple, but Scripture prescribes nei- 
ther the time nor the quantity, Exod. 22 : 29 ; 
Deut. 26:1-11. 

There was, besides this, another sort of 
first-fruits paid to God, Num. 15:19, 21; 
Neh. 10:37: when the first bread of the 
season in the family was kneaded, a por- 
tion of it was set apart, and given to the 
priest or Levite of the place ; if there was 
no priest or Levite, it was cast into the 
oven and there consumed. The first-fruits 
of cultivated fields, vineyards, fruit-trees, 
and of wool were required by God for the 
priests or Levites, Num. 18:11-13; Deut. 
18:4. See Fruit. 

Those offerings are also often called first- 
fruits which were brought by the Israelites 
from devotion, to the temple, for the feast 
of thanksgiving, to which they invited their 
relations and friends and the Levites of 
their cities. The first-fruits and tenths 
were the most considerable revenue of the 
priests and Levites, and the neglect of 
these offerings in days of apostasy was 
often reproved by the prophets, 2 Chr. 31 -.4, 
5, 12; Neh. 10:35-37; Ezek. 20:40; Mai. 
3:8. 

Christians have " the first-fruits of the 
Holy Spirit," Rom. 8:23; that is, more 
abundant and more excellent gifts than the 
lews ; these were also a foretaste of the full 
harvest. " Christ is risen from the dead, 



and become the first-fruits of them that 
slept," 1 Cor. 15:20, the forerunner of all 
those who, because he lives, shall live also, 
John 14: 19. 

FIRSTLING, the first offspring of an an- 
imal, Gen. 4:4; Neh. 10:36. 

FISH, FISH'ER. The Hebrews have 
very few names of particular species of 
fish. Moses says in general, that all sorts 
of river, lake, or sea fish, which have scales 
and fins, maybe eaten ; all others shall be 
to the Hebrews an abomination, Lev. 11:9- 
12 ; Deut. 14:9, 10. So in the parable, Matt. 
13:48. The Nile had an early celebrity, 
which it still retains, for the abundance 
and excellence of its fish, and hence the 
significance of the plague that smote the 
river and Hapi its god, Exod. 7:18-21; 
Num. 11:5. The Sea of Tiberias also still 
abounds in fish, Luke 5:5; John 21:6-11. 
They were a common article of food among 
the Jews, Matt. 7:10, and were obtained 
from the Mediterranean, Neh. 13:16, and 
from the Jordan. They were caught with 
hooks, Amos 4 : 2, spears, Job 41 : 7, and nets, 
Isa. 19:8-10. Fish-worship was forbidden 
to the Jews, Deut. 4:18, but was prac- 
tised by the Assyrians and the Philistines. 
See Dagon. The "great fish," Jon. 1:17, 
which swallowed Jonah, may have been of 
the shark genus, as this animal is common 
in the Mediterranean. The original word, 
both in Hebrew and Greek, Matt. 12:40, 
means a fish, and not specifically a " whale." 
See Whale. Fishermen are often spoken 
of in the Bible, and a large proportion of 
the 12 apostles of our Lord were of that 
occupation. Christ made them " fishers of 
men," Matt. 4:18-22. 

The early Christians, in times of perse- 
cution, used to engrave the form of a fish 
on their medals, seals, and tombs, as a 
tacit confession of their faith ; as the 5 let- 
ters of the Greek word for fish, ix&vg, are 
the initial letters of 5 words signifying 
"Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Sa- 
viour." This symbol has thus become the 
subject of a superstitious regard. 

FITCH'ES, or Vetch'es, a species of 
wild pea. Two Hebrew words are trans- 
lated "fitches," one of which probably 
means spelt, Ezek. 4:9, and the other gith, 
a plant resembling fennel, and very pun- 
gent, Isa. 28:25. The seed is black and 
aromatic, and is used as a seasoning and 
for medicine. It is readily shed from the 
capsules, while the grains of spelt are 
firmly lodged in the husks. God exercises 
judgment in dealing with his people, not 

177 



FLA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FLE 



crushing with a wheel when beating with 
a staff will suffice, ver. 27-29. 




flag: cyperus esculentus. 

FLAG, Job 8:11, a coarse grass growing 
in wet meadows and on river banks, prob- 
ably the Cyperus esculentus, translated 
meadow in Gen. 41 : 2, 18. A different word 
is used in Exod. 2:3, 5; Isa. 19:6, in a more 
general sense. 

FLAG'ON. The Hebrew word every- 
where rendered in the English version 
flagon, 2 Sam. 6:19; iChr. 16:3; Song 2:5; 
Hos. 3:1, means rather a cake, especially 
of dried grapes or raisins, pressed into a 
particular form. These are mentioned as 
delicacies, by which the weary and languid 
are refreshed; they were also offered to 
idols, Hos. 3:1. They differed from the 
dried clusters of grapes not pressed into 
any form, 1 Sam. 25 : 18, and also from the 
" cakes of figs." We may refer, in illus- 
tration, to the manner in which with us 
cheeses are pressed in various forms, as 
of pineapples, etc., and also the manner in 
which dates are prepared at the present 
day by the Arabs. See Figs. The word 
translated flagon in Isa. 22:24 means some- 
times a leather bottle, and sometimes a 
musical instrument of similar shape. 

FLAX, a well-known plant, upon which 
the industry of mankind has been exer- 
cised with the greatest success and utility, 
Josh. 2:6; Prov. 31:13. Moses speaks of 
the flax in Egypt, Exod. 9:31, which coun- 
try has been celebrated from time imme- 
morial for its production and manufacture, 
the rich deposits of the overflowing Nile 
rendering the soil most favorable for it. 
See Bolled. The "fine linen of Egypt," 
which was manufactured from this article, 
is spoken of for its superior excellence in 
178 




Scripture, Prov. 7:16; Ezek. 27 : 7. " Linen 
yarn," however, in 1 Kin. 10 : 28, is translated 
"horses" in the R.V. Its 
production in Palestine is 
mentioned in Josh. 2:6; 
Judg. 16:9; Isa. 1:31; 
Hos. 2:5, 9. Most of 
the linen found wrapped 
around Egyptian mum- 
mies will hardly compare 
with our common sheet- 
ings. But some speci- 
mens are found of re- 
markable fineness; one 
containing 152 threads 
in the warp, and 71 in 
the woof, to each square 
inch ; and another, 270 
double threads in the 
warp, and no in the 
woof, per inch. Modern 
cambric rarely contains 
more than 160 in the 
woof. See Cotton and Linen. 

The various processes by which flax is 
changed to fine and snowy linen well illus- 
trate God's discipline in sanctifying his 
children. 

The prophet Isaiah, in speaking of the 
gentleness of the Messiah, uses a proverb- 
ial expression, " The bruised reed shall he 
not break, and the smoking flax shall he 
not quench," Isa. 42:3 ; Matt. 12:20. Here 
" flax " means the wick of a lamp or taper. 
He will not break a reed already bruised 
and ready to be broken, nor extinguish a 
flickering, dying lamp, just ready to ex- 
pire; that is, he will not oppress his hum- 
ble and penitent followers, but cherish the 
feeblest beginnings of true grace. 

FLESH. In the Bible, besides the ordi- 
nary sense, Job 33:25, this word denotes 
mankind as a race, Gen. 6:12; Psa. 145 : 21 ; 
Isa. 40:5, 6; all living creatures on the 
earth, Gen. 6:17, 19; and in John 1:14 the 
human nature. It is often used in opposi- 
tion to "spirit," as we use body and soul, 
Job 14:22; and sometimes means the body 
as animated and sensitive, Matt. 26:41, and 
the seat of bodily appetites, Prov. 5:11; 
2 Cor. 7:1. In the New Testament, " flesh " 
is very often used to designate the bodily 
propensities and passions which draw men 
away from yielding themselves to the Lord 
and to the things of the Spirit. The flesh, 
or carnal principle, is opposed to the spirit, 
or spiritual principle, Rom. 8; Gal. 5:17- 
To " know Christ after the flesh " implied 
glorying in merely outward relations to 



FLO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FOO 



Jiim — as of belonging to Israel his nation, 
or having seen him in the flesh — instead of 
spiritually knowing him as having been 
•created anew in him, without which all 
■else is in vain, Matt. 7:22, 23; Luke 8:19- 
21; 2 Cor. 5:16, 17; Phil. 3:3-10. 

FLOCKS. See Sheep. 

FLOOD. See Deluge. In Josh. 24:2 
ithe Euphrates. 

FLUTE, a soft, sweet-toned wind instru- 
ment of music. The word flute is used 
only in Dan. 3, and is supposed to mean a 
pipe with 2 reeds, such as are still to be 
found in the East. It is blown at the end. 
See Music, Pipe. 

FLUX./ow, in Acts 28:8, the dysentery. 

FLY, a genus of insects, of which there 
are a great many species. Moses declares 
them and most other insects to be unclean, 
Lev. 11:42. They abound in Egypt, and 
are annoying and vexatious in the extreme, 
attacking the eyelids, etc., in swarms and 
with the utmost pertinacity, and convey- 
ing ophthalmia from one to another. How 
intolerable a plague of flies may be, is evi- 
dent from the fact that whole districts in 
the Levant have been for a time depopu- 
lated by them, the inhabitants being una- 
ble to stand against their incessant attacks, 
Exod. 8:24. 

Dead flies polluting fragrant ointment, 
Eccl. 10:1, show what scandal a little "fol- 
ly," i. e., sin, in a good man may cause. 
Corruption tends to diffuse itself, 1 Cor. 
5:6. In Isa. 7:18, the prophet, describing 
the armies of Egypt and Assyria, each un- 
der the symbol of one of the prevalent 
insects in those countries, says, " The Lord 
shall hiss for the fly that is in the 'utter- 
most part ' (or rather, as the same Hebrew 
word is rendered in Exod. 16:35, the 'bor- 
ders ' of the streams of Egypt), and for the 
bee that is in the land of Assyria." It is 
thought by some that the fly here spoken 
of is the zimb, or Ethiopian fly, of which 
Mr. Bruce says, "It is in size very little 
larger than a bee, of a thicker proportion, 
and has wings which are broader than 
those of a bee, placed separate, like those 
of a fly ; they are of pure gauze, without 
color or spot upon them ; the head is large. 
As soon as this plague appears, and their 
buzzing is heard, all the cattle forsake their 
food, and run wildly about the plain till 
they die, worn out with fatigue, fright, and 
hunger. No remedy remains but to leave 
the black earth, and hasten down to the 
sands of the desert ; and there they remain 
while the rains last, this cruel enemy never 



daring to pursue them farther." The cam- 
el also is obliged to fly before these in- 




sects; and the elephant and rhinoceros 
coat themselves with a thick armor of mud. 
The Philistines and Canaanites adored Be- 
elzebub, the fly-god, probably as a patron 
to protect them against these tormenting 
insects. 

FOLD, John 10:16, flock. 

FOOD. In ancient times the food of a 
people was more entirely the product of 
their own country than in our day. Pales- 
tine was favored with an abundance of 
animal food, grain, and vegetables. But 
throughout the East vegetable food is more 
used than animal. Bread was the princi- 
pal food. Grain of various kinds, beans, 
lentils, onions, grapes, figs, and dates, to- 
gether with olive oil, honey, and the milk 
of goats and cows, were the ordinary fare. 
The wandering Arabs live much upon a 
coarse black bread. A very common dish 
in Syria is rice, with shreds of meat, vege- 
tables, olive oil, etc., intermixed. A simi- 
lar dish, made with beans, lentils, and 
various kinds of pulse, was in frequent use 
at an earlier age; Gen. 25:29-34; 2 Kin. 
4:38-41. Fish was a common article of 
food, when accessible, and was very much 
used in Egypt. This country was also 
famous for cucumbers, melons, leeks, on- 
ions, and garlics, Num. 11:5. Such is the 
food of the Egyptians still. See Clean, 
Eating, Corn, and Meat. 

Animal food was always used on festive 
occasions; and the hospitable patriarchs 
lost little time in preparing for their guests 
a smoking dish from their flocks of sheep 
and goats, their herds of cattle, or their 
dove-cotes, Gen. 18:7; Luke 15:23. The 
rich had animal food more frequently, and 
their cattle were stalled and fattened for 
the table, 1 Sam. 16:20; 1 Kin. 4:23; Neh. 
5:18; Isa. 1:11; 11:6; Mai. 4:2. Sheep 

179 



FOO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FOO 



were brought by Abigail to David, i Sam. 
25:18, and by others at Mahanaim, 2 Sam. 
17:28, 29, as animal food is welcomed by 
soldiers. Among the poor, locusts were a 
common means of sustenance, being dried 
in the sun, or roasted over the fire on iron 
plates. Various wild plants were also eat- 
en by them, Job 30 : 4. Condiments, as salt, 
mustard, etc., were much used, Isa. 28:25, 
etc. ; Matt. 23 : 23. 

In the East, "butter" (curdled milk) and 
honey are poured out of jars, Job 20:17. 
They were a common food of children, Isa. 
7: 15, and could be obtained even when the 
land was distressed by war, ver. 22. 

Water was the earliest and common 
drink. Wine of an intoxicating quality 
was early known, Gen. 9:20; 14:18; 40:1. 
Date - wine and similar beverages were 
common; and the common people used a 
kind of sour wine, called vinegar in Ruth 
2:14; Matt. 27:48. 

FOOL, any person who does not act 
wisely, that is, does not follow the warn- 
ings and requirements of God, which are 
founded in infinite wisdom. Hence " a 
fool " is put for a wicked man, an enemy 
or neglecter of God, Psa. 14:1; Prov. 19:1. 
So folly is put for wickedness, 2 Sam. 13 : 12, 
13 ; Psa. 38:5, foolish lusts for wicked lusts, 
etc. Foolish talking, foolish questions are 
vain, empty, unprofitable conversation, 
2 Tim. 2:23. In some passages "foolish 
men" is a better rendering than "fools," 
as in Luke 24 : 25. In Matt. 5 : 22 the phrase 
"thou fool " implies in those who use it an 
angry and contemptuous spirit, displeasing 
to God, and fatal to its possessor unless 
repented of. 

FOOT. The expressions in Deut. 32:35, 
" their foot shall slide in due time," and in 
the traveller's song, Psa. 121:3, " ne wn l 
not suffer thy foot to be moved," Psa. 66:9, 
Jer. 13:16, have reference to the dangerous 
character of the narrow roads or paths of 
the East, over rocks and beside precipices, 
where a sliding foot was often fatal. See 
also Isa. 8:14; Luke 2:34. Nakedness of 
feet was a sign of mourning. God says to 
Ezekiel, " Make no mourning for the dead, 
and put on thy shoes upon thy feet," Ezek. 
24:17. It was likewise a mark of respect. 
Moses put off his shoes to approach the 
burning bush ; and most commentators are 
of opinion that the priests served in the 
tabernacle with their feet naked, as they 
did afterwards in the temple, being re- 
quired first to wash their feet as well as 
their hands, Exod. 30:19-21. The Turks 
180 



never enter their mosques till after they 
have washed their feet and their hands, 
and have put off the outward covering of 
their legs. The Christians of Ethiopia en- 
ter their churches with their shoes off, and 
the Indian Brahmins and others have the 
same respect for their pagodas and temples. 
See Eccl. 5:1. Eastern conquerors used 
to set their feet on the necks of conquered 
princes, Josh. 10:22-24, an action often fig- 
ured in ancient sculptures, Psa. 8:6; Isa. 
49:23; 1 Cor. 15:25; Heb. 2:8. See Nin- 
eveh. 

The Orientals used to wash the feet of 
strangers who came off a journey, because 
they commonly walked with their legs bare, 
and their feet defended only by sandals, 
Gen. 24:32; 43:24. So Abraham washed 
the feet of the 3 angels, Gen. 18:4. This 
office was usually performed by servants 
and slaves ; and hence Abigail answers 
David, who sought her in marriage, that 
she should think it an honor to wash the 
feet of the king's servants, 1 Sam. 25:41. 
Paul would have a widow assisted by the 
church to be one who had hospitably washed 
the feet of saints, 1 Tim. 5:10. The prac- 
tice is still met with in Palestine. Says 
Dr. Robinson, at Ramleh, " Our youthful 
host now proposed, in the genuine style of 
ancvent Oriental hospitality, that a servant 
should wash our feet. This took me by 
surprise, for I was not aware that the cus- 
tom still existed here. Nor does it indeed 
towards foreigners, though it is quite com- 
mon among the natives. We gladly ac- 
cepted the proposal, both for the sake of 
the refreshment and of the Scriptural illus- 
tration. A female Nubian slave accord- 
ingly brought water, which she poured 
upon our feet over a large shallow basin 
of tinned copper, kneeling before us and 
rubbing our feet with her hands, and wi- 
ping them w T ith a napkin. It was one of 
the most gratifying minor incidents of our 
whole journey." Our Saviour, after his 
last supper, gave a striking lesson of humil- 
ity and loving service, by washing his dis- 
ciples' feet, John 13:5, 6, though the 8th 
verse shows that he had also a deeper 
meaning. In ver. 10 two different Greek 
verbs are used : " he that is bathed needs 
not save to wash his feet." After "the 
washing of regeneration," Tit. 3:5, the soul 
needs only the cleansing of daily defile- 
ments, Luke 11:4. Christ's example we 
should follow, "by love serving one an- 
other." See Sandals; and for "watering 
with the foot," Deut. 11: 10, see Rivers. 



FOO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FOR 



FOOT'MEN, or runners, were attendants 
•on Eastern princes, trained to run before 
their chariots, i Sam. 8:11 ; 22:17. So Eli- 
jah ran before Ahab, 1 Kin. 18:46. The 
.-speed and endurance of some of these 
•couriers is almost beyond belief. The 
word is also the translation of another He- 
brew word meaning unmounted soldiers, 
Exod. 12:37; Num. 11:21, in whom swift- 
ness of foot was much valued, 2 Sam. 1 -.23; 
2:18; 1 Chr. 12:8; Jer. 12:5. 

FOOT'STOOL. The earth is spoken of 
as God's footstool, Isa. 66:1; Matt. 5:35; 
:so are his enemies, Acts 2:35; and also the 
ark of the covenant, 1 Chr. 28:2; Psa. 99:5. 

FORE'HEAD, Ezek. 9; Rev. 7:3; 13:16. 
Immodest women are hard of forehead, 
Ezek. 3:7-9. An unveiled forehead indi- 
cated immodesty, Jer. 3:3. See Veil. The 
devotees of different idols in India receive 
at this day different marks on the fore- 
head, distinguishing them one from an- 
other. By a similar method the slaves 
claimed by different owners were some- 
times designated. Contrast Exod. 28:36-38 
with Rev. 17:5 ; 22:4. 

FORE'KNOWL'EDGE, Acts 2:23; 
Rom. 8:29; 11:2; 1 Pet. 1, 2; an es- 
sential attribute of Jehovah, incom- 
prehensible by any finite mind, yet 
•clearly revealed in Scripture as inclu- 
ding all things that shall ever come 
to pass, Isa. 46:9, 10. Its harmony 
with freedom of the will in angels 
and men we cannot question, how- 
•ever vain our efforts to adjust the two. 

FOR'EST. Several are mentioned 
in the Bible, Josh. 17:15-18; 1 Sam. 
22:5; 23:15; 1 Kin. 7:2; 2 Kin. 2:23, 
24; 19:23; Zech. 11:2. In "the wood 
•of Ephraim" Absalom was slain, 
2 Sam. 18 : 6. " The forest of his Car- 
niel," 2 Kin. 19:23, seems to denote 
the garden-like cedars of Lebanon. 
In Zech. 11:2, "the forest of the vint- 
age" is rather "the fortified forest," 
perhaps the thickly-wooded region 
beyond the Jordan. Royal property 
in forests was carefully guarded, 
Neh. 2:8. The word sometimes sym- 
bolizes royal power, Isa. 10:18; also 
unfruitfulness as opposed to cultiva- 
tion, Isa. 29:17. 

FORGIVE'NESS, a glorious mani- 
festation of God's mercy to sinners, 
Exod. 34: 7, freely granted for the sake 
of what Christ has done and suffered, to all 
who truly repent and accept the Saviour as 
their only hope, 2 Chr. 7:14; Job 33:27-30; 



Psa. 103:3, 12; Acts 5:31; 10:43; 13:38; 
26:18; and to no others, Prov. 1:24-31. 

Forgiveness between man and man is 
strongly required by Christ, Matt. 5:44, 45; 
6:14, 15; 18:21-35; and forcibly commend- 
ed by his own example, Luke 23:34; Eph. 
4:32. Without it we ourselves cannot be 
pardoned, Matt. 6:14, 15. 

FORKS, 1 Sam. 13:21, were simply large 
flesh-hooks. 

FORNICA'TION. This word is used in 
Scripture not only for the sin of impurity 
between unmarried persons, but for idola- 
try, and for all kinds of infidelity to God. 
In Ezek. 16, the Jewish Church is symbol- 
ized as a female infant, growing up to wo- 
manhood, and then wedded to Jehovah by 
covenant. When she breaks her covenant 
by going after idols, she is justly reproached 
as an adultress and a harlot, Jer. 2:20; 3:8, 
9; Hos. 3:1. Adultery and fornication are 
frequently confounded. Both the Old and 
New Testaments condemn all impurity and 
fornication, corporeal and spiritual — idol- 
atry, apostasy, heresy, and infidelity. See 
Adultery. 




EGYPTIANS ATTACKING A FORT ON A ROCK. 

FORT. Men first used natural caverns 
as places of refuge, and fortified them for 
defence, Josh. 10:16; Judg. 6:2; 1 Sam. 

181 



FOR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FRA 



22:1. But forts and castles, both detached 
from city walls, and built upon them, and 
even within them as citadels, are early 
mentioned, Deut. 1:28; 3:5; 2 Kin. 9:17. 
They were built of timber or of stone, with 
battlements, ditches, etc., 1 Chr. 27:25; 
2 Chr. 27:4; Psa. 107:16. See War. 

FORTUNA'TUS, 1 Cor. 16:17, came from 
Corinth to Ephesus, to visit Paul. Paul 
speaks of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Ach- 
aicus as the firstfruits of Achaia, and as 
set for the service of the church and saints. 
They carried Paul's 1st epistle to Corinth. 
See Stephanas. 

FOUN'TAINS, or perennial springs of 
good water, were of inestimable value in 
Palestine, contrasted with the desert and 
with Egypt, Deut. 8:7; 51:11, and numer- 
ous places took their name from some 
fountain in their vicinity. See En. They 
have furnished to the sacred writers some 
of their finest illustrations of spiritual 
things. Thus, God is "the Fountain of 
living waters," Jer. 2:13. The atonement 
is a precious fountain of cleansing, heal- 
ing, life-giving power, Joel 3:18; Zech. 
13:1. The consolations of the gospel and 
the felicity of heaven are also described 
by this similitude, Psa. 36:7-9; Rev. 7:17. 
The grace of Christ to the believer is inex- 
haustible and satisfying, John 4:14. 
See Wells. 

FOWL. Used for birds of prey, 
Gen. 15:11; Job 28:7; Isa. 18:6; for 
poultry, Neh. 5:18; 1 Kin. 4:23; and 
for birds in general, Luke 12:24. 
See Birds. 

FOX. This well-known animal is 
still found in Palestine, as well as 
the jackal, which is probably meant 
in several passages where " fox " 
now occurs. Both animals are cun- 
ning, voracious, and mischievous, 
Ezek. 13:4; Luke 13:32, are fond of 
grapes, and do much harm in vine- 
yards, Song 2:15; the fable of the fox 
and the sour grapes is well known. 
Both burrow in the ground or among 
ruins, Luke 9:58. But the fox is sol- 
itary in his habits, while the jackal 
hunts its prey in large packs, howl- 
ing and yelping at night, to the an- 
noyance of all witliin hearing. They 
follow after caravans and armies, 
and devour the bodies of the dead, 
and even dig them up from their 
graves, Psa. 63:10; Lam. 5:18. Compare 
2 Sam. 18:17. The incident in the life of 
Samson, where jackals are probably re- 
182 



ferred to, Judg. 15:4, 5, has a parallel in the 
ancient Roman feast of Ceres, goddess of 
corn, when torches were bound to the tails. 




of numbers of foxes, and they ran round the 
circus till the fire stopped and consumed 
them. This was in revenge for their once 
burning up some fields of corn. In Song 
2: 15 the symbolical reference seems to be 
to the subtle heart-sins against which we 
are less on our guard than against tempta- 
tions to overt acts, but which are destructive 
to the fruits of the Spirit ; like the teachers, 
of plausible false doctrines in the church. 




FRANKINCENSE : BOSWELLIA SERRATA. 

FRANK'INCENSE, Hebrew root white, a. 
white and yellowish resin or gum, glitter- 
ing, brittle, and bitter, an ingredient of the 




PALM-TREES, AND JERICHO. 



FRA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FRO 



sacred incense prescribed for the temple- 
service, Exod. 30:7, 8, 34-36. It was also 
used by itself in connection with the fine- 
flour offerings, Lev. 2, and a golden cup of 
it was daily placed on both piles of the 
show-bread, Lev. 24:5-9. It was much 
used as a perfume and fumigator in the 
East, Song 3 : 6, and was one of the precious 
gifts of the wise men to the infant Saviour, 
Matt. 2:11. It is called "frank" or free 
incense from its burning freely, with a 
steady flame and a highly aromatic odor. 
The best was obtained from Arabia, Isa. 
60:6; Jer. 6:20, but now also from East 
Africa and from India, an exudation from 
the incised bark of the Boswellia serrata, a 
tree 40 feet high. The Arabian olibanum, 
or an imitation of it, is now used in Greek 
and Roman churches. See Incense. 

FRANK'LY, freely, Luke 7:42. 

FRAY, Zech. 1:21, to frighten. 

FRET, Lev. 13:55, eaten in, corroded. 

FRIEND. Abraham is signally honored 
in being called " the friend of God," Isa. 
41:8; Jas. 2:23. Christ granted a similar 
honor and blessing to his disciples, John 
15:15. It is a different word, however, in 
Greek, by which he addressed Judas, Matt. 
26:50; the word there translated friend 
means simply companion, and appears to 
have been used as a conversational term 
not implying friendship. The same word 
occurs in Matt. 20:13; 22:12. 

FRIN'GES. In the fringes or tassels at 
the 4 corners of the Hebrew outer mantle, 
Deut. 22:12, a thread or stripe of sacred 
blue was inwoven for the purpose assigned 
in Num. 15:38, 39. Hence perhaps the bor- 
der of Christ's garment was touched by the 
diseased woman, Matt. 9:20; 14:36. The 
Pharisees enlarged their tassels, as if spe- 
cially zealous to honor the law, Matt. 23:5. 
When the Jews became a persecuted race, 
they dropped the fringed mantle, and wore 
their fringes on an inner garment. A 
fringed outer garment is still sometimes 
worn at morning prayer. 

FROG, a well-known amphibious animal, 
famous as the 2d of the plagues of Egypt, 
Exod. 8: 1-14. The original word is Egyp- 
tian, and its use by Moses with that of 
other Egyptian words is an undesigned 
evidence of the truth of his narrative. The 
frog, though unclean to the Hebrews, Lev. 
11:9-11, was a sacred animal, and one of 
the gods of Egypt, Haka, was represented 
with a frog's head ; thus this plague was 
one fulfilment of Exod. 12:12. The magi- 
cians are said to have brought up frogs 



upon the land by their enchantments ; but 
as they could not remove them, it is clear 
that they did not actually produce them. 
They penetrated everywhere — to the beds 
of the Egyptians, which were near the 
ground, and to their ovens, which were 
cavities in the ground. 

FRONT'LETS are thus described by Leo 
of Modena : The Jews take 4 pieces of parch- 
ment, and write with an ink made on pur- 
pose, and in square letters, these 4 passa- 
ges, one on each piece: (1.) " Sanctify unto 
me all the firstborn," etc., Exod. 13:2-10. 
(2.) " And when the Lord shall bring thee 
into the land of the Canaanites," etc., ver. 
11-16. (3.) " Hear, O Israel ; the Lord our 
God is one Lord," etc., Deut. 6:4-9. (4-) " *f 
ye shall hearken diligently unto my com- 
mandments," etc., 11:13-21. This they do 
in obedience to the words of Moses : " These 
commandments shall be for a sign unto 
thee upon thy hand, and for a memorial 
between thine eyes." 

These 4 pieces are fastened together, 
and a square formed of them, on which 




the Hebrew letter ID Shin is written ; then 
a little square of hard calfskin is put at the 
top, out of which come 2 leathern strings. 




This square is put on the middle of the fore- 
head, and the strings, being girt about the 
head, are then brought before, and fall on 
the breast. It is called the Tephila, liga- 

18.3 



FRO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FUR 



ment or prayer, of the head. The most 
devout Jew =5 put it on both at morning and 
noonday pi ayer ; but it is generally vs orn 
only at morning prayer. See Phylacter- 
ies. The use of such material aids to de- 
votion, more needed then than now, was 
desirable only for spiritual ends, Prov. 2>'-2>\ 
4:21 ; 6:20, 21 ; 7:3. But in many cases 
it becomes a superstition and a mere 
form— a worthless substitute for the 
grace it was designed to strengthen. 

FROST sometimes occurs on the high 
grounds in Palestine, and thin ice occa- 
sionally forms on pools in Jerusalem. 
The quiet beauty of frost formations is 
hinted in Job 37:10. In all that region 
there is often a greater difference in 
the temperature of day and night than 
here, a frosty night being followed by a 
hot day, Gen. 31:40; Jer. 36:30. 

FRO'WARD, the opposite of toward, 
turned away, perverse, Deut. 32:20. 

FRUITS. The Hebrew has 3 generic 
terms for the products of the soil : the first, 
'•corn" or "wheat," including all cereals 
and field-produce in general; the second, 
"sweet wine" or "new wine," meaning 
the grape in all its stages, young and ma- 
ture, vintage-fruit ; the third, "oil," inclu- 
ding olives, figs, dates, nuts, and all or- 
chard-fruits. The first-fruits and tithes of 
these were devoted to God, Num. 18:12; 
Deut 14:23. "Fruit "is often used meta- 
phorically, Prov. 1:31; 11:30; Isa. 10:12; 
57:19; Psa. 132:11; Gal. 5:22. 

FULFILLED'. The ordinary meaning 
of this word is sufficiently obvious. It will 
ultimately be recorded over against all the 
predictions and promises of Jehovah, every 
one having been fully accomplished at the 
proper time and place, Josh. 23:14; Matt. 
2:17; 8:17; 12:17. There are in the New 
Testament many instances of such an ac- 
complishment, where the purposes of men 
were very different, and those who figured 
in the transaction did not dream of any- 
thing but some evil project of their own. 
Thus in John 19 : 24, 28, 36, the actual agents 
in Christ's crucifixion had no thought that 
they were fulfilling the purposes of God. 
Sometimes also the phrase " that it might 
be fulfilled " signifies that the occurrence 
to which it is applied is a secondary fulfil- 
ment, a verification, or simply an illustra- 
tion, of the original prophetic passage — yet 
foreknown and foreordained of God. Thus 
the words of Hosea n :i, "I called my son 
out of Egypt," refer directly to the exodus 
of Israel from that land of bondage ; but, 
184 



as we learn from Matt. 2:15, they were not 
suggested by the Holy Spirit to the prophet 
without a regard to their foreseen applica- 
tion to the case of Christ. Compare also 
Matt. 13:14 with Isa. 6:9; Luke 4:18-21 
with Isa. 61:1-3; Acts i;i6, 20 with Psa. 
109:8. 




EGYPTIAN FULLERS. 

FUL'LER, a cleanser and whitener of 
cloths, probably by stamping or pounding 
them in water with some alkaline admix- 
ture. The process may have been offen- 
sive, and "the fullers' field" was outside 
of Jerusalem, 2 Kin. 18:17, an <3 the fullers' 
fountain. See En-rogel. We read also 
of fullers' soap, Mai. 3:2. Christ's robes 
at the transfiguration were white " so as 
no fuller on earth can white them," Mark 
9:5. Compare Dan. 7:9. He takes away 
the filthy garments of his people, Zech. 
3:4, and gives them the white raiment of 
his justification, Rev. 3:18. 

FUL'NESS OF THE GODHEAD, Col. 2:9. 

The attributes of the one only true God, in 
all their perfection, dwell in Christ, and are 
pledged for the good of his redeemed, John 
1:16; Eph. 1:22; Col. 1:19. " The fulness 
of the time," Gal. 4:4, is the period fixed in 
God's purposes and predictions, when all 
things previously needed have taken place, 
Matt. 23:32. Compare Rev. 12:14; 22:10. 
His 2d coming, like the 1st, will occur un- 
failingly " in the fulness of the times," Eph. 
1 : 10, though the world scoff at and oppose 
him, as he foretold, Matt. 24:9 ; John 16:4; 
2 Pet. 3:3-14. His people should share his 
calm faith, John 16:33; Isa. 28:16. 

FU'NERAL. See Burial and Sepul- 
chre. 

FUR'LONG is put, in the New Testa- 
ment, for the Greek, or rather, Roman 
stadium, which contained about 202 of our 
yards. The English furlong, one-eighth of 
a mile, contains 220 yards ; and is thus 
one-twelfth longer than the Roman stadi- 
um, Luke 24:13. 

FUR'NACE, the translation of several 



FUR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GAD 



Hebrew words and one Greek, denoting 
(i) an oven for baking, Gen. 15:17; Neh. 
3:11. See Bread. (2.) A furnace for smelt- 
ing or a lime-kiln, Gen. 19:28; Exod. 9:8. 
(3°) A furnace for refining, Prov. 17:3; Isa. 
48:10; Ezek. 22:18-22. (4.) A crucible, 
Psa. 12:6. (5.) The Chaldee structure for 
capital punishment, Jer. 29:22; Dan. 3:19- 
26; Rev. 1:15; 9:2. 

FUR'NITURE, equipment, Gen. 31:34; 
often the vessels of the tabernacle, Exod. 
31:7. The household "stuff" in the East 
was and still is scanty and simple, even 
among the rich, 2 Kin. 4:10, 13. We read, 
however, of skins and rugs to recline on, 
divans often ornate, Prov. 7:16, 17; Amos 
6:4; costly hangings, Esth. 1:6; handmills, 
kneading-troughs, ovens, baskets, lamps, 
cups, and vessels of earthenware, gold, or 
silver, Gen. 44:2, 5; 1 Kin. 10:21. See 
House. 

FU'RY is attributed to God metaphori- 
cally, or speaking after the manner of men ; 
that is, God's providential actions are such 
as would be performed by a man in a state 
of anger ; so that when he is said to pour 
out his fury on a person, or on a people, it 
is a figurative expression for dispensing 
afflictive providences. But we must be 
cautious not to attribute human infirmities, 
passions, or malevolence to the Deity. 

G. 

GA'AL, contempt, Judg. 9:26-41, son of 
Ebed. He joined the Shechemites when 
revolting against Abimelech, son of Gide- 
on, inflamed their passions, and led them 
to battle, but was defeated, and excluded 
from the city. 

GA'ASH, quaking, a hill of Mount 
Ephraim, north of which stood Timnath- 
serah, celebrated for Joshua's tomb, Josh. 
24:30. The brooks or valleys of Gaash, 
2 Sam. 23:30; 1 Chr. 11:32, were probably 
at the foot of the hill. 

GAB'BATHA, an elevated place, the place 
in front of Pilate's palace and judgment- 
hall, John 19:13. In Greek it is called 
u the pavement." It was not the usual 
judgment-hall, or Praetorium, which the 
Jews could not then enter, John 18:28; 
19:4, 9, 13; but a court with a mosaic floor, 
on which his seat of judgment was erected. 
Such ornamented pavements were com- 
mon at that day among the wealthy Ro- 
mans. 

GA'BRIEL, a mighty one of God, a prin- 
cipal angel. He was sent to the prophet 



Daniel to explain his visions; also to Zach- 
arias, to announce to him the future birth 
of John the Baptist, Dan. 8:16; 9:21; Luke 
1:11, 19. Six months afterwards he was 
sent to Nazareth, to the Virgin Mary, Luke 
1:26-38. See Angel. 

GAD, I., 7th son of Jacob and firstborn 
of Zilpah, Leah's servant, Gen. 30:11. 
Leah called him Gad, and said, "A troop 
cometh." Compare Gen. 49:19; but many 
Hebrew scholars prefer the rendering, good 
fortune or prosperity cometh. The tribe 
of Gad came out of Egypt in number 
45,650 men, Gen. 46:16; Num. 1:24, 25; 
2: 14. After the defeat of the kings Og and 
Sihon, Gad and Reuben desired to have 
their allotment east of the Jordan, alleging 
their great number of cattle. Moses grant- 
ed their request, on condition that they 
should accompany their brethren, and as- 
sist in conquering the land west of Jordan, 
Num. 32. The inheritance of the tribe of 
Gad lay between Manasseh on the north, 
Reuben on the south, the Jordan on the 
west, and the Ammonites on the east. The 
northwest point stretched to the Sea of Gal- 
ilee. It was a fine pastoral region, though 
its exposure to the incursions of eastern 
Arabians compelled the Gadites to be well 
armed and on the alert, Gen. 49:19; Deut. 
33:20; 1 Chr. 5:18-22, 25, 26; 12:8-15. The 
principal cities of Gad are called cities of 
Gilead, Josh. 13 : 25. Gad and Reuben 
built an altar by the Jordan, Josh. 22: 1-29. 
The tribe was carried captive by Tiglath- 
pileset, 2 Kin. 15:29; 1 Chr. 5:26, and their 
land was possessed by the Ammonites, Jer. 
49:1. The "men of Gad" are mentioned 
on the Moabite stone— about 890 B. C— as 
dwelling in Ataroth "from of old;" a con- 
firmation of Num. 32:34. Their territory 
is elevated and spreads out in undulating 
downs, with rich grass and noble trees. 
Through it the Jabbok and Yarmuk flow 
in deep ravines down to the Jordan. 

II. David's friend, who followed him 
when persecuted by Saul, and was often 
sent with a divine message to David, 
1 Sam. 22:5; 2 Sam. 24: 11-19; 1 Chr. 21 : 9- 
19; 2 Chr. 29:25. Scripture styles him a 
prophet and David's seer. He appears to 
have written a history of David's life, which 
is cited in 1 Chr. 29:29. 

III. Rendered "troop " in Isa. 65: 11, but 
generally supposed to be the name of a 
heathen god of Fortune, and perhaps of 
the planet Jupiter, the star of good fortune. 
Compare Josh. 11:17; l 5'-37- Meni in the 
same verse, translated " number," is sup- 

185 



GAD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GAL 



posed by some to mean destiny ; by others, 
the planet Venus, the goddess of good for- 
tune. 

GAD'ARA, now Um-keis, a fortified chief 
city of Decapolis, of considerable impor- 
tance in the time of Christ, and having 
many Greek inhabitants. It lay south of 
the river Hieromax, 7 miles southeast of 
the Sea of Galilee, upon the level summit 
of a steep limestone hill. A few ruins are 
found on the top of the hill ; many excava- 
ted tombs on its sides, still partly occupied 
as residences ; and warm springs at its 
base. The country of the Gadarenes ex- 
tended to the Jordan and the Sea of Gali- 
lee; and in the part of it bordering on the 
lake occurred the miracle recorded in 
Matt. 8:28 (R. V.); 9:1. A legion of demons 
were cast out of 2 men, and entered a herd 
of swine, causing their destruction. It is 
a fearful and fatal sin to bid the Saviour 
depart from us, Deut. 31 : 17 ; Job 21 : 14, 15 ; 
Hos. 9:12; Matt. 25:41. On the other hand, 
one of the Gadarenes mentioned by Mark 
and Luke, being healed, entreated to re- 
main with Christ ; but being sent to tes- 
tify to his neighbors who rejected Him, 
obeyed — a true disciple, though absent; 
while Judas, though present, was false. 
See Gergesenes. 

GA'IUS, or Caius, I., a Macedonian, who 
accompanied Paul in his travels, and whose 
life was in danger at Ephesus, Acts 19:29. 

II. A Corinthian convert of Paul, who 
hospitably entertained the apostle while 
laboring at Corinth, Rom. 16:23; t Cor. 
1:14. 

III. Of Derbe ; an attendant of Paul from 
Corinth, in his last journey to Jerusalem, 
Acts 20:4. 

IV. The 3d Epistle of John is addressed 
"to the well-beloved Gaius;" hospitable, 
like No. II. above ; yet there was a long 
interval between the 2 dates, and this 
Gaius appears to have been one of John's 
converts, ver. 4. The name was a common 
one among the Romans. 

GALA'TIA, a province of Asia Minor, 
lying south and southeast of Bithynia and 
Paphlagonia, west of Pontus, north and 
northwest of Cappadocia, and north and 
northeast of Lycaonia and Phrvgia. Its 
name was derived from the Gauls, or Gal- 
ati ; of whom several tribes, Trocmi. Tolis- 
toboii, and Tectosages, migrated thither 
about B. C. 280, and mingling with the for- 
mer inhabitants, the whole were called Gal- 
lograeci. They were conquered by Rome 
B. C. 189, yet remained self-governed but 
186 



tributary until B. C. 26, when Augustus 
made Galatia a Roman province, with a 
propraetor. Their language was partly 
Gallic, partly Greek. These Gauls of Asia, 
retained much of the mercurial and impul- 
sive disposition of the Gallic race. Com- 
pare Gal. 1:6; 4:15; 5:7. Galatia was dis- 
tinguished for the fertility of its soil and 
the flourishing state of its trade. It was. 
also the seat of colonies from various na- 
tions, among whom were many Jews; and 
from all of these Paul appears to have 
made many converts to Christianity, 1 Cor. 
16:1, and founded several churches. His. 
first visit, Acts 16: 6, probably took place 
about A. D. 51-2, during his 2d missionary 
journey; and the second, Acts 18:23, after 
which his Epistle to the Galatians appears, 
to have been written, was several years, 
later. At his first visit he was sick; yet 
they received him " as an angel of God,"' 
and most heartily embraced the gospel. 
Four or 5 years afterwards, Jewish teach- 
ers, professing Christianity, came among 
them; they denied Paul's apostolic author- 
ity, exalted the works of the law, and per- 
verted the true gospel by intermixing with 
it the rites of Judaism. Paul, learning their 
state, probably at Corinth, A. D. 57-8, wrote 
his Epistle to the Galatians with his " own 
hand," ch. 6:11, not by an amanuensis, as- 
usually. He indignantly rebukes his chil- 
dren in Christ for their sudden alienation 
from him and from the truth ; vindicates 
his authority and his teachings as an apos- 
tle, by showing that he received them from 
Christ himself; and forcibly presents the 
great doctrine of Christianity— justification 
by faith — with its relations to the law on 
the one hand and to holy living on the 
other. He clearly sets forth the true lib- 
erty of the sons of God, and guards against 
abuse. The style is both severe and ten- 
der. The general subject of the epistle is 
the same as of the Epistle to the Romans, 
and it appears to have been written at 
about the same time with that. The church- 
es of Galatia are mentioned in ecclesiasti- 
cal history for about 900 years. 

GAL'BANUM, an ingredient in the in- 
cense burned at the golden altar, in the 
Holy Place, Exod. 30:34. It is the gum of 
an umbelliferous plant growing in Eastern 
Africa, called by Pliny stagonitis. The 
gum is unctuous and adhesive, of a strong 
and disagreeable smell, and is valued in 
medicine. 

GAL'EED, heap of witness, the name 
given by Jacob to the mound and pillar 



GAL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GAM 



erected by himself and Laban, Gen. 31:23, 
25, 43-52. See Gilead. 

GAL'ILEE, a circle, originally a circuit 
around Kedesh-Naphtali and Hiram's 20 
cities, near the northern limits of Israel's 
territory, Josh. 20:7; 1 Kin. 9:11. In the 
time of Christ it included all the northern 
part of Palestine lying west of the Jordan 
and north of Samaria. It was divided into 
Upper and Lower Galilee, the former lying 
north of the territory of the tribe of Zebu- 
lun, and abounding in mountains ; the lat- 
ter, including the rich plain of Esdraelon, 
being more level and fertile, and very 
populous; the whole comprehending the 4 
tribes of Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali, and 
Asher. Lower Galilee is said to have con- 
tained 240 towns and villages, of which 
Josephus mentions Tiberias, Sepphoris, 
and Gabara, as the principal ; though Ca- 
pernaum and Nazareth are the most fre- 
quently mentioned in the New Testament, 
Mark 1:9; Luke 2:39; John 7:52, etc. 
" Galilee of the Gentiles " is supposed to 
mean Upper Galilee, either because it bor- 
dered on Tyre and Sidon, or because Phoe- 
nicians, Egyptians, Arabians, and other 
heathen were numerous among its inhab- 
itants, many having been sent there when 
the Israelites were carried captive by Tig- 
lath-pileser, 2 Kin. 15:29. The Galileans 
were accounted brave and industrious, 
though the men of Judaea affected to con- 
sider them as not only stupid and unpol- 
ished, but also seditious, Luke 13:1 ; 23:5; 
John 1:46; 7:52. They used a peculiar 
dialect and pronunciation, Mark 14:70. 
Many of the apostles and first converts to 
Christianity were men of Galilee, Acts 
1:11; 2:7, as well as Christ himself; and 
the name Galilean was often given as an 
insult, both to him and his followers. The 
apostate emperor Julian constantly used 
it, and in his dying agony and rage cried 
out, " O Galilean, thou hast conquered !" 
Our Saviour resided here from infancy till 
he was 30 years of age, and during much 
of his public ministry, thus fulfilling the 
prophecy, Isa. 9:1, 2; Matt. 4:15, and show- 
ing that God's thoughts often differ from 
men's, 1 Cor. 1:27-29. Some of its cities 
incurred peculiar woes by rejecting special 
light, Matt. 11 : 20-24; but the cities of Naz- 
areth, Nain, Cana, Capernaum, with the 
whole region of the Sea of Galilee, are sa- 
credly endeared to all Christ's people by 
the words he there spoke and the wonders 
he wrought. These are recorded chiefly 
by the first 3 evangelists. See Sea, III. 



GALL, a general name for anything very- 
bitter. In Job 16:30; 20:14, 25, it means 
the animal secretion usually called the 
bile. In many other places, where a dif- 
ferent word is used in the original, it refers 
to some bitter and noxious plant. See 
Deut. 29:18; Jer. 9:15; 23:15. In Hos. 
10:4; Amos 6:12, the Hebrew word is 
translated "hemlock." In Matt. 27:34, it 
is said they gave Jesus to drink vinegar 
mixed with gall, which in Mark 15:23 is 
called wine mingled with myrrh. It was 
probably the sour wine which the Roman 
soldiers used to drink, mingled with myrrh 
and other bitter substances, very much like 
the " bitters " of modern times, Psa. 69:21. 
The word gall is often used figuratively 
for great troubles, wickedness, depravity,, 
etc., Jer. 8:14; Amos 6:12; Acts 8:23. 

GAL'LEY, Isa. 33:21. See SHIP. 

GAL'LIO, a proconsul of Achaia, under 
the emperor Claudius, in the time of Paul, 
Acts 18:12-17. He was the elder brother 
of the philosopher Seneca, who describes, 
him as uncommonly amiable and upright. 
His residence was at Corinth ; and when 
the Jews of that city dragged Paul before 
the judgment-seat, Gallio refused to enter- 
tain their clamorous and unjust demands. 
According to Dion Cassius, he suffered 
death by order of the tyrant Nero, like his 
brother Seneca. 

GAMA'LIEL, recompense of God, I., Num. 
1:10; 2:20; 7:54, 59; 10:23. 

II. Acts 5:33-40, a celebrated Pharisee 
in the generation after Christ, a doctor of 
the law, and member of the Sanhedrin. 
He possessed great influence among the 
Jews, and is said by some to have presided 
over the Sanhedrin during the reigns of 
Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius. The 
Talmudists say that he was the son of rab- 
bi Simeon, and grandson of Hillel, the 
celebrated teacher of the law, and that 
upon his death the glory of the law de- 
parted. His noble intervention before the 
Sanhedrin saved the apostles from an igno- 
minious death, and shows that he was gifted 
with wisdom and tolerance, if not strongly 
inclined towards the gospel. The apostle 
Paul thought it a high honor to have been 
one of his pupils, Acts 22:3, and no doubt 
received from him not only a zealous en- 
thusiasm for the Jewish law, but many les- 
sons of candor, impartiality, and liberality. 
His high renown among the Jewish rab- 
bins of later ages seems inconsistent with 
the tradition that he embraced Christi- 
anity. 

187 



GAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GAR 



GAMES. There are few allusions in 
Scripture to the games for children and 
3'outh, which were no doubt practised 
among the Hebrews, as the monuments 
show they were among the Egyptians — 
some of them innocent and others not, 
Exod. 32:6; 2 Sam. 2:14; Psa. 19:5; Eccl. 
9:11; Zech. 8:5; Matt. 11:16. They had, 
however, no national games like the fa- 
mous games of Greece and Rome. These 
were introduced at Jerusalem by Jason 
about 1S7 B. C, but erelong were with- 
drawn. Herod the Great afterwards built 
a theatre and amphitheatre, and celebra- 
ted games every 5 years at Jerusalem and 
Caesarea, greatly to the displeasure of all 
faithful Jews. Yet Paul drew frequent il- 
lustrations of Christian life from the well- 
known games of Greece. See Race. His 
fight with "beasts" at Ephesus, 1 Cor. 
1 5 : 3 2 > was probably with fierce and cruel 
men, for he was a free Roman citizen. In 
1 Cor. 9:26, 27 he says, " I bruise under the 
eyes my body (the old flesh), lest when I 
have heralded to others I myself should be 
rejected and lose the prize." 

GAM'MADIM is used in the A. V., Ezek. 
27:11, as the name of a people; but it 
means simply heroes. 

GAR'DENS are often mentioned in Scrip- 
ture, though in a sense somewhat peculiar ; 
for, in the language of the Hebrews, every 
place where plants and trees were cultiva- 
ted with greater care than in the open field 
was called a garden. Fruit and shade 
trees, with aromatic shrubs, sometimes 
constituted the garden, Song 5:1; though 
roses, lilies, and various flowers were often 
cultivated, and some gardens were used 
only for table vegetables, Gen. 2:8-10, 15; 
1 Kin. 21:2; Esth. 1:5; 7:7, 8; Eccl. 2:5, 6. 
They were located, if possible, beside a 
river or fountain, Gen. 13:10; Num. 24:6. 
In other places reservoirs were provided, 
from which the water was distributed in 
various ways, as occasion required, Prov. 
21:1; Song 4:12-16; Isa. 58:11. Gardens 
were inclosed by walls, or by hedges of 
rose-bushes, wild pomegranate -trees, or 
other shrubs, many of which in Palestine 
have long and sharp thorns, 2 Sam. 23:6, 7; 
Job 1:10; Prov 15:19; Hos. 2:6. Often, 
however, they were left uninclosed, and 
were watched when their fruits began to 
ripen, Isa. 1:8; Jer. 4:16, 17. It is still cus- 
tomary in Egypt, Syria, Arabia, and Hin- 
dostan to plant a large level tract with 
melons, cucumbers, etc., and place a small 
hut or booth on a mound in the centre. In 



this a solitary keeper is stationed, who re- 
mains day and night until the fruits are 




LODGE IN GARDEN AT BUTAIHA. 

gathered, Job 27:18; a picture of desola- 
tion when left to fall into ruins, Isa. 1:8. 
Gardens and groves were often furnished 
with pavilions, seats, etc., and were resort- 
ed to for banqueting and mirth, Isa. 51 :3 ; 
for retirement and meditation, John 18:1; 
for devotional purposes, Matt. 26:30; John 
1:48; 18:1,2; and for idolatrous abomina- 
tions, 1 Kin. 14:23; Isa. 1:29; 65:3; 66:17; 
Jer. 2:20; 3:6. A family tomb was often 
prepared in a garden, 2 Kin. 21:18, 26; 
John 19:41. There were many gardens 
around Jerusalem. "Solomon's gardens," 
Eccl. 2:5, 6, were in Wady Urtas, south of 
Bethlehem. " The king's garden " was 
near the pool of Siloam, where the valleys 
of Hinnom and Jehoshaphat meet, 2 Kin. 
25:4; Neh. 3:15; Jer. 39:4. For " hanging 
gardens," see Babylon, Nebuchadnez- 
zar. The mention of 250 botanical terms 
in the Hebrew Scriptures evinces the fond- 
ness of the Israelites for plant-culture. 
In Song 4:12-16, Christ likens his church 
to a garden, and calls on the winds of the 
Spirit to blow upon it that it may be fra- 
grant and fruitful, to the glory of God, 
John 15:8. The garden of the believer's 
heart needs the cutting north wind as well 
as the .warm and soothing south wind. 

GAR'LIC, a bulbous vegetable, of pun- 
gent smell and taste, and highly prized in 
the East. The Jews acquired a liking for 
it in Egypt, Num. 11:5- Herodotus men- 
tions it as part of the food of the builders 
of the pyramids. One variety, called the 
eschalot, or shallot, was introduced into 
Europe from Ascalon; whence its name. 

GAR'MENTS. The chief garments of the 
Hebrews were the tunic or inner garment, 
and the mantle or outer garment. These 
seem to have constituted a " change of rai- 



GAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GAR 



ment," Judg. 14:13, 19; Acts 9:39. The 
tunic was of linen, and was worn next to 




the skin, fitting loosely to the body; it had 
armholes, and sometimes wide and open 
sleeves, and reached below the knees; 
that worn by females reached to the an- 
kles. The tunic was kept close to the 
body by a girdle, and was sometimes wo- 
ven without a seam, like that of Jesus, 
John 19:23. The upper garment or mantle 
was a piece of cloth nearly square, and 2 
or 3 yards in length and breadth, which 
was wrapped round the body, or tied over 
the shoulders, or worn loosely flowing. It 
was easily thrown off when one wished to 




have his arms free, Matt. 24:18; Acts 7:58; 
22:23. A man without this robe on was 
sometimes said to be " naked," Isa. 20:2-4; 



John 21:7. This could be so arranged as 
to form a large bosom for carrying things ; 
and the mantle also served the poor as a 
bed by night, Exod. 22:26, 27; Job 22:6. 
See Bosom, Bed, Girdle. 

Between these 2 garments the Hebrews 
sometimes wore a 3d, called me-il t a long 
and wide robe or tunic of cotton or linen, 
without sleeves. It is mentioned in 1 Sam. 
2:19; 24:4; 28:14; Job 1:20; 2:12; but is 
not always a distinct middle garment, but 
any dress worn over the tunic. 




The head was usually bare, or covered 
from too fierce a sunshine, or from rain, by 
a fold of the outer mantle, 2 Sam. 15:30; 
1 Kin. 19:13; Esth. 6:12. The priests, 
however, wore a mitre, bonnet, or sacred 
turban; and after the captivity, the Jews 
adopted to some extent the turban, now so 
universal in the East. Women wore a va- 
riety of plain or ornamented head-dresses. 
Veils were also an article of female dress, 
Isa. 3:23. They were of various kinds, 
and were used alike by married and un- 
married women ; generally as a token of 
modesty, or of subjection to the authority 
of the husband, Gen. 24:65; 1 Cor. 11:3- 
10; but sometimes for the purpose of con- 
cealment, Gen. 38:14. See Veil. 

As the Hebrews did not change the fash- 
ion of their clothes, as we do, it was com- 
mon to lay up stores of raiment beforehand, 
in proportion to their wealth, Isa. 3:6. To 
this Christ alludes when he speaks of treas- 
ures which the moth devours, Matt. 6:19; 
Jas. 5:1, 2. But though there was a gen- 
eral uniformity in dress from age to age, 
no doubt various changes took place in the 
long course of Bible history; and at all 
times numerous and increasing varieties 
existed among the different classes, espe- 
cially in materials and ornaments. In 

180 



GAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GAR 



•early ages, and where society was wild and 
rude, the skins of animals were made into 
clothing, Gen. 3: 21 ; Heb. 11:37. Spinning, 
weaving, and needlework soon began to 
be practised, Exod. 35:25; Judg. 5:30. A 
coarse cloth was made of goats' or camels' 
hair, and finer cloths of woolen, linen, and 
perhaps cotton. Their manufacture was a 
branch of domestic industry, Prov. 31 : 13- 
24. Silk was not known until late in Bible 
times, Rev. 18:12. 

The great and wealthy delighted in white 
raiment; and hence this is also a mark of 
•opulence and prosperity, Eccl. 9:8. Angels 
are described as clothed in pure and cheer- 
ful white ; and such was the appearance of 
our Saviour's raiment during his transfig- 
uration, Matt. 17:2. The saints, in like 
manner, are described as clothed in white 
robes, Rev. 7:9,. 13, 14; the righteousness 
of Christ in which they are clothed is more 
glorious than that of the angels. 

The garments of mourning among the 
Hebrews were sackcloth and haircloth, and 
their color dark brown or black, Isa. 50:3 ; 
Rev. 6: 12. As the prophets were penitents 
by profession, their common clothing was 
mourning. Widows also dressed them- 
selves much the same. The Hebrews, in 
common with their neighbors, sometimes 
used a variety of colors for their gayer and 
more costly dresses, Judg. 5:30. So also 
according to our version, Gen. 37:3, 23; 
2 Sam. 13:18; though in these passages 
some understand a tunic with long sleeves. 
Blue, scarlet, and purple are most frequent- 
ly referred to, the first being a sacred 
•color, Exod. 35:23, 25, 35; 38:18; Esth. 
•8:15. Embroidery and fine needlework 
were highly valued among them, Judg. 
.5:30; Psa. 45:14. 

The dress of females differed from that 
of males less than is customary among us. 
Yet there was a distinction ; and Moses ex- 
pressly forbade any exchange of apparel 
between the sexes, Deut. 22:5, a custom 
associated with immodesty, and with the 
worship of certain idols. It is not clear 
for what reason clothing in which linen 
and woollen were woven together was pro- 
hibited, Deut. 22:11; but probably it had 
reference to some superstitious usage of 
heathenism. In Isa. 3:16-23, mention is 
made of the decorations among the He- 
brew women of that day; among which 
seem to be included tunics, embroidered 
vests, wide-flowing mantles, girdles, veils, 
caps of network, and metallic ornaments 
for the ears and nose, for the neck, arms, 
190 



fingers, and ankles; also smelling-bottles 
and metallic mirrors. In Acts 19:12, men- 




tion is made of handkerchiefs and aprons. 
Drawers were used, Exod. 28:42, but per- 




haps not generally. See Fringes, Gir- 
dles, Rings, and Sandals. 

Presents of dresses are alluded to very 
frequently in the historical books of Scrip- 
ture, and in the earliest times. Joseph 
gave to each of his brethren a change of 
raiment, and to Benjamin 5 changes, Gen. 
45:22. Naaman gave to Gehazi 2 changes 
of raiment ; and even Solomon received 
raiment as presents, 2 Chr. 9 : 24. This 
custom is still maintained in the East, and 



GAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GAT 



is mentioned by most travellers. In Tur- 
key, the appointment to any important 
office is accompanied with the gift of a 
suitable official robe. In the parable of 
the wedding garment, the king expected to 
find all his guests clad in robes of honor 
of his own providing, Matt. 22:11. The 
spreading of garments in the road, in honor 
of one riding, was an ancient and general 
■custom in the East, Matt. 21:8. 

GAR'RISON, a military post, 1 Sam. 
13:23 ; 14:1-15, or a body of troops, 2 Sam. 
8:6, 14. In 2 Chr. 17:2, the same word is 
used which is translated pillar in Gen. 
19:26; perhaps a monument is meant in 

1 Sam. 10:5, and a statue or idol in Ezek. 
26:11. Compare Jer. 43:13. 

GASH'MU. See Geshem. 

GATE. The gates of Eastern walled 
towns were usually two-leaved, of wood, 
Judg. 16:3, often covered with thick plates 
of iron or copper, Psa. 107:16; Isa. 45:2; 
Acts 12:10, secured by bolts and bars, 
Deut. 3:5:1 Kin. 4 : 13, and flanked by tow- 
ers, 2 Sam. 18:24, 33- They were some- 
times double — an outer and inner gate, 

2 Sam. 18 : 24, 33, and surmounted by watch- 
towers. Palace and temple gates were 
highly ornate, Deut. 6:9; 1 Kin. 6:31-35; 
2 Kin. 18 : 16 ; Ezek. 41 : 23-25. Large gates 




ANCIENT GATE. 

had keys 2 feet or more in length. Com- 
pare Isa. 22:22. Some gates were of stone 



slabs, Isa. 54:12; Rev. 21:21, and many 
stone doors are found in the Hauran ruins. 
A city was usually regarded as taken when 




isp"f-*ii'3 ? Hm'-<ig"-* v 



£ s £*r&j£;&&>£9W S^iTsr^A 



ANCIENT EGYPTIAN DOOR. 

its gates were won, Deut. 28:52; Judg. 5:8. 
Hence "gate" sometimes signifies power, 
dominion. God promises Abraham that 
his posterity shall possess the gates of their 
enemies — their towns, their fortresses, Gen. 
22:17. So, too, "the gates of hell " means 
the power of death or of hell itself, Matt. 
16:18. Compare Jer. 43:8-11; 1 Kin. j:j. 
The "Sublime Porte," i.e., gate, at Con- 
stantinople, signifies the Turkish govern- 
ment offices. 

In Oriental cities there was always an 
open space or place adjacent to each gate, 
and these were at the same time the mar- 
ket-places and the place of justice, Gen. 
23:10-18; Ruth 4:1-12; Deut. 16:18; 21:19; 
2 5 : 6, 7; 2 Kin. 7:1; Neh. 13:19; Pro v. 22:22; 
Amos 5:10, 12, 15. See also Dan. 2:48, 
49; Zech. 8:16. There, too, people assem- 
bled to spend their leisure hours, Gen. 
19: 1 ; often idle loungers, who are coupled 
with drunkards, Psa. 69:12. The woes of 
a city were disclosed in the mourning or 
loneliness of these places of resort, Isa. 
14:31; Jer. 14:2. Here, too, the public 
proclamations were made, and the messa- 
ges of prophets delivered, Prov. 1 :2i ; 8:3 ; 
Isa. 29:21; Jer. 17:19; 26:10. Near the 
gate of a city, but without it, executions 

191 



GAT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GAZ 



took place, i Kin. 21:13; Acts 7:58; Heb. 
13:12. To exalt the gate of a house through 
pride increased one's exposure to robbery, 
Prov. 17:19. To open it wide and high 
was significant of joy and welcome, as 
when the Saviour ascended to heaven, Psa. 
24:7, 9; and the open gates of the New 
Jerusalem, in contrast with those of earthly 
cities carefully closed and guarded at night- 
fall, indicate the happy security of that 
world of light, Rev. 21:25. See Jerusa- 
lem. 

GATH, wine-press, one of 5 principal cit- 
ies of the Philistines, 1 Sam. 5:8; 6:17. It 
was a notable city, in the border of the 
Philistines nearest to Jerusalem ; but its 
site has long been lost. It was the home 
of Goliath, 1 Sam. 17:4. Compare Josh. 
11:22; 1 Sam. 5:8; 6:17; 1 Chr. 20 : 8. Here 
David twice sought a refuge from Saul, 
1 Sam. 21:10; 27:2-7. It came under his 
power in the beginning of his reign over 
all Israel, 1 Chr. 18:1, as a tributary king- 
dom, 1 Kin. 2:39. Rehoboam rebuilt or 
fortified it, 2 Chr. 11:8. It fell into the 
hands of Hazael, king of Syria, 2 Kin. 
12:17, but probably soon became a free 



city again, Amos 6:2 ; Mic. 1 : 10. Its strong 
border position rendered it liable to fre- 
quent assault, and to destruction, and it is 
not mentioned by the later prophets, Zeph. 
2:4; Zech. 9:5, 6. Its inhabitants were 
called Gittites, Josh. 13:3; and Ittai, with 
600 fellow-citizens, faithfully served David, 
2 Sam. 15:18-22. One site suggested for 
Gath is Tell-es-Safieh, a hill 200 feet high 
at the edge of the plain of Philistia, 10 
miles east of Ashdod. 

GATH-HE'PHER, or GIT'TAH-HE'PHER, 
press on the hill, on the border of Zebu- 
lun, Josh. 19:13, was the birthplace of Jo- 
nah, 2 Kin. 14:25. It lay near Sepphoris, 
5 miles north of Nazareth. 

GATH-RIM'MON, press of the pomegran- 
ate, I., a Levitical city in Dan, Josh. 19:45; 
21:24; 1 Chr. 6:69, on the Philistine plain. 

II. A Levitical town of Manasseh, west 
of the Jordan, Josh. 21 :25, perhaps Bileam, 
i. <?., Ibleam, Josh. 17:11; 1 Chr. 6:70. 

GAU'LAN, or Go'lan, a Levitical town 
of Bashan, in Manasseh beyond Jordan. 
From it was named the small province of 
Gaulonitis, now Jaulan, Deut. 4:43; Josh. 
20:8 ; 21:27; 1 Chr. 6:71. 




GAZA: THE MODERN GHUZZEH. 



GA'ZA, or AzzAH, strong, fortified, now 
Ghuzzeh, an ancient city in the southwest 
corner of Canaan, Gen. 10:19, belonging 
to the Avim, Deut. 2:23, and afterwards to 
the Philistines. Joshua assigned it to the 
tribe of Judah, but did not conquer it, Josh. 
192 



10:41; 11:21,22; 13:3; I5 : 47- Judah seems 
to have held possession of it for a while ; 
but in the time of the Judges it was inde- 
pendent, and one of the 5 chief cities of 
the Philistines, Judg. 1:18; 3:3; 13:1; 16. 
Samson carried away its gates, and after- 



GAZ 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GED 



wards perished under the ruins of its vast 
temple. When the Philistines returned the 
captured ark, Gaza sent a trespass-offering 
with it, i Sam. 6. It seems to have been 
subdued by David, 2 Sam. 8:1, and been 
subject to Solomon, 1 Kin. 4:21, 24, with 
5:3, 4; but was afterwards independent 
again. Hezekiah smote it, 2 Kin. 18:8; 
2 Chr. 21:16, 17; 28:18. At subsequent 
periods it was possessed by Chaldaeans, 
Persians, and Egyptians, Jer. 47:1, occu- 
pying an important point on the great 
route from Egypt to Syria. For 5 months 
it withstood Alexander the Great. About 
96 B. C. the Jewish king Alexander Jan- 
nseus captured and destroyed it. The 
Roman general Gabinius rebuilt it; and 
not long after the ascension of the Saviour, 
a Christian church was planted there to 
struggle with the prevailing idolatry. In 
A. D. 634 it came under the Mohammedan 
yoke ; and in the era of the Crusades had 
fallen into ruins. It was partially rebuilt 
and fortified, and is now an unwalled city 
of some 15,000 inhabitants, chiefly Moham- 
medans ; the principal mosque was for- 
merly a Christian church. There are a 
few Greek Christians, and 3 Protestant 
schools. The few remains of the old city 
cover a large but low hill 2 or 3 miles from 
the sea. The modern city lies more in 
the plain, which is exceedingly fertile, and 
abounds in gardens, date-trees, and olive- 
trees. There was a landing-place and 
"port" for ancient Gaza, but no harbor 
worthy of the name. It was often referred 
to by the prophets, Jer. 25:20; 47:5; Amos 
1:6, 7; Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9:5. The south- 
ern route from Jerusalem to Gaza, mem- 
orable in the history of the Ethiopian eu- 
nuch, is called "desert" in Acts 8:26, as 
passing through a region then destitute of 
villages. 

GAZELLE'. See Roe. 

G before E and I, in Hebrew, O. T., 
words, is pronounced hard, as in get, give. 
In Greek words it is soft, like J. 

GE'BA, or Ga'ba, hill, a Levitical town 
of Benjamin, Josh. 18:24; 21:17; J Chr. 
8:6, near Ramah, Neh. 7:30; Isa. 10:29, 
and not far from the northern border of 
the kingdom of Judah, 2 Kin. 23:8; Zech. 
14:10. Here occurred Jonathan's exploit, 
1 Sam. 13:3, and ch. 14. Near Geba David 
defeated the Philistines, 2 Sam. 5:25. Asa 
renewed it from the ruins of Ramah, 1 Kin. 
15:22. It was 6 miles from Jerusalem, and 
was separated from Michmash on the north 
by a deep valley. See 1 Sam. 14:4, 5, where 
13 



Geba is meant. The half-ruined village of 
Jeba well marks its site, facing the village 
of Mukhmas, across the great Wady Su- 
weinit, where the invading Sennacherib 
left his heavy baggage, Isa. 10:28, 29. 

GE'BAL, mountain, I., the Gebalene of 
the Romans, was a district of Idumaea, 
called also at the present day Jebal. It is 
the northern part of the range of moun- 
tains skirting the eastern side of the great 
valley El-Arabah, which runs from the 
Dead Sea to the Elanitic Gulf of the Red 
Sea, Psa. 83:7. See Jordan. This Psalm 
is thought by many to have been written 
on the occasion mentioned in 2 Chr. 20. 
Compare ver. 14. 

II. A seaport and district of Phoenicia, 
north of Beirut, called Byblos by the 
Greeks, now Jebail ; population 600. The 
inhabitants were called Giblites, and are 
denoted in the Hebrew word rendered 
" stone-squarers " in 1 Kin. 5:18. Their 
land and all Lebanon were assigned to the 
Israelites, but never fully possessed, Josh. 
13:5. It was an important place, Ezek. 
27:9, and the seat of the worship of Tham- 
muz. 

GEDALI'AH, God is my greatness, son 
of Ahikam, appointed by Nebuchadnezzar 
to govern Judaea after the destruction of 
the temple and part of Jerusalem, B. C. 588. 
Like his father, he honored and befriended 
Jeremiah, Jer. 40:5. He began the admin- 
istration of his government at Mizpeh with 
wisdom, but in 2 months was treacherous- 
ly murdered by Ishmael, 2 Kin. 25:22-26; 
Jer. 39 : 14 ; 40 : 5-41 : 18. His death was 
afterwards observed as a national fast, 
Zech. 7:5; 8:19. The same name was 
borne by 4 other men, 1 Chr. 25:3, 9 ; Ezra 
10:18; Jer. 38:1-4; Zeph. 1:1. 

GE'DER, a wall, inclosure , fortified place ; 
an ancient Canaanitish town in the plain of 
Judah, taken by Joshua, Josh. 12:13; P er " 
haps the same with Gederah, or with Ge- 
dor, III. 

Gede'rah, the sheepcote, a city in the 
"valley" or hilly lowland of Judah, on the 
edge of the plain, Josh. 15:36. Some think 
it the same as Beth-gader, 1 Chr. 2:51. Ge- 
de'roth, sheepfold, and Gederotha'im, 
two sheep/olds, Josh. 15:41, 36, were in the 
same region. 

GE'DOR, a wall, I., Josh. 15:58; a town 
of Judah, now probably Jedur, a ruined vil- 
lage 2 miles west of the road midway from 
Bethlehem to Hebron. A name among 
Judah's posterity is thus preserved, 1 Chr. 
4:4, 18. 

193 



GEH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GEN 



II. A Benjamite chief, ancestor of Saul, 
i Chr. 8 : 31 ; 9 : 37. There was also a town in 
Benjamin which bore his name, 1 Chr. 12:7. 

III. On the southwestern border of Ju- 
dah, 1 Chr. 4:39. 

GEHA'ZI, valley of sight, a confidential 
attendant of Elisha. He appears in the 
story of the Shunammite woman, 2 Kin. 
4: 14-37, and in that of Naaman the Syrian, 
from whom he fraudulently obtained a por- 
tion of the present his master had refused. 
His covetousness and falsehoods were pun- 
ished by a perpetual leprosy, 2 Kin. 5:20- 
27, B. C. 885. We afterwards find him re- 
counting to king Jehoram the wonderful 
deeds of Elisha, at the moment when the 
providence of God brought the woman of 
Shunem before the king, to claim the res- 
toration of her lands, 2 Kin. 8:1-6. 

GEHEN'NA. See HlNNOM. 

GEMARI'AH, accomplished by the Lord, 
I., the son of Shaphan ; a prince of Judah 
and a scribe of the temple in the time of 
Jehoiakim. In his apartment Baruch read 
aloud to the people the prophecies of Jere- 
miah ; and he with others secured a second 
reading to the nobles, in the king's house. 
The roll was afterwards read to the king, 
who caused it to be burned, Jer. 36. B. C. 
606. 

II. The son of Hilkiah, sent to Babylon 
by king Zedekiah with the tribute-money 
for Nebuchadnezzar. He was also the 
bearer of a letter in which Jeremiah warned 
the captive Jews against false prophets who 
promised them a speedy return, Jer. 29:3, 

4- B. C. 594- 

GENEAL'OGY, a record of one's ances- 
tors, either the line of natural descent 
from father to son, or the line in which, by 
the laws, the inheritance descended, or 
that preserved in the public records. Nev- 
er was a nation more careful to preserve 
their genealogies than the Hebrews, for on 
them rested the distinction of tribes, the 
ownership of lands, and the right to the 
highest offices and privileges, 1 Chr. 5:1, 
17; 9:1; 2 Chr. 12:15; Ezra 2:62. Hence 
their public tables of genealogies were 
kept secure amid all vicissitudes. They 
were a record rather of inherited rights 
than of mere natural descent, and the 
" sons " of a patriarch were not necessarily 
his own children by birth, Gen. 48 : 5 ; Num. 
26:41. Genealogies were often abridged 
by the omission of one or more generations, 
as in Levi's register, Exod. 6:16-20; Da- 
vid's, Ruth 4 : 18-22 ; and Ezra's, Ezra 7 : 1-5. 
Errors in copying are very liable to occur 
194 



in these lists. We find in the Bible a rec- 
ord carried on for more than 3,500 years, 
i Chr. 1 ; 3; 6 ; and thus were guarded the 
proofs that Christ was born according to 
prophecy of the seed of Abraham, and heir 
to the throne of his father David, Luke 
1:32; 2 Tim. 2:8; Heb. 7:14. 

GENEAL'OGY OF JE'SUS CHRIST. In 
the evangelists we have the genealogy of 
Christ fot 4,000 years. The 2 accounts in 
Matt. 1 and Luke 3 differ from each other ; 
one giving possibly the genealogy of Christ's 
reputed father Joseph, and the other that 
of his mother Mary. The 2 lines descend 
from Solomon and Nathan, David's sons ; 
they unite in Salathiel, and again in Christ. 
Joseph was the legal father of Christ, and 
of the same family connections with Mary ; 
so that the Messiah was a descendant of 
David both by law and "according to the 
flesh." Another explanation is that both 
evangelists give us the genealogy of Jo- 
seph : Matthew, who wrote primarily for 
the Hebrews, giving the line of royal suc- 
cession establishing Christ's claim to the 
throne of David ; and Luke, who wrote for 
Gentiles, tracing the natural descent of 
Joseph and his adopted Son upwards to 
Adam. The discrepancies between the 
various genealogies may be reconciled in 
accordance with peculiar Jewish laws, as, 
for example, the laws of marriage pre- 
scribed in Deut. 25:5; Num. 36:8. Had 
they been false or contradictory, the ene- 
mies of Christ would have refuted them 
from the public records. These, which 
Josephus says were scrupulously kept down 
to his day, perished with the ruin of the 
Jews as a nation. It is now, therefore, im- 
possible for any pretended Messiah to prove 
his descent from David. 

Melchizedek was "without descent," 
Heb. 7:3, as regards the Jewish race. No 
sacred records proved his right to be num- 
bered among that people of God. His 
priesthood was of a different kind from 
that of Aaron and his sons. Compare Ezra 
2:62. 

GENERA'TION, the translation of a He- 
brew word meaning a circle, and of anoth- 
er Hebrew and a Greek word implying 
successive births ; it is often used for peri- 
ods of indefinite length, but usually denotes 
the average duration of human life, now 
currently reckoned as 30 years, but an- 
ciently much longer, Gen. 15:16; Job 42 : 16 ; 
Eccl. 1:4; Matt. 1:17; 11:16; Luke 1:48. 
Another derived meaning is, a peculiar 
breed or race of men, Prov. 30:11-14; Isa. 



GEN- 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GEN 



53:8; Matt. t>-7\ 16:4; Luke 16:8; 1 Pet. 
2:9. Still another use of the word is in 
the sense of a genealogical register: the 
origin and history of a person, family, or 
thing; in Gen. 5:1, the history of Adam's 
creation and his posterity; in Gen. 2:4, the 
history of the creation of heaven and earth ; 
in Matt. 1:1, the genealogy of Jesus Christ, 
the history of his descent and life ; in Matt. 
24:34, the meaning is, some now living shall 
witness the initial fulfilment of the event 
foretold; and in Acts 2:40, save yourselves 
from the punishment which awaits these 
perverse men. 

GEN'ESIS, the 1st book in the Old Tes- 
tament, so called from the Septuagint title, 
signifying "the book of the generation " or 
creation of all things. The Hebrew title 
is Bereshith, from its opening word, " In 
the beginning." Moses is generally admit- 
ted to have been the writer of this book, 
after the promulgation of the law. Its au- 
thenticity is attested by the most indispu- 
table evidence, and it is cited as an inspired 
record ^3 times in the course of the Scrip- 
tures. The history related in it comprises 
a period of about 2,369 years, according to 
the lowest computation, but according to 
Dr. Hales, a much larger period. Begin- 
ning with the sublime announcement of the 
one only living and true God, it contains in 
its first main division 11 chapters, the rec- 
ord of events and institutions belonging to 
the whole human race : an account of the 
creation ; the primeval state, probation, and 
fall of man ; the institution of the Sabbath 
and of marriage ; the history of Adam and 
his descendants, with the progress of reli- 
gion and the origin of the arts ; the gene- 
alogies, age, and death of the patriarchs 
until Noah ; the general defection and cor- 
ruption of mankind, the general deluge, 
and the preservation of Noah and his fam- 
ily in the ark ; the history of Noah and his 
family subsequent to the time of the del- 
uge; the repeopling and division of the 
earth ; the building of Babel, the confusion 
of tongues, and the dispersion of mankind. 
In the rest of the book general history gives 
place to the special history of Abraham and 
his chosen seed— that line of persons and 
events in which the record of redemption 
lies— down to the removal into Egypt. It 
is a religious history, and was written, like 
the rest of Scripture, " by inspiration of 
God," with whatever immediate communi- 
cations and direction He deemed neces- 
sary. Yet many of the facts it records 
must have been well known among the 



Jews ; the account given by Adam himself 
may have been orally transmitted through 
7 of the patriarchs to Moses, and he may 
also have had ancient historical writings 
to consult. The book of Genesis lays the 
foundation for all the subsequent books of 
the Bible. Its prophecies are the germ of 
all subsequent predictions. It is the most 
ancient of human records, and its value in 
the history of the earth, of man, and of re- 
ligion, is inestimable. 

From the varying use of the names of 
God, Elohim and Jehovah, some critics 
have inferred that Genesis was compiled 
from a number of separate documents. 
But whatever use Moses may have made 
of previous writings — themselves perhaps 
inspired — Genesis is certainly no loose and 
careless compilation, but a carefully pre- 
pared history, showing unity of plan and 
purpose throughout, and leading on, in the 
other books of the Pentateuch, to the estab- 
lishment of the Israelitish Theocracy. 

GENNES'ARET, garden of the prince, 
now El Ghuweir, the little Ghor. A cres- 
cent-shaped plain on the west shore of the 
Sea of Galilee, about 3 miles long, from 
Khan Minyeh on the north to Medjel on the 
south, and over a mile wide. It is over- 
looked by bare and rugged hills, and is 
now mostly overgrown with thickets, but 
in the time of our Lord was a lovely and 
fertile region, producing a variety of fruits 
the year round. It was the scene of many 
of Christ's miracles, Matt. 14:34; Mark 
6:53, and probably of the parable of the 
sower, Matt. 13:1-8. Magdala lay at its 
southern border. See Sea, IV. 

GEN'TILES, nations, Gen. 10:5; 14:1, 
including at times the Israelites them- 
selves, Gen. 12:2; 35:11; Luke 7:5, but 
generally signifying other nations in dis- 
tinction from Israel— often with the implied 
idea that they were idolaters and not the 
favored people of God, Exod. 4:22 ; 19:4-6. 
In the New Testament, owing to the prev- 
alence of the Greek language, the term 
" Greeks " is often used for Gentiles, inter- 
changeably with " heathen " and "people," 
Acts 14:1; 17:4; Rom. 1:16; 2:9. Paul is 
commonly called the apostle of the Gen- 
tiles, Gal. 2:8; 1 Tim. 2:7, because he 
preached Christ principally to them, Acts 
13:46; whereas Peter preached generally 
to the Jews, and is called the apostle of the 
circumcision, Gal. 2:8. The Jews failed to 
appreciate their nearness to God, Exod. 
I9 : 5, 6"; Psa. 147:19, 20; 148:14; Rom. 3:1, 
2, and his design to make them the means 

TQ.S 



GEN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GES 



of blessings to all nations, Gen. 22:18. 
They were therefore " broken off" from 
the olive-tree, that the Gentiles might be 
"grafted in," Rom. 11:11-35. See also 
Luke 21:24. 

Gentiles, Court of the. Josephus 
says there was in the court of the temple a 
wall or balustrade, breast high, having pil- 
lars at regular distances, with inscriptions 
on them in Greek and Latin, importing 
that strangers were forbidden to approach 
nearer to the altar, Eph. 2 : 14. See Tem- 
ple. 

Gentiles, Isles of the, Gen. 10:5, Asia 
Minor and the whole of Europe, peopled 
by the descendants of Japheth. 

GENU'BATH, son of HADAD IV. 

GE'RA, enmity, grandson of Benjamin, 
Gen. 46:21; 1 Chr. 8:3. Perhaps the same 
person mentioned in Judg. 3:15; 2 Sam. 
16:5. 

GE'RAH, a berry, the smallest Hebrew 
weight or coin, one-twentieth of a shekel, 
about 2K cents, Exod. 30:13. 

GE'RAR, circle, a chief city of the Philis- 
tines in the times of Abraham and Isaac, 
near Beer-sheba, Gen. 10:19; 20:1; 26:1,6, 
17, in a fertile region, Gen. 26:12. It is 
mentioned in Asa's time, 2 Chr. 14:13, 14. 
Conder identifies it with Tel-Jema, a huge 
mound, with broken pottery, south of Khir- 
bet el Gerar. See Abimelech. 

GERASENES', Mark 5:1; Luke 8:26 
(R. V.). Gerasa was a city on the eastern 
border of Peraea. Its ruins, now called 
Jerash, are the finest east of the Jordan. 
Its name and jurisdiction seem to have 
reached 40 miles, to the scene of the mir- 
acle referred to under Gadara. See also 

GERGESENES', Matt. 8:28, where the 
R. V. has Gadarenes. There are ruins 
called by the Arabs Gersa, midway on the 
eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee, which 
probably mark the site of the ancient Ger- 
gesa, and the exact scene of the miracle. 
The ruins are but 40 feet from the water, 
and behind them rises a high and steep 
hill, with ancient tombs in its side. See 
Gadara. 

GER'IZIM, a mountain in Ephraim, be- 
tween which and Ebal lay the city of She- 
chem, Judg. 9:7. The world has beheld 
few scenes more awful and suggestive than 
when, having taken possession of Canaan, 
all the Israelites were summoned to this 
place, and 6 tribes were stationed on Mount 
Gerizim to respond to the blessings pro- 
nounced on those who should obey God's 
law, and the other 6 on Mount Ebal to join 
196 



in denouncing curses on those who should 
break it; while all the people solemnly 
said, Amen, Deut. 11:29; 27:12-26; 28; 
Josh. 8 : 30-35. See Ebal, Samaritans, 
Shechem. Some American travellers re- 
cently stationed themselves, part on Ebal 
and part on Gerizim, and read aloud in 
turn the blessings and the curses. The 
voices of each party were clearly heard on 
the opposite mount. 

GER'SHOM, a stranger there, the elder 
of the 2 sons of Moses and Zipporah, in 
Midian, Exod. 2:22; 18:3. Moses appears 
to have given them no rank or emoluments 
but those of simple Levites, 1 Chr. 23:14, 
15. Another Gershom, a descendant of 
Phinehas, is mentioned in Ezra 8:2. B. C. 

459- 

GER'SHON, banishment, called Gershom 
in 1 Chr. except in 6:1 ; 23:6, the eldest of 
Levi's 3 sons, from whom the 3 branches 
of the Levitical tribe were named, Gen. 
46:11; Exod. 6:16. The 2d son, however, 
Kohath, had the honor of producing Moses, 
Aaron, and the priestly line. Gershon's 
sons were Libni and Shimi, Exod. 6:17, 
1 Chr. 6: 17, 20, 21, 39-43, called Laadan and 
Shimei in 1 Chr. 23:7-11. See also 2 Chr. 
29:12, in the days of Hezekiah. Asaph, 
the famous singer and seer, was of his line. 
At the Sinai census the Gershonite males 
numbered 7,500. They encamped west of 
the tabernacle in the wilderness, and car- 
ried its curtains and other parts from station 
to station, Num. 3:17, 25; 4:24-28, 38-41, 
marching in the rear of the first 3 tribes, 
Num. 10: 17. Thirteen cities were assigned 
to them in Northern Canaan, 2 being cities 
of refuge, Josh. 21:6, 27-33; J Cnr - 6:62 > 
71-76. 

GE'SHEM, or Gash'mu, carcase, an Ara- 
bian, who opposed the work of the Lord in 
the time of Nehemiah, by ridicule and plots, 
Neh. 2:19; 6:1-9; about 445 B. C. 

GE'SHUR, a bridge, Gesh'uri, Gesh'u- 
rites, the name of a district and people in 
Syria. Geshur lay upon the eastern side 
of the Jordan between Bashan, Maachah, 
and Mount Hermon, and within the limits 
of the Hebrew territory; but the Israelites 
did not expel its inhabitants, Deut. 3:14; 
Josh. 12:5; 13:13. They appear to have 
been brought under tribute, 1 Chr. 2:23, 
but to have retained their own kings. One 
of David's wives, Maachah the mother of 
Absalom, was daughter of Talmai king of 
Geshur; and it was here that Absalom 
found refuge after the murder of Amnon, 
and remained 3 years with his grandfather, 



GET 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GEZ 



2 Sam. 3:3; 13:37; !5:8. The wild and 
rocky region they occupied, called Argob, 
in the New Testament Trachonitis, and 
now El Lejah, refuge \ is occupied by 
fierce half-independent tribes, and is still 



sometimes a refuge, as in Absalom's day. — • 
There was also a people of the same 
name, possibly a branch, in the south of 
Palestine, near the Philistines, Josh. 13:2 j 
1 Sam. 27:8. 



«*« 



~~.r.r f 






; ■ 










GARDEN OF GETHSEMANE 

GETHSEM'ANE, oil-press, a garden or 
olive-grove in the valley at the foot of the 
Mount of Olives, over against Jerusalem, 
to which our Saviour sometimes retired, 
John 18:2, and in which he endured his 
agony, and was betrayed by Judas, Matt. 
26:36-57. Here he "trod the wine-press 
alone," Isa. 63:3; Rev. 14:20, separated 
from his disciples, and even the chosen 3, 
taking into his hand the awful cup of sub- 
stitution for the eternal sufferings of those 
for whom he was to die, though his human 
nature shrank from the ordeal, Isa. 53:4-6; 
Heb. 5:7-9. Human sympathy failed him, 
Isa. 53:3; Matt. 26:40, etc., but he. was 
strengthened by an angel, Luke 22 :43. He 
saw with composure the crowd with lant- 
erns and torches following Judas down 
from the city gate, and into the dark gar- 
den. At his simple word, " I am he," they 
"went backward and fell to the ground," 
John 18:6. Compare Matt. 14:27; Rev. 
1 : 18. He restored the ear of Malchus, and 
gave himself "as a lamb to the slaugh- 
ter." 

The bloody sweat in the garden has been 
proved to be an actual though rare phe- 
nomenon. The anguish there endured, it 
is thought, so weakened the heart of the 



, AND MOUNT OF OLIVES. 

Redeemer that on the cross it actually 
broke. 

Tradition, as early as the visit of Helena 
the mother of Constantine, A. D. 326, lo- 
cates Gethsemane near the base of Mount 
Olivet, beyond the brook Kidron. The 
place now inclosed by a low stone wall 
may be but a part of the original " garden." 
It is about 52 yards square, and contains 7 
or 8 aged olive-trees, whose roots in many 
places project above the ground, and arc 
protected by heaps of stones. It is the spot 
which the Christian visitor at Jerusalem 
first seeks out, and where he lingers lon- 
gest and last ere he turns homeward. A 
recent traveller, Professor Hackett, pass- 
ing by Gethsemane one day, saw a shep- 
herd in the act of shearing a sheep. The 
animal lay on the ground, with its feet 
tied, the man's knee pressed rudely against 
its side, while it seemed as if every move- 
ment of the shears would lacerate its flesh ; 
yet during the whole it struggled not and 
opened not its mouth — a touching memen- 
to, upon that sacred spot, of the Lamb of 
God, Isa. 53:7. 

GE'ZER, a precipice, a royal city of the 
Canaanites, Josh. 10:33; 12:12, whose king, 
going to help Lachish, was slain by Joshua ; 

197 



GEZ 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GIB 



between lower Beth-horon and the Medit- 
erranean, Josh. 16:3; afterwards on the 
southwest border of Ephraim, and assigned 
to the Kohathite Levites, Josh. 16:3; 21:21. 
The Canaanites long remained in it under 
tribute, Josh. 16:10; Judg. 1:29; and per- 
haps became again independent, but were 
dispossessed by a king of Egypt, who gave 
the place to his daughter, the wife of Solo- 
mon, 1 Kin. 9: 16. It is called Gob in 2 Sam. 
21:18; compare 1 Chr. 20:4 — a limit of Da- 
vid's pursuit of the Philistines. Its site is 
found at Tel el Djezer, 5 miles south by 
west from Ramleh ; and near by is a hori- 
zontal rock with an inscription in Greek 
and Hebrew at least as old as 100 B. C, 
marking ''the limit of Gezer," Num. 35:5. 
Two other similar inscriptions are found 
not far off. 

GEZ'RITES, rather Ger'zites, i Sam. 
27:8, a tribe on the southwest border of 
Palestine. Some scholars trace them back 
to Mount •Gerizim. They were rich in 
Arabian treasures, 1 Sam. 27:9. 

GHOST, the spirit or principle of life in 
man. To "give-up the ghost," is to die, to 
yield the soul to God who gave it, Gen. 
25:8; Luke 23:46. See Spirit. 

GI'ANTS. It has long been supposed by 
many that the first men were of a size and 
strength superior to those of mankind at 
present, since a long life is usually associ- 
ated with a well-developed and vigorous 
frame. We know also that there were 
giants and families of giants, even after the 
average length of human life was greatly 
abridged. These, however, appear to have 
been exceptions ; and if we judge from the 
mummies of Egypt, and from the armor 
and implements of the earliest antiquity 
found in ancient tombs, in bogs, and in 
buried cities, we must conclude that man- 
kind never exceeded, in the average, their 
present stature. There were, however, 
giants before the flood, Gen. 6:4; fruits of 
the union of prominent men of Sethite fam- 
ilies with heathen women, and extraordi- 
nary in stature, power, and crime. After 
the flood, mention is made of a race called 
Rephaim, Gen. 14:5; 15:20; Josh. 17:15; 
kindred with whom were the Emim, early 
occupants of the land of Moab, and the 
Zamzummim in Ammon, Deut. 2:10, 20. 
Og was one of the last of this race, Deut. 
3:11, 13. West of the Dead Sea, around 
and south of Hebron, lived the Anakim, 
whose aspect so terrified the Hebrew spies, 
Num. 13:28, 33; Josh. 11:21, 22. Of this 
race were Goliath and his kindred, 1 Sam. 
198 



17:4; 1 Chr. 20:4-8. See Anakim, Goli- 
ath, and Rephaim. 

Giants, Valley of. See Rephaim. 

GIB'BETHON, lofty place, a city of the 
Philistines, within the bounds of the tribe 
of Dan, and assigned to the Kohathite Le- 
vites, Josh. 19:44; 21:23. The Philistines, 
however, regained it, perhaps when Jero- 
boam drove the Levites out of Israel, 2 Chr. 
11:13, H; an< 3 in the time of Nadab they 
were its masters, and he was slain by Baa- 
sha while besieging it, 1 Kin. 15:27. Omri 
besieged it 25 years later, 1 Kin. 16:15. Its 
after history and its site are unknown. 

GIB'EAH, hill, I., a city of Benjamin, 
1 Sam. 13:15, and the birthplace and resi- 
dence of Saul king of Israel; whence it is 
frequently called " Gibeah of Saul," 1 Sam. 
10:26; 11:4; 15:34; 23:19; 26:1; Isa. 10:29; 
and here 7 of his "sons" were sacrificed 
in retribution for his wrongs to the Gibeon- 
ites, 2 Sam. 21:1-14. Gibeon at an earlier 
date, when " every man did what w r as right 
in his own eyes," was the scene of a flagrant 
crime, in the violence done to a young 
Levite's wife, terribly punished by the de- 
struction of nearly the whole tribe of Ben- 
jamin, Judg. 19:20. The prophet Hosea, 
5:8, 9; 9:9; 10:9, holds up Gibeah as a 
warning; and Israel, unfaithful like the 
woman at Gibeah, Judg. 19:2; Hos. 1:2; 
9:17; 10:13, was destroyed also. See Prov. 
1:31. Gibeah of Benjamin is further men- 
tioned in the account of the Philistine wars 
of Saul and Jonathan, 1 Sam. 13; 14. Its 
ruins are found at Tuleil el-Ful, about 4 
miles north by west from Jerusalem on 
the way to Er-Ram. 

II. A town in the hill country of Judah, 
associated with Maon, Josh. 15:57* perhaps 
the same as Gibea, 1 Chr. 2:49. 

III. The place of the ark for a time after 
its return by the Philistines, 2 Sam. 6:3, 4. 
In 1 Sam. 7:1 the name is translated "the 
hill." And there are numerous other pla- 
ces where one is in doubt whether Gibeah 
in the Hebrew means a town so called, or 
simply a hill. Thus "the hill" or Gibeah 
" of Phinehas," where Aaron's son Eleazar 
was buried, Josh. 24:33, is now traced in 
the narrow valley El-Jib, midway from Je- 
rusalem to Shechem. See also Josh. 5:3; 
Judg. 7:1; 1 Sam. 10:5; 23:19; 2 Sam. 2:24; 
Jer. 31:39. 

GIB'EATH, Josh. 18:28, perhaps Gibe- 
ah, I. 

GIB'EON, hill city, a considerable city of 
the Hivites, afterwards a Levitical city in 
the tribe of Benjamin, Josh. 18:25; 21 : 17. 



GID 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GIH 



It lay near Geba and Gibeah on the west. 
Its Canaanite inhabitants secured a treaty 
with Joshua and the elders of Israel by 
stratagem, and were made hewers of wood 
for the sanctuary. See Nethinim. Five 
neighboring kings unitedly fell upon them, 
but were defeated by Israel in a great 
battle, during which " the sun stood still 
upon Gibeon," Josh. 9 ; 10. Compare Isa. 
28:21. Here the tabernacle was set up for 
many years, though the ark was in Zion, 
1 Chr. 16:39; 21:29; 2 Chr. 1:3, 4; and 
here God communed by night with young 
king Solomon, 1 Kin. 3:4-15; 2 Chr. 1:3-6. 
It is also memorable for two scenes in the 
life of Joab, 2 Sam. 2:12-32. Compare 3: 27; 
20:5-10. Saul's slaughter of the Gibeon- 
ites, 2 Sam. 21:1, is not narrated, but its 
chastisement — as a great crime before both 
God and man. Here Ishmael was overta- 
ken after his murder of Gedaliah, Jer. 41 : 2. 
See also Neh. $:j; 7 : 25, on the return from 
captivity. Its site is found in the village 
El-Jib, 6 l A miles from Jerusalem, on a hill 
below which are the remains of a "pool" 
120 feet by 100. 

The phenomenon of the apparent stand- 
ing still of the sun, Josh. 10, was easily 
within the power of the Almighty, with all 
its consequences. Yet some contend that 
this is avowedly quoted from a poetical 
book, ver. 13, and not intended to be un- 
derstood literally. Compare Psa. 114:4. 
Maimonides, a pious and learned Jew, un- 
derstood the account to mean that Joshua 
besought the Lord to give him a decisive 
victory before the sun went down, and that 
God granted his petition. 

Giblites, Josh. 13:5. See Gebal. 

GID'EON, a hewer, the hewer down of 
Baal, the 5th judge of Israel, and its deliv- 
erer from the Midianites, B. C. 1249 to ^ 9- 
He was the youngest son of Joash, family 
of Abiezer, tribe of Manasseh, and lived at 
Ophrah near Shechem. Israel was then 
groaning under the hand of Midian, for its 
sins ; and in harvest-time the whole coun- 
try was overrun and despoiled by preda- 
tory hosts from beyond the Jordan. It was 
" the Angel-Jehovah " who summoned Gid- 
eon as a leader, commanded him to de- 
stroy Baal's altar and the image of Ashto- 
reth, "clothed" him with power — compare 
1 Chr. 12:18; 2 Chr. 24:20; Isa. 61:10 — gave 
him signs to confirm his faith, and aided 
him in 3 battles to secure a complete release 
from Midian for 40 years. He left 71 sons, 
one of them a curse to Israel. See Abime- 
lech. In punishing the refractory cities 



Succoth and Penuel, and the fratricides 
Zebah and Zalmunna, in soothing the jeal- 
ousy of the Ephraimites, and in declining 
the crown offered him by the Jews, he 
evinced those qualities which made him a 
successful judge. In the matter of the 
golden ephod, however, he fell into a sin 
and a snare ; for this memorial of the won- 
ders God had wrought became erelong an 
object of idolatrous veneration, Judg. 6-8; 

1 Sam. 12:11; Psa. 83:11; Isa. 9:4; 10:26; 
Heb. 11 :32. 

GIER (pron. jeer) -EAGLE, an unclean 
bird, Lev. 11:18; Deut. 14:17, the Egyptian 
vulture, still found in all the ancient Bible 
lands, about the size of a raven, filthy in 
habits and offensive to the eye and nose, 
but as a carrion bird very useful, and in 
Egypt safe from harm and sacred to Is is. 
See Vulture. 

GIFTS, in all ages common in the East, 
no important event passing without them. 
The Hebrew has 15 different expressions 
for the idea, specific, general, etc. : gifts 
from an inferior, Judg. 3:15; 1 Kin. 10:25; 

2 Chr. 17:11; from a superior, 2 Sam. 19 : 42 ; 
Esth. 2:18; complimentary, Gen. 33:11; 
Judg. 1:15; to a judge, as a bribe, Exod. 
23:8; to a conqueror, 2 Kin. 16:8 — the lat- 
ter being often a compulsory tribute, or a 
bid for favor, Psa. 68:29; 76:11; Isa. 18:7; 
36:16. A prophet was wont to receive a 
consulting fee, 1 Sam. 9:7; compare 12:3; 
2 Kin. 5:5; 8:9. Presents were sent on any 
joyful occasion, Esth. 9:19, 22; Acts 2:33, 
with Eph. 4:8 ; and exchanged at weddings, 
Gen. 24 : 22 ; 34 : 12 ; 1 Kin. 9 : 16. An unusual 
withholding of a gift was an insult, 1 Sam. 
10:27; compare Prov. 23:26; Rom. 12:1; 
and to refuse to accept a gift a great indig- 
nity, Matt. 22:11. In the New Testament 
"gifts" sometimes denotes the offerings 
demanded in the law, Matt. 5:23, 24; the 
blessings of the gospel, Acts 8:20; the 
Christian graces, Eph. 4:8, 11; and mirac- 
ulous endowments, 1 Cor. 12-14. See Cor- 
ban, Tongues. 

GI'HON, gushing forth, I., one of the 4 
rivers of Paradise; as some suppose, the 
Araxes, Gen. 2:13. See Eden and Eu- 
phrates. 

II. A place beside Jerusalem where Sol- 
omon was anointed king, 1 Kin. 1:33, 38, 
45, apparently at a lower level than Jeru- 
salem. Compare 2 Chr. 33:14. The "wa- 
ters " or fountain of Gihon Hezekiah cov- 
ered in from his besiegers, and led into 
the city on the west side, doubtless by a 
subterranean channel, 2 Chr. 32:3, 4, 30. 

199 



GIL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GIL 



Compare 2 Kin. 20:20. Gihon has usually 
been looked for on the west or northwest 
side of Jerusalem, where is now the pool 
called Mamilla, with water flowing by a 
small conduit into the city. A section of 
an ancient aqueduct was found running 
from west to east 20 feet below the surface, 
and may be a portion of Hezekiah's con- 
duit. The pool Birket es-Sultan, in the 
lower part of Hinnom, has been taken for 
the lower Gihon; but some reasons are 
found for placing it on the east of the city, 
at the pool of Siloam. 

GILBO'A, a bubbling spring, a mountain 
ridge in Issachar southeast of the plain of 
Esdraelon, running 10 miles northwest and 
southeast, having on each side a valley 
connecting the great plain with the Jordan 
valley. The valley northeast of Gilboa, 
between it and the hill Moreh, Judg. 7:1, is 
the proper Jezreel; that on the southwest 
side separates Gilboa from the hills of Sa- 
maria. On the eastern part of Gilboa was 
the town from which it was named, now 
Jelbon. In this vicinity Saul and Jonathan 
were defeated by the Philistines, and died, 
1 Sam. 28:4, 5; 31. It is now a dry and 
barren mountain, 2 Sam. 1:6, 21. En-dor, 
where Saul went the night before his death, 
lay 7 or 8 miles away on the northern slope 
of Moreh. Beth-shean, whither his body 
was sent, lay at the eastern opening of the 
valley of Jezreel. 

GIL'EAD, a hard, rocky region; I., a 
mountainous tract adjoining the Jordan 
valley on the east side of the river, extend- 
ing from Bashan on the north to Ammon 
on the south, and sloping down the Ara- 
bian plateau on the east. It is about 60 
miles long and 20 in breadth. It is called 
" Gilead," Gen. 37:25; Psa. 60:7; "the land 
of Gilead," Num. 32 : 1 ; or " Mount Gilead," 
Gen. 31 :25.. In a restricted sense the name 
may have denoted only the mountain range 
a few miles south of the Jabbok, some 10 
miles long from east to west, still called 
Jebel JiVad, and on which are ruins called 
Jil'ad. Jacob entered Gilead from the 
northeast, beyond the Jabbok and Maha- 
naim, Gen. 31:21-25; and by a play upon 
the name, slightly changing its sound and 
meaning, he called the spot Galeed, mound 
of witness, ver. 45-48. At the conquest 
Gilead was allotted to Gad and the half- 
tribe of Manasseh, Deut. 3:12, 13, 16, 17; 
Josh. 13:24-31. As a border land it was 
exposed to the wandering tribes of Arabia, 
and was somewhat isolated from Israel 
west of the Jordan ; but Jephthah and Eli- 
200 



jah were Gileadites. Its mountains fur- 
nished an asylum for refugees, 1 Sam. 13:7. 
Here Ishbosheth made his headquarters, 
2 Sam. 2:8; here David found refuge, 2 Sam. 
17 ; and hither probably Christ twice with- 
drew during his ministry, John 10:40. Here 
too, in Pella, his followers found refuge 
when Jerusalem was besieged. 

Mount Gilead, like most of the land be- 
yond Jordan and the Dead Sea, viewed 
from the west across the Jordan depres- 
sion stretches like a gigantic wall along 
the horizon, in Gilead 2,000 or 3,000 feet 
above the sea level. The surface is bro- 
ken by many hills clothed with forests, the 
soil is fertile, and the scenery grand. It is 
still "a land for cattle," and the Bedouins 
value its rich pastures; but only a small 
portion is tilled. It was famous in early 
ages for its spices and aromatic gums, Gen. 
37 : 25 ; Jer . 8 : 22 ; 46 : 1 1 . See Ramoth-Gil- 
ead. 

II. The name of several men, Num. 
26:29, 30; Judg. 11: 1, 2; 1 Chr. 5:14. 

GIL'GAL, a wheel, or rolling, I., a cele- 
brated place between the Jordan and Jeri- 
cho, where the Israelites first encamped 
after the passage of that river ; where also 
they were circumcised, thus renewing their 
covenant with God, which had been for- 
feited by neglect, and kept their first Pass- 
over in Canaan, Josh. 4:19; 5:2-12; Mic. 
6:5. It continued to be the headquarters 
of the Israelites for several years, while 
Joshua was occupied in subduing the land, 
Josh. 9:6; 10:6, 15, 43. A village was after- 
wards built there, Josh. 15:7. Here the 
tabernacle rested until its removal to Shi- 
loh, Josh. 18:1; here also, according to the 
prevalent opinion, Samuel offered sacrifi- 
ces, and held in turn his court as a judge 
of Israel; and here Saul was recrowned, 

1 Sam. 7:16; 10:8; 11:15; i3 : 7-9; x 5 : 33- 
Here the men of Judah met David on his 
return to Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 19:15, 4°- At 
this day no traces of it are found. Accord- 
ing to Josephus, it lay 1V2 miles east of 
Jericho. 

II. Another Gilgal lay near Antipatris, 
Josh. 12:23. 

III. A third was in the mountains of 
Ephraim, north of Bethel, Deut. 11 :30 ; 

2 Kin. 2 : 1-6. A school of the prophets was 
here established, 2 Kin. 4:38; and yet it 
afterwards appears to have become a seat 
of idolatry, Hos. 4:15; 9 :I 5! 12:11; Amos 
4:4;5:5- This is probably the Beth-Gilgal 
of Neh. 12:29, now represented by Jiljilieh, 
5 miles from Bethel and 4 from Shiloh. 



GIL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GLA 



GI'LOH, exile, a town in the hills of Ju- 
dah, Josh. 15:51; 2 Sam. 15:12; 17:23. 

GI'MEL, camel, Psa. 119, the 3d Hebrew 
letter. . 

GIM'ZO, rich in sycamores, a town in 
Dan, captured by Philistines in the time of 
Ahaz, 2 Chr. 28 : 18 ; now Jimzu, a village 
one hour from Ludd on the road to Jeru- 
salem from Joppa. 

GIN, a trap; usually a net or "snare," 
with an elastic stick to spring it, Isa. 8:14; 
Amos 3:5. In Job 40:24, margin, the stick 
or ring passed through the nose of an un- 
ruly animal. 




ANCIENT GIRDLES. 

GIRD, GIR'DLE. The Orientals com- 
monly dress in loose robes flowing down 
about the feet ; so that when they wish to 
run, or fight, or apply themselves to any 
business, they are obliged to bind their 
garments close around them with a sash 
or girdle. See John 13:4, 5, 15. Hence it 
was a symbol of strength and activity, 
1 Sam. 2:4; Job 12:18; Isa. 45:5; Jer. 13:11 ; 
and "to have the loins girded," is to be 
prepared for action or service, 2 Kin. 4:29; 
Acts 12:8; to be waiting for the call or 
coming of one's Master or Lord, Luke 
12 : 35. A tightened girdle was also thought 
to increase the power of endurance, and 
the simile is used in exhortations to Chris- 
tian courage and fortitude, Job 38:3; Jer. 
1:17; Eph. 6:14; 1 Pet. 1:13. To have the 
girdle loosed is to be unnerved and un- 
prepared for action, Isa. 5:27; 11:5. Gir- 
dles of leather were worn by the common 
people; and also by prophets, 2 Kin. 1:8; 
Matt. 3:4. Sashes were likewise made of 
linen cloth, Jer. 13:1; also of silk, some- 
times embroidered, Prov. 31:24 ("stom- 
acher," Isa. 3:24); Dan. 10:5; Rev. 1:13; 
15:6; and were used as presents, 1 Sam. 



18:4; 2 Sam. 18:11. They were often wide 
and long; and were folded lengthwise, and 
passed several times around the body. 
The girdle, moreover, answered the pur- 
pose of a purse or pouch, to carry money 
and other things; see Matt. 10:9; Mark 
6:8, where the word purse is put for &vt], 
Greek, girdle. The Arabs and other Ori- 
entals wear girdles in the same manner at 
the present day ; they also carry a knife or 
dagger stuck in them, as was also the cus- 
tom of the Hebrews, 1 Sam. 25:13; 2 Sam. 
20:8. Clerks carried their inkhorns, car- 
penters their rules, etc., in the same way, 
Ezek. 9:2. The girdles of the priests were 
of exceedingly fine linen, worn over the 
tunic, passing several times around the 
body, and with the ends hanging down to 
the feet, Exod. 28:4, 39, 40; 39:29; Lev. 
16:4; Isa. 22:21. The " curious girdle " of 
the high-priest was a part of the ephod 
itself, Exod. 28:8; 39:5. See cuts in Gar- 
ments. 

GIR'GASHITES. See Canaanites. 

GIT'TAH-HE'PHER, Josh. 19:13, the same 
as Gath-hepher. 

GITTA'IM, two wine-presses, 2 Sam. 4:3, 
a place occupied by Benjamites after thi 
captivity, Neh. 11:33. Site unknown, but 
northwest of Jerusalem. 

GIT'TITES. See Gath and Obed-edom. 

GIT'TITH, belonging to Gath. It proba- 
bly denotes either a musical instrument or 
a kind of music derived from Gath, where 
David sojourned for a time during the per- 
secution of Saul, 1 Sam. 27: 1-7. The word 
Gath also signifies in Hebrew a wine-press. 
Hence not a few have supposed that it de- 
notes either an instrument or a melody 
used in the vintage. It is prefixed to 
Psalms 8, 81, 84, all of which require an 
animated strain of music. 

GLASS was well knowfl to the ancients, 
and no doubt to the Jews ; and the arts of 
blowing, coloring, grinding, and cutting it 
were familiar to the ancient Egyptians. 
Images of glazed pottery and broken wine- 
vases have been found in Egypt, dating as 
far back as the Exodus; and the earliest 
known specimen of transparent glass was 
a bottle found bearing the name of Sargon. 
700 B. C, and opaque glasses of many cen- 
turies earlier. Glass does not appear to 
have been used at that time for mirrors, 
nor for windows, but for cups, bottles, 
vases, ornaments, sacred emblems, etc. In 
the New Testament glass is an emblem of 
smoothness and brightness, and crystal of 
transparency, Rev. 4:6; 15:2. The gold 

201 



GLE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GO A 



of the New Jerusalem has the gem-like 
brilliancy of translucent glass, Rev. 21:18, 
21. Glass is probably alluded to in Job 
28:17, where our English version has the 
word crystal. See Looking-glasses. 

GLEAN'ING, a right of the poor in har- 
vest and vintage, under the Mosaic law, 
Lev. 19:9, 10; Deut. 24:19-21; Ruth 2. 
Compare Judg. 8:2. Robinson often saw 
women in Palestine beating out with a 
stick small quantities of grain which they 
had probably gleaned. 




kite: milvus egyptius. 

GLEDE, a kind of hawk or kite, Deut. 
14: 13, an unclean bird of prey. 

GLO'RY, the distinctive excellence of 
any person or thing and its manifestation. 
The glory of Lebanon was in its trees, Isa. 
60:13; the glory of a man is the soul, or 
often the tongue, the soul's organ, Psa. 
16:9; 30:12, margin; 57:8; 108:1; Acts 
2 : 26. The glory of God denotes his divine 
perfections disclosed to his creatures, Exod. 
33:18, 19; Psa. 63:2; Hab. 2:14; often with 
a visible effulgence betokening his special 
presence, Exod. 16:7, 10; 24:9, 10, 16, 17; 
40:34; 1 Kin. 8:11; Psa. 80:1; Acts 7:2. 
God's glory is revealed in all his works of 
creation and providence, Psa. 19:1; Isa. 
6:3; Ezek. 28:22; Rom. 1:19, 20, 23; but 
above all in Christ and redemption, John 
1:14; 2:11; 2 Cor. 4:6; Heb. 1:3 — where 
the word "brightness " means not a reflect- 
ed lustre, but the outflowing "effulgence" 
of the Father's glory. The chief end of 
the Christian is to live to the glory of God, 
1 Cor. 6:20; 1 Pet. 2:9, showing forth his 
praise by obeying his law, Matt. 5:16; John 
17:4; 1 Cor. 10:31. Contrast Rom. 1:21. 
The adjuration, " Give God the glory," 
means, confess the truth in view of his 
202 



omniscience, Josh. 7:19; John 9 : 24. Glory 
is sometimes expressive of the heavenly 
state of Christ and believers, 1 Tim. 3:16; 
1 Pet. 5:10. 

GNAT, a small 2-winged insect, a mos- 
quito, Matt. 23:24; where read, as in the 
first English translations, "Ye strain out a 
gnat." Filtering wine, for fear of swallow- 
ing an insect and becoming ceremonially 
unclean, Lev. 11:23, is applied to those 
who are superstitiously anxious in avoiding 
small faults, yet do not scruple to commit 
great sins. 

GO ABOUT, seek or endeavor, John 7: 19, 
20; Acts 9:29; Rom. 10:3. 

GO BEYOND, i Thess. 4:6, overreach. 

GO TO, an exhortation, Gen. 11:3, 4, 7, 
or a call for attention, Eccl. 2:1 ; Isa. 5:5; 
Jas. 4:13; 5:1. 

GOAD, ox-goad, Judg. 3:31, a pole 6 or 8 
feet long with a sharp point at one end, to 
stimulate and guide the oxen, Eccl. 12:11, 
and a chisel-like iron at the head for clear- 
ing the ploughshare, cutting roots, etc. 
See Plough ; also Shamgar ; and compare 
Judg. 5:8; 1 Sam. 13:19-22. In Acts 26:14 
the word pricks is used for goads in the 
A. V., also in Acts 9:5, where the clause is 
omitted in the R. V., not being found in 
the Greek MSS. Contrast Matt. 1 1 : 29. 




SYRIAN GOAT: CAPRA MAMBRICA. 

GOATS formed an important part of the 
pastoral wealth of the East, Gen. 15:9; 
27:9; 30; 31; 32:14; 37--3 1 ; and were 
raised by the Israelites in Canaan and 
Egypt, Exod. 12:5; 1 Sam. 25:2; and by 
the surrounding nomadic tribes, 2 Cbr. 
17:11; Ezek. 27:21. They were regarded 
as clean for sacrifice, Exod. 12:3; Lev. 
3:12; Num. 15:27; and their milk and the 



GOA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GOD 



young kids were much used for food, Deut. 
14:4; Judg. 6:19; Prov. 27:27; Luke 15:29. 
The common leather bottles were made of 
their skins. Goat-skins were used for 
kneading-cloths, Exod. 12:34; and were 
worn as clothing by the poor, ascetics, 
mourners, and prophets, 1 Kin. 21:27; Isa - 
20:2; Heb. 11:37; Rev. 6:12; but goats' 
hair was woven into outer garments, and 
was the common covering for tents, Exod. 
26 : 7 ; 35 : 6 ; Song 1:8, that used for the tab- 
ernacle being specially fine, Exod. 25:4; 
35 : 26. Several kinds of goats were kept in 
Palestine : one kind having long silky hair, 
like the Angora, Song 4:1 ; 6:5, and anoth- 
er, long and broad ears. This kind is prob- 
ably referred to in Amos 3:12, and is still 
the common goat of Palestine. For many 




HEAD OF THE SYRIAN GOAT. 

sacrifices goats and kids were as accepta- 
ble as sheep and lambs. For one, on the 
Day of Atonement, goats exclusively could 
be used, Lev. 16:5-28. See Expiation. A 
kid of the goats was the prescribed sin- 
offering on various occasions, Num. 28:11- 
31; 29:1-38. The he-goat, leader of the 
flock, Prov. 30:31; Jer. 50:8, symbolizes 
leaders in wickedness, Isa. 14:9: Zech. 
10:3. Compare Ezek. 34:17; Matt. 25:32, 
33. Sa'ir, the shaggy goat of the sin- 
offering, Lev. 9:15; Ezek. 43:25, is trans- 
lated "hairy " in Gen. 27:11, 23; "rough" 
in Dan. 8:21 ; " devils " in Lev. 17:7; 2 Chr. 
11:15; "satyrs" in Isa. 13:21; 34:14. A 
one-horned he-goat was an acknowledged 
symbol of the Macedonian empire, Dan. 
8:5. See Wild-goat. 

Wild-goats are mentioned in 1 Sam. 
24:2; Job 39:1; Psa. 104:18; Prov. 5:19, 
A. V. "roe." This is doubtless the Ara- 



bian Ibex or Beden, a large and vigorous 
animal still found in the mountains in the 
peninsula of Sinai, and east and south of 




the Dead Sea. These goats are very simi- 
lar to the bouquetin or chamois of the Alps. 
They feed in flocks of a score or two, with 
one Of their number acting as a sentinel. 
At the slightest alarm they are gone in an 
instant, darting fearlessly over the rocks, 
and falling on their horns from a great 
height without injury. Their horns are 2 
or 3 feet long, and are used by the Arabs 
for bottles and cut into knife-handles, etc. 

For Scape-goat, see Expiation. 

GOB, a pit, 2 Sam. 21 : 18, 19, called Gezer 
in 1 Chr. 20:4; the scene of 2 battles be- 
tween David's heroes and the Philistines. 
Some copies of the Septuagint and the 
Syriac have Gath in 2 Samuel. Compare 
2 Sam. 21:20; 1 Chr. 20:6. 

GOD. This name, the derivation of which 
is uncertain, we give to that eternal, infi- 
nite, perfect, and incomprehensible Being, 
the Creator of all things, who preserves 
and governs all by his almighty power and 
wisdom, and is the only proper object of 
worship. In our Scriptures God is the 
translation of various Hebrew and Greek 
words: 1. El, the mighty one, Gen. 14:18; 
16:13; 17:1, etc. 2. Elohim, Deut. 32:15; 
Neh. 9:17, etc., the plural form of the word 
Eloah (used in Job and Daniel), expressing 
the excellence and majesty of the true God. 
3. Jehovah, Lord— printed God in the 
Bible when preceded by another Hebrew 
word translated Lord. 4. The Greek The- 
os. 5. The Greek Kurios, Acts 19:20, 

203 



GOD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GOL 



usually translated Lord. All these words 
except Jehovah are in some cases applied 
to idols as well as to the true God. Other 
Hebrew names applied, to the Deity but 
not translated God, are Ely on, " the Most 
High," Gen. 14:22; Shaddai, "the Al- 
mighty," Gen. 17: 1 ; Adonai, " Lord." The 
proper Hebrew name for God is JEHO- 
VAH, which signifies He is. But the Jews, 
from a feeling of reverence, avoided pro- 
nouncing this name, substituting for it, 
wherever it occurs in the sacred text, the 
word Adonai, Lord ; except in the expres- 
sion Adonai Jehovah, Lord Jehovah, for 
which they put Adonai Elohim, Lord God. 
This usage, which is not without an ele- 
ment of superstition, is very ancient, da- 
ting its origin some centuries before Christ ; 
but there is no good ground for assuming 
its existence in the days of the inspired 
Old Testament writers. The word Jeho- 
vah occurs in the stone record set up by 
king Mesha, which proves that this name 
of the Hebrews' God was not then un- 
known to foreigners. Compare Josh. 2:9, 
10. In Exod. 3:14, God replies to Moses, 
when he asks Him his name, I am that I 
am ; which implies the eternal self-exist- 
ence of Jehovah, and his incomprehensible 
nature. The name I am means the same 
as Jehovah, the first person being used 
instead of the third. According to De- 
litzsch the primitive name was J ah or Jahu, 
as it usually appears in compound names. 
The Bible assumes and asserts the exist- 
ence of God, " In the beginning God cre- 
ated the heavens and the earth;" and is 
itself the most illustrious proof of his ex- 
istence, as well as our chief instructor as 
to his nature and will. It puts a voice 
into the mute lips of creation ; and not 
only reveals God in his works, but illus- 
trates his ways in providence, displays the 
glories of his character, his law, and his 
grace, and brings man into true and sa- 
ving communion with him. It reveals him 
to us as a Spirit, the only being from ever- 
lasting and to everlasting by nature, un- 
derived, infinite, perfect, and unchangea- 
ble in power, wisdom, omniscience, omni- 
presence, justice, holiness, truth, goodness, 
and mercy. He is but one God, and yet 
exists in 3 persons, the Father, the Son, 
and the Holy Spirit; and this distinction 
of the Three in One is, like his other attri- 
butes, from everlasting. He is the source, 
owner, and ruler of all beings, foreknows 
and predetermines all events, and is the 
eternal judge and arbiter of the destiny of 
204 



all. True religion has its foundation in 
the right knowledge of God, and consists 
in supremely loving and faithfully obeying 
him. See Jesus Christ, Holy Spirit, 
Trinity. 

GOD'LINESS, right reverence and wor- 
ship. It denotes the spirit that gives God 
his due supreme place in the heart and life, 
Gen. 5:22, 24; Psa. 12:1; Mic. 6:8; Mai. 
2:15; 1 Tim. 4 : 7, 8 ; 2 Pet. 1 : 6. In 1 Tim. 
3:16, "the mystery of godliness" means 
the substance of revealed religion, the 
" mystery " revealed in the incarnation and 
work of Christ, who is the Object of the 
faith of the godly, and the Life of their 
obedience. In 1 Tim. 6:5, read, "sup- 
posing that godliness is a way of gain," 
R. V. 

GODS. The words god and gods, He- 
brew Elohim, are several times used in 
Scripture to express the power, office, or 
excellence of some created beings, as an- 
gels, magistrates, Exod. 22:20, 28; Psa. 
86 : 8 ; 97 : 7 ; often also for the false gods of 
the heathen. These were exceedingly nu- 
merous, and are denoted by various terms, 
signifying vanity, falsehood, etc. Among 
the first objects to be deified were the sun, 
the moon, and the chief powers of nature. 
Innumerable animals, deceased men, all 
ages, passions, and conditions of man, and 
everything which fear, lust, malice, pride, 
or caprice could suggest, were made ob- 
jects of worship. The gods of modern 
India are numbered by millions. 

GOD SPEED, 2 John 10, 11, A. V., good 
speed, as in Gen. 24:12, a cordial greeting, 
"speed" meaning prosperity. 

GOG and MAGOG are usually spoken of 
together in Scripture. In Gen. 10:2, Ma- 
gog, which seems to denote a country with 
its people, is reckoned among the descend- 
ants of Japheth. In Ezek. 38 ; 39, Magog 
apparently signifies a country with its peo- 
ple, and Gog the king of that people, prob- 
ably the Scythians or the barbarous tribes 
north of the Caucasus. They reappear in 
the later predictions of John as enemies of 
the people of God, who are to be signally 
overthrown, Rev. 20 : 7-9. 

GO'LAN, exile, or circle, a city of Bashan, 
Deut. 4:43; assigned to Manasseh and to 
the Gershonite Levites, one of the 3 cities 
of refuge east of the Jordan, Josh. 20:8; 
21:27; 1 Chr. 6:71. Its site is now un- 
known. It became the head of the prov- 
ince named after it Gaulonitis, now Jaulan, 
See Bashan. 

GOLD, known and valued from the ear- 



GOL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GOS 



liest times, Gen. 2:11, 12; found in many 
parts of the world, and obtained anciently 
in Ophir, Job 28:16; Parvaim, 2 Chr. 3:6; 
Arabia, 2 Chr. 9 : 14 ; Sheba, and Raamah, 
Ezek. 27 : 22. Job alludes to gold in vari- 
ous forms, Job 22 : 24; 28 : 15-19. Abraham 
was rich in it, and ornaments were early 
made of it, Gen. 13 : 2 ; 24 : 22, 35. It is spo- 
ken of throughout Scripture ; and the use 
of it among the ancient Hebrews, in its na- 
tive and mixed state, and for the same pur- 
poses as at present, was very common, as 
well as among other nations, Esth. 1:6; 
Dan. 3:1; Nah. 2 : 9. It was not coined 
among the Jews until the time of Judas 
Maccabaeus, but was weighed in exchange, 
Gen. 43 : 21. In the days of David and Sol- 
omon it was plentiful, 1 Kin. 10; 2 Chr. 
1 : 15 ; 9:1,9, 13-24. In Job 22 : 25, for " de- 
fence " read "gold," as in ver. 24. The 
ark of the covenant was overlaid with pure 
gold ; the mercy-seat, the vessels and uten- 
sils of the tabernacle and temple were all 
of gold, Exod. 38:24; 1 Chr. 22:14; 29:4, 7; 
2 Chr. 3 ; 4. 

GOLD'SMITH, Neh. 3:8, 32; Isa. 40:19; 
41:7; 46:6; literally a founder or finer. 
Compare Mai. 3:2, 3. Metallurgic pro- 
cesses are also mentioned, Prov. 17:3; 
27:21, The Scriptures refer to the work 
of Egyptian goldsmiths, and the sculptures 
of Thebes and Beni-hassan depict their 
processes and the beautiful results. 

GOL'GOTHA, the Hebrew name for Cal- 
vary, which see. 

GOLI'ATH, exile, a celebrated giant of 
Gath, who challenged the armies of Israel, 
and was encountered and slain by David. 
The history is contained in 1 Sam. 17. His 
height was 9^ feet; or, if we reckon the 
cubit at 21 inches, over 11 feet. He was 
one of 5 sons of a giant, margin Rapha, of 
Gath, Josh. 11:21, 22; see Anakim and 
Rephaim; 2 Sam. 21:15-22; 1 Chr. 20:4-8. 
See Giants. 

GO'MER, completion, I., Gen. 10:2, 3- 
1 Chr. 1:5; Ezek. 38 : 6, a son of Japh'eth| 
and father of Ashkenaz, Riphath, and To- 
garmah. He is generally believed to have 
settled the northern shores of the Black 
Sea, and given name to the ancient Cim- 
merians and to the Crimea. About 700 
B. C. a part of his posterity ravaged Asia 
Minor for a time. Traces of his name and 
parentage are also found in the Cimbri, 
Umbri, and Cambri of historians, in Cymry 
and Kumeraeg, the names of the Welsh 
people and language, among the Gaels of 
Ireland and Scotland. Yet some ethnolo- 



gists regard this identification of the Cimbri 
with the Cimmerians and the Celtic race as 
baseless, except the similarity of names. 

II. A harlot whom the prophet Hosea 
appears to have married in prophetic vis- 
ion, as directed by God, that Israel might 
be led to reflect on the guilt of their spirit- 
ual uncleanness or idolatry, Hos. 1. 

GOMOR'RAH, submersion, one of the cit- 
ies in the fruitful vale of Siddim, near the 
southern part of the ancient Dead Sea, 
miraculously blasted by God. See Sodom. 

GOOD'MAN, Luke 12:39, "master," as in 
Matt. 10:25, or "householder," as in Matt. 
13 : 27 ; also Prov. 7 : 19. 

GO'PHER, the wood of which Noah's ark 
was built. Many suppose it to be the cy- 
press, which abounded in Assyria. Others 
take Gopher to be a general name for res- 
inous trees, as the cedar, cypress, fir, and 
pine, Gen. 6: 14. 

GO'SHEN, I., the tract of country in 
Egypt inhabited by the Israelites from the 
time of Jacob to that of Moses. It was 
probably the tract lying east of the Pelu- 
sian arm of the Nile, towards Arabia, the 
modern district Esh-Shurkiyeh, including 
the valley et-Tumeylat. See Egypt. It 
appears to have reached to the Nile, Exod. 
1 : 22 ; 2:3, since the Jews ate fish in abun- 
dance, Num. 11:5, and practised irrigation, 
Deut. 11:10. It was near Heliopolis and 
Rameses, and not far from the capital of 
Egypt, Gen. 45:10; 47:11; Exod. 8-12. It 
was a part of "the best of the land," at 
least for the pastoral Hebrews, Gen. 46:34, 
and was evidently better watered and more 
fertile than at present. Here they greatly 
multiplied and prospered, Gen. 47 : 27 ; 
Exod. 1 : 7, and here they were sorely af- 
flicted, and yet not forgotten of God, Exod. 
8:22; 9 : 26. Many Egyptians dwelt among 
and around them, Exod. 11:2; 12:12, 13, 
22, 23, and the Hebrews more or less ac- 
quired the arts of Egyptian civilization, 
Exod. 31:1-11; 35:10, 30-35; Acts 7:22. 
The railroad from Cairo to Suez makes a 
northern curve through Goshen, and the 
fresh water canal on the west bank of the 
Suez canal traverses it in going from the 
Nile at Cairo to Ismailia. See Pharaoh. 

II. A district in Southern Palestine, ap- 
parently on the border of the hill country, 
perhaps adjacent to III. 

III. A city in the mountains of Judah, 
Josh. 15:51; not identified. 

GOS'PEL signifies good news, and is that 
revelation and dispensation which God has 
made known to guilty man through Jesus 

205 



GOS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GOS 



Christ our Saviour and Redeemer. Scrip- 
ture speaks of " the gospel of the king- 
dom," Matt. 24 : 14, the gospel " of the grace 
of God," Acts 20:24, "°f Christ," and "of 
peace," Rom. 1:16; 10 : 15. It is the " glo- 
rious " and the " everlasting " gospel, 1 Tim. 
1 mi; Rev. 14:6, and well merits the no- 
blest epithets that can be given it. The 
declaration of this gospel was made through 
the life and teaching, the death, resurrec- 
tion, and ascension of our Lord. 

The writings which contain the recital of 
our Saviour's life, miracles, death, resur- 
rection, and doctrine are called gospels, 
because they include the best news that 
could be published to mankind. We have 
4 canonical gospels — those of Matthew, 
Mark, Luke, and John. These have not 
only been generally received, but they were 
received very early as the standards of 
evangelical history, as the depositories of 
the doctrines and actions of Jesus. They 
are appealed to under that character both 
by friends and enemies; and no writer 
impugning or defending Christianity ac- 
knowledges any other gospel as of equal 
or concurrent authority, although there 
were many others which purported to be 
authentic memoirs of the life and actions 
of Christ. Some of these apocryphal gos- 
pels are still extant. They contain many 
errors and legends, but have some indirect 
value. 

There appears to be valid objection to 
the idea entertained by many, that the 
evangelists copied from each other or from 
an earlier and fuller gospel. Whether 
Mark wrote with the gospel by Matthew 
before him, and Luke with Matthew and 
Mark both, or not, we know that they 
"spake as they were moved by the Holy 
Ghost" while recounting the works and 
sayings of Christ which they had seen or 
knew to be true, using no doubt the most 
authentic written and oral accounts of the 
same current among the disciples. They 
have not at all confined themselves to the 
strict order of time and place. 

Gospel of Matthew. The time when 
this gospel was written is very uncertain. 
All ancient testimony, however, goes to 
show that it was published before the oth- 
ers. It is believed by many to have been 
written about A. D. 38, by others between 
50 and 60. It has been much disputed 
whether this gospel was originally written 
in Hebrew or Greek. The unanimous tes- 
timony of ancient writers is in favor of a 
Hebrew original, that is, that it was writ- 
206 



ten in the language of Palestine and for 
the use of the Hebrew Christians. But, on 
the other hand, the definiteness and accu- 
racy of this testimony is drawn into ques- 
tion ; there is no historical notice of a trans- 
lation into Greek; and the present Greek 
gospel bears many marks of being an orig- 
inal ; the circumstances of the age, too, 
and the prevalence of the Greek language 
in Palestine, seem to give weight to the 
opposite hypothesis. Critics of the great- 
est name are arranged on both sides of the 
question ; and some who believe it to have 
been first written in Hebrew, think that 
the author himself afterwards made a Greek 
version. Matthew writes as "an Israelite 
indeed," a guileless converted Jew instruct- 
ing his brethren. He often quotes from 
the Old Testament. He represents the 
Saviour as the fulfilment of the hopes of 
Israel, the promised Messiah, King of 1 the 
"kingdom of heaven" — which expression 
he commonly uses where the other evange- 
lists speak of the " kingdom of God." 

Gospel of Mark. Ancient writers agree 
in the statement that Mark, not himself an 
apostle, wrote his gospel under the influ- 
ence and direction of the apostle Peter. 
The same traditionary authority, though 
with less unanimity and evidence, makes 
it to have been written at Rome, and pub- 
lished after the death of Peter and Paul. 
Mark wrote primarily for the Gentiles, as 
appears from his frequent explanations of 
Jewish customs, etc. He exhibits Christ 
as the divine Prophet, mighty in deed and 
word. He is a true evangelical historian, 
relating facts more than discourses, in a 
concise, simple, rapid style, with occasional 
minute and graphic details. One of his 
peculiarities is his use of the Greek word 
translated "straightway," "immediately," 
" anon," etc., which occurs 40 times, more 
than in the other 3 gospels together. 

Gospel of Luke. Luke is said to have 
written his gospel under the direction of 
Paul, whose companion he was on many 
journevs. His expanded views and cath- 
olic spirit resemble those of the great apos- 
tle to the Gentiles ; and his gospel repre- 
sents Christ as the compassionate Friend 
of sinners, the Saviour of the world. It 
appears to have been written primarily for 
Theophilus, some noble Greek or Roman, 
and its date is generally supposed to be 
about A. D. 63. 

Gospel of John. The ancient writers 
all make this gospel the latest. It was 
probably written at Ephesus, some time 



GOU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GRA 



after the destruction of Jerusalem. Out of 
33 miracles of Christ it records 7, only one 
of them related by the other evangelists; 
and out of 30 parables he records none. 
The gospel of John reveals Christ as the 
divine and divinely-appointed Redeemer, 
the Son of God manifested in flesh. It is 
a spiritual rather than historical gospel, 
omitting many things chronicled by the 
other evangelists, and containing much 
more than they do as to the new life in the 
soul through Christ, union with him, regen- 
eration, the resurrection, and the work of 
the Holy Spirit. The spirit of the " disci- 
ple whom Jesus loved " pervades this pre- 
cious gospel. It had a special adaptation 
to refute the Gnostic heresies of that time, 
but is equally fitted to build up the church 
of Christ in all generations. Among his 
characteristic expressions are " abide " and 
" bear witness," which occur 40 and 30 
times in this gospel. 

GOURD. It has been supposed that Jo- 
nah's gourd was the Ricinus Communis, 
or castor-oil plant. It grows in the East 
with great rapidity, to the height of 8 to 12 
feet, and one species much higher. Its 
leaves are large, and have 6 or 7 divisions, 
like a hand with outspread fingers, whence 




THE CASTOR-OIL PLANT. 

its name of Palma Christi. Since, how- 
ever, it is now known that in the vicinity of 
the ancient Nineveh a plant of the gourd 



kind is commonly trained to run over struc- 
tures of mud and brush, to form booths in 
which the gardeners may protect them- 
selves from the terrible beams of the Asi- 
atic sun, this goes far to show that this vine, 
called in the Arabic ker'a, is the true gourd 
of Jonah. If the expression, " which came 
up in a night," Jonah 4:10, is to be under- 
stood literally, it indicates that God "pre- 
pared " the gourd, ver. 6, by miraculously 
quickening its natural growth. The Ori- 
ental gourd grows rapidly, forms a dense 
shade, flourishes best in extreme heat, and 
quickly withers when injured. 

The wild gourd is a poisonous plant, 
conjectured to mean the colocynth, which 
has a cucumber-like vine, with several 
branches, and bears a fruit of the size and 
color of an orange, with a hard, woody 
shell, within which is the white meat or 
pulp, exceedingly bitter, and a drastic pur- 
gative, 2 Kin. 4:39. It was very inviting 
to the eye, and furnished a model for the 
carved and molten " knops " in Solomon's 
temple, 1 Kin. 6:18; 7:24. 

GOVERNOR, Jas. 3:4, pilot. 

GO'ZAN, the district, Isa. 37:12, to which 
Tiglath-pileser, and afterwards Shalmane- 
ser and Sargon, carried the captive Israel- 
ites, 2 Kin. 17:6; 1 Chr. 5:26. Identified 
by some with the modern Kizzil-ozan, a 
river flowing from Kurdistan into the Cas- 
pian Sea; but by Rawlinson and others 
with Gauzanitis in Northern Mesopotamia 
on the river Habor, now Khabur, an afflu- 
ent of the Euphrates. 

GRACE, favor, mercy. Divine grace is 
the free and undeserved love and favor of 
God towards man as a sinner, especially 
as exhibited in the plan of redemption 
through Jesus Christ, John 1:17; 3:16; 
Rom. 3:24-26. It is only by the free grace 
of God that we embrace the offers of mercy, 
and appropriate to ourselves the blessings 
graciously purchased by redeeming blood. 

The "grace of God," spontaneous, un- 
merited, self-directed, and almighty, is the 
source of the whole scheme of redemption, 
Rom. 11:6; 2 Tim. 1:9. With it are united 
" the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ," who 
gave himself for sinners ; and that of " the 
Spirit of grace," by whom alone the grace 
offered by the Father and purchased by 
the Son is effectually applied. Thus grace 
in man, or all true holiness, 2 Pet. 3:18, is 
traced up to the grace of God as its only 
source; and the gospel of Christ and the 
work of the Spirit — both pure grace — are its 
only channels of communication. Hence 

207 



GRA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GRE 



also all the fruits and blessings of the gos- 
pel are termed graces, 2 Cor. 8:7; Phil. 
1:7; not only regeneration, pardon, en- 
lightenment, sanctification, etc., but mirac- 
ulous, official, and prophetic gifts, the pe- 
culiar traits of Christian character, and 
everlasting salvation, 1 Pet. 1:13. In Gal. 
5:4 "grace" means God's plan of salva- 
tion by his mercy, not by our works. 

GRA'CIOUS, Prov. 11:16; Jer. 22 : 23 ; com- 
plaisant and winning. 

GRAIN. See Corn. 

GRAPES, the fruit of the vine. The 
grapes of Palestine were very fine, of great 
size and high flavor, Num. 13:24. At pres- 
ent, and probably the same has always 
been true, the wine that is made requires 
but a small part of the annual yield of the 
vines. Dr. Robinson says, " No wine is 
made from the very extensive vineyards 
of Hebron, except a little by the Jews." 
While yet green, grapes are used for food 
in various ways ; and are dried in the sun, 
or their juice preserved in bottles, to secure 
a pleasant vegetable tart all the year round, 
Num. 6:4. Ripe grapes may be had in 
Syria 4 or 5 months, Lev. 26:5; and when 
the season closes many are hung up in 
clusters, suitably protected, and remain 
without drying up all through the winter. 
Grapes are exceedingly cheap, and form 
no small part of the ordinary food. Ripe 
grapes are also dried into raisins ; and 
after the hanging grapes are gone, the rais- 
ins are used until the return of the new 
grapes. The expressed juice is boiled 
down to a syrup called dibs, much used as 
a condiment by all classes. 

Besides the law which protected the first 
3 years' growth of the vine (see First- 
fruits), there was another law requiring 
the Jews to leave the gleanings of their 
vineyards for the poor, Lev. 19: 10, 23. The 
law also allowed one who was passing a 
vineyard to pick a few grapes to eat on the 
spot, but not to carry any away, Deut. 23 : 24. 
Everywhere we encounter proofs of the 
admirable humanity that characterized the 
Mosaic legislation. A vineyard nearly 
stripped of its clustered treasures was a 
frequent image of desolation, Isa. 17:6; 
24:13; Obad. 5. See Vine. 

" Wild grapes " were the fruit of a wild 
vine, probably the Vitis Labrusca of Lin- 
naeus, the wild claret-grape. The fruit of 
the wild vine is called cenanthes, or the 
flower of wine. They never ripen, and are 
good only for verjuice. In Isa. 5:2, 4 God 
complains of his people whom he had plant- 
208 



ed as a choice vine, an excellent plant, that 
he had a right to require of them good 
fruit, but they had brought forth only wild 
grapes — fruit of a bad smell and a bad 
taste. 

GRASS sometimes means any green herb- 
age, Isa. 15 : 6, and sometimes the usual 
food of cattle, Psa. 104:14. The quick 
growth of grass, its tenderness, and its 
rapid combustion when dry, have furnished 
the sacred writers with some of their most 
appropriate illustrations, Psa. 90 : 5, 6 ; 92 : 7 ; 
103:15, 16; Isa. 40:6-8; 51:12; Jas. 1:10; 
1 Pet. 1 : 24. All sorts of grass and small 
shrubs are still used in Syria for fuel, on 
account of the scarcity of wood, Matt. 6 : 28- 
30. Travellers in that country often see 
grass growing on the housetops, the roofs 
being flat and coated with earth trodden 
hard. Such grass quickly withers when 
the rainy season is over, Psa. 129:6, 7, 
where the rendering should be, "before it 
is plucked up," Isa. 37:27. 

GRASS'HOPPER, a kind of locust, and 
so called in 2 Chr. 7: 13. It was sometimes 
used for food, Lev. 11:22. Individually 
they are insignificant and timid creatures, 
Num. 13:33, and their worthlessness fur- 
nishes a striking comparison in Isa. 40:22 ; 
while the feebleness of age is expressed 
by its inability to endure them, Eccl. 12:5. 
Yet coming in great numbers they are de- 
structive to all herbage, Amos 7:1. See 
Locust. 

GRAVE, Isa. 22:16, to excavate. 

GREAVES, 1 Sam. 17:6, armor for the 
legs. 

GREECE, in the Old Testament, is put 
for the Hebrew word Javan, which is equiv- 
alent to Ionia, and seems to include not 
only Greece but Western Asia Minor and 
the intervening isles, all settled by the 
Ionian race, Gen. 10:2. Greece proper, 
however, is chiefly intended. See Javan. 

In the New Testament Greece is usually 
spoken of as Achaia, but is once called 
Hellas, a name supposed to have belonged 
first to a single city is Thessaly, but at 
length applied to the whole country south 
of Macedonia, including the Peloponnesus, 
Acts 20:2. About B. C. 146 the Romans 
conquered Greece, and afterwards organ- 
ized 2 great provinces, namely, Macedonia, 
including Macedonia proper, Thessaly, Ep- 
irus, and Illyricum ; and Achaia, including 
all the country which lies south of the for- 
mer province. See Achaia. Greece was 
bounded north by Macedonia and Illyri- 
cum, from which it was separated by moun- 



GRE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GRI 



tains, south by the Mediterranean Sea, east 
by the yEgean Sea, and west by the Ionian 
Sea. It was generally known under the 3 
great divisions of Peloponnesus, Hellas, 
and Northern Greece. 

Peloponnesus, more anciently called Pe- 
lasgia, and Argos, and now the Morea, was 
the southern peninsula; it included the 
famous cities Sparta, Messene, Elis, Cor- 
inth, Argos, etc. The division of Hellas, 
which now constitutes a great part of Liva- 
dia, included the following cities : Athens, 
Megara, Plataea, Delphos, and Actium. 
Northern Greece included Thessaly and 
Epirus, with the cities Larissa, Nicopolis, 
etc. The large islands of Crete and Eu- 
bcea belonged to Greece, as well as most 
of those in the Archipelago and on the 
west. 

The Greeks purchased Jewish captives 
as slaves from the Tyrians, Joel 3:6 (about 
800 B. C). Compare Ezek. 27:13. Daniel 
foretold the rise of the Macedonian-Gre- 
cian empire, Dan. 7:6; 8:5,21. Zechariah, 
9:13, predicted the Maccabees' triumphs 
over their Graeco-Syrian oppressors; and 
Isaiah, 66:19, speaks of future Jewish mis- 
sionaries to Javan, a prophecy fulfilled in 
the witness of the Jews against polytheism, 
and the labors of Jewish gospel missiona- 
ries on Grecian soil. See Javan. 

The Jews and the Greeks appear to have 
had little intercourse with each other until 
after Alexander the Great overran Egypt, 
Syria, and the East. They then began to 
come in contact everywhere, for both races 
were widely dispersed. The Jews extend- 
ed the name of Greeks (Hellenes) to in- 
clude the people conquered and ruled by 
Greeks ; and the word is thus often synony- 
mous in the New Testament with Gentiles, 
Mark 7:26; Acts 20:21; Rom. 1:16. The 
term " Grecian " or Hellenist, on the con- 
trary, denotes a Jew by birth or religion 
who spoke Greek; in the R. V. "Grecian 
Jews." It is used chiefly of foreign Jews 
and proselytes, in contrast with the He- 
brews, that is, those speaking the vernacu- 
lar Hebrew, or Aramaean, Acts 6:1; 9:29. 
In Acts 11:20 "Greeks" is probably the 
true reading, for the "Grecians" would 
be included among the "Jews" of ver. 19. 
The Greeks were a vivacious, acute, and 
polished, but superficial people, compared 
with the Jews. They excelled in all the 
arts of war and peace ; but were worship- 
pers of beauty, not of duty. Their pride 
of intellect and their corruption of morals 
were almost insurmountable obstacles to 



their reception of Christianity, 1 Cor. 1:22, 
23. Yet it was among the Greek cities and 
people that Paul chiefly labored, and with 
great success. Many flourishing churches 
were, in early times, established among 
them ; and there can be no doubt that they 
for a long time preserved the apostolic cus- 
toms with much care. At length, however, 
opinions fluctuated considerably on points 
of doctrine; schisms and heresies divided 
the church ; and rancor, violence, and even 
persecution followed in their train. To 
check these evils, councils were called and 
various creeds composed. The removal of 
the seat of government from Rome to Con- 
stantinople gave a preponderance to the 
Grecian districts of the empire, and the 
ecclesiastical determinations of the Greek 
Church were extensively received. In the 
middle of the 8th century disputes arose, 
which terminated in a permanent schism 
between the Greek and Latin Churches. 
The Greek Church has a general' resem- 
blance to the Roman-catholic, and embra- 
ces a population of not far from 70,000,000 of 
souls, in Russia, Greece, Turkey, Syria, etc. 

The Greek language is the original 
language of all the books of the New Tes- 
tament, except perhaps the gospel by Mat- 
thew ; but the sacred authors have followed 
that style of writing which was used by the 
Hellenists, or Grecizing Hebrews, adopting 
many idioms and turns of speech from the 
Syriac and Hebrew languages, very differ- 
ent from the classical style of the Greek 
writers, but like that of the Septuagint. 
They were also obliged to make use of 
some new words, and new applications of 
old words, to express religious ideas before 
unknown to the Greeks, and for which they 
had no proper expression. After Alexan- 
der the Great, Greek became the language 
best known throughout the East, and was 
generally used in commerce. As the sa- 
cred authors had in view the conversion 
not only of the Jews, then scattered through- 
out the East, but of the Gentiles also, it was 
natural for them to write to them in Greek, 
that being a language to which all were of 
necessity accustomed. It was the language 
commonly spoken by our Lord and his dis- 
ciples, and the evangelists have doubtless 
given us in many cases the very words he 
spoke ; though the Hebrew (Aramaic) was 
probably more loved and spoken at Jeru- 
salem by devout Jews, Acts 1:19; 22 : 2. 

GRIEF and GRIEVOUS often denote 
physical pain, Gen. 49:23; Isa. 53:4; Matt 
8:6; 1 Pet. 2:19. 

209 



GRI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HAD 



GRIND. See Corn. 

GRIND'ERS, Eccl. 12:3, the molars, or 
jaw-teeth. 

GROVE, Heb. Asherah, means a wooden 
image of Ashtoreth (see), and should be so 
understood, except in Gen. 21:33, where a 
different Hebrew word is used, meaning a 
tree, as in 1 Sam. 22:6; 31:13. The Israel- 
ites were commanded to destroy the Ashe- 
rim, Exod. 34:13; Deut. 16:21; but often 
disobeyed, Judg. 3:7; 6:25, 26; 1 Kin. 
15:13; 2 Kin. 17:10; 21:3, 7; 23:6; Isa. 17:8. 
Groves were early associated with the wor- 
ship of the true God, Gen. 12:6, 7; 13:18, 
and seem naturally fitted for such a pur- 
pose. The heathen and backsliding Jews 
resorted to them for idolatrous rites, some 
elevated spot being generally chosen, Jer. 
17:2; Ezek. 20:28; Hos. 4:13. See High 
Places, Mamre, Oak. 

GUARD, Gen. 37:36; 2 Kin. 25:8; Dan. 
2:14, literally a butcher, hence a cook, and 
an executioner — the body-guard of the 
kings of Egypt and Babylon. See Foot- 
men. 

GUDGO'DAH, Deut. 10:7; Hor-hagidgad, 
Num. 33:32. 

GUIL'TY, Matt. 26:66; Mark 14:64, in 
R. V. " worthy." 

• 

H. 

HABAK'KUK, embrace, one of the minor 
prophets, probably a Levite, and perhaps a 
temple singer. Compare 3:19 with 1 Chr. 
25:1-5. Of his life we know nothing, ex- 
cept that he appears to have been contem- 
porary with Jeremiah, and to have proph- 
esied between 630 B. C, Josiah's 12th year, 
and 610 B. C; before Nebuchadnezzar's 1st 
invasion of Judaea, 2 Kin. 24:1. 

The book of Habakkuk consists of 3^ 
chapters, which all constitute one oracle. 
In the first chapter, he foretells the woes 
which the rapacious and terrible Chaldse- 
ans would soon inflict upon his guilty na- 
tion. In the second, he predicts the future 
humiliation of the iniquitous conquerors. 
The third is a sublime and beautiful ode, 
in which the prophet implores the succor 
of Jehovah in view of his mighty works 
of ancient days, and expresses the most 
assured trust in him. Nothing, even in 
Hebrew poetry, is more lofty and grand 
than this triumphal ode, which inspires the 
most afflicted believer to rejoice in his God. 

HABER'GEON, Neh. 4:16; Job. 41:26, a 
coat of mail ; an ancient piece of defensive 
armor, in the form of a coat or tunic,-4e- 
210 



scending from the neck to the middle of 
the body, and formed of tough hide, or 




many quilted linen folds, or of scales of 
brass overlapping each other like fishes' 
scales, or of small iron rings or meshes 
linked into each other, Exod. 28:32; 39:23. 

HA'BOR, united, " the river of Gozan," 
a river and probably also a district of 
Assyria, 2 Kin. 17:6; 18:11; 1 Chr. 5:26. 
Identified with the Khabur, which flows 
into the Euphrates at Karkesia. It is about 
200 miles long, and traversed the province 
of Gauzanitis (see Gozan), adjoining which 
was Chalcitis, formerly Halah. 

HACH'ILAH, a hill in the untilled land 
near Ziph (see), facing the Jeshimon (see). 
A lurking-place of David and his 600, where 
Saul's life was spared, 1 Sam. 23:19; 26:1, 
3-12. Now found at Yekin or Hachin, a 
ruin on a high hill between valleys run- 
ning north and south. 

HACH'MONITE, son of Hachmoni, to 
whose family the heroes Jashobeam and 
Jehiel belonged, 2 Sam. 23 : 8 ; 1 Chr. 1 1 : 1 1 ; 
27:32. 

HA'DAD, or Hadar, mighty, I., son of 
Ishmael, Gen. 25:15; 1 Chr. 1:30. 

II. A king of Edom, at Avith, Gen. 36 : 35 ; 
1 Chr. 1:46. 

III. Another king of Edom, at Pau, Gen. 
36:39; 1 Chr. 1:50, 51, perhaps contempo- 
rarv with Moses. 

IV. Another Edomite of the royal fam- 
ily, who fled to Egypt while young, upon 
David's conquest of Edom, 2 Sam. 8:14; 
was well received, and married the queen's 
sister. After the death of David and Joab, 
he returned to Edom and made an ineffec- 
tual effort to throw off the yoke of Solo- 
mon, 1 Kin. 11:14-22,25. 

Hadad was also the name of the Syrian 



HAD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HAI 



sun-god, and is part of the name of several 
Syrian kings. 

HADADE'ZER, or Hadare'zer, helped 
of Hadad, a powerful king of Syria, reign- 
ing in Zobah and the surrounding country, 
even to the Euphrates, i Kin. 11:23. He 
was thrice defeated and his power over- 
thrown by David, 2 Sam. 8:3, 4; 10:6-14, 
16-19; 1 Chr. 18:3; 19:6. Psalm 60 was 
written after David's first victory over the 
Syrians and Edomites, 2 Sam. 8:13, 14. 

HA'DAD-RIM'MON, named for 2 Syrian 
deities, a city in the valley of Megiddo, the 
scene of national lamentation over Josiah's 
death, in battle with Pharaoh-necho, 2 Kin. 
23:29; 2 Chr. 35:20-25; Zech. 12:11. After- 
wards, Jerome says, called Maximianop- 
olis. 

HADAS'SAH. See Esther. 

HA'DES. See Hell. 

HA'DID, Ezra 2:33; Neh. 7:37; 11:34, in 
Dan, though belonging to Benjamin ; now 
El-Haditheh, 3 miles east of Ludd. 

HADO'RAM, Hadar is exalted, L, Gen. 
10:27; 1 Chr. 1 :2i. 

II. Son of Toi, king of Hamath, called 
Joram in 2 Sam. 8:10. 

III. 2 Chr. 10:18, contracted from Ado- 
niram. 

HA'DRACH, the land of, Zech. 9:1. Not 
identified, probably a part of Syria. 

HA'GAB, Hagaba, one of the Nethinim, 
Ezra 2:45, 46; Neh. 7:48. 

HA'GAR, stranger, an Egyptian bond- 
maid in the household of Sarah, Gen. 12:16, 
who, being barren, gave her to Abraham 
for a secondary wife, that by her, as a sub- 
stitute, she might have children, in accord- 
ance with the customs of the East in that 
age. The history of Hagar is given in 
Gen. 16; 17; 21. In an allegory, Paul 
makes Hagar represent the Jewish Church, 
which was in bondage to the ceremonial 
law; as Sarah represents the true church 
of Christ, which is free from this bondage, 
Gal. 4:24. Her name is much honored 
among the Arabs claiming to be her de- 
scendants. 

HAGARENES', or Ha'garites, i Chr. 
5:10, 18-22, descendants of Hagar and Ish- 
mael. In Psa. 83:6 the name seems to be 
given to a distinct portion of the Ishmael- 
ites. A Hagarite was fitly placed over Da- 
vid's flocks, 1 Chr. 27:31. 

HAG' GAI, festive, one of the minor proph- 
ets, probably accompanied Zerubbabel in 
the first return of the Jews from Babylon, 
B. C. 536. He prophesied during the sec- 
ond year of Darius Hystaspis, B. C. 520. 



urging his countrymen to resume the build- 
ing of the temple, for about 14 years inter- 
rupted, and at last suspended, Ezra 4:4, 
5, 23, 24. The Jews had become indiffer- 
ent, and excused themselves from building 
until the end of the 70 years. Haggai's 
reproof roused them for a time, ch. 1 : 1-1 1 ; 
Ezra 5:1,2; but they soon became despond- 
ent, and he was charged with a 2d message 
of encouragement, ch. 2:1-9. The exceed- 
ing glory of the 2d temple was, as he fore- 
told, that Christ " the Desire of all nations " 
came into it, and made the place of his feet 
glorious. Again he taught them that atten- 
tion to outward rites cannot atone for dis- 
obedience to God, and assured them of 
God's blessing now that they had begun to 
build, ch. 2:10-19. He also instructs the 
inquiring Zerubbabel in regard to the na- 
tional revolutions foretold, ver. 7, and the 
safety of Judah represented by Zerubba- 
bel, ver. 20-23; Jer. 46:28. The book still 
admonishes the people of God when list- 
less and slothful in his service, and cheers 
those who strive to build his spiritual tem- 
ple, 1 Pet. 2:5. 

HAG'GITH, rejoicing, one of David's 
wives, Adonijah's mother, 2 Sam. 3:4. 

HAIL! a salutation customary among our 
Saxon ancestors, and importing "health to 
you," including all kinds of prosperity. 

HAIL/STONES, drops of rain formed into 
ice by the power of cold in the upper re- 
gions of the atmosphere. Hail was among 
the plagues of Egypt, Exod. 9:24, and was 
the more terrible because it rarely occurred 
in that country. Hail was also made use 
of by God for defeating an army of Ca- 
naanites, Josh. 10:11; and is used figura- 
tively to represent terrible judgments, Isa. 
28:2; Rev. 16:21. 

HAIR. Egyptian men cut their hair and 
shaved, except in mourning, and Joseph 




ASSYRIAN HEAD. 

did likewise, Gen. 41 : 14. Egyptian women 
wore their hair long and braided, as now. 
Wigs were worn in Egypt. Hebrew men 
cut their hair moderately short, and this 
was required of the priests, Lev. 21:5; 

211 



HAL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HAM 



Ezek. 44:20; 1 Cor. 11:14. Fragrant oint- 
ments were used, Exod. 30:33; Psa. 23:5; 
Eccl. 9:8. In mourning men cut, or shaved 
off, or plucked out the hair, Ezra 9:3; 
Amos 8:10, or let it go dishevelled, Lev. 
10:6; Ezek. 24:17. In Jer. 7:29, Jerusalem 
is addressed as a woman. Women plait- 





GRECIAN HEADS. 



ed, perfumed, and decked their hair in 
many ways, Isa. 3:18, 24; 1 Cor. 11:15, so 
much as to call for apostolic interdictions, 
1 Tim. 2:9; 1 Pet. t>'-2>- Nazarites wore 
their hair uncut as a sign of humiliation 




EGYPTIAN OFFICER AND WIFE. 

and self-dedication to God, Num. 6:5, 9: 
Judg. 13:5; 16:17. Absalom's hair perhaps 
weighed 20 shekels, not 200, a copyist's er- 
ror being possible in the numerals, 2 Sam. 
14:26. Arabians cut the hair around their 
temples in a circular form in honor of their 
god Orotal, Jer. 9:26; 25:23; 49:32, mar- 
gins ; and in mourning marred their beards, 
Jer. 48:37, practices forbidden to the Isra- 
elites, Lev. 19:27. Lepers, when cleansed, 
and Levites on their consecration, shaved 
the whole body, Lev. 13; 14:8,9; Num. 8:7. 
"Hair like women's," Rev. 9:8, was sug- 
gestive of semi-barbarous hosts like the 
long-haired Saracens, afflicters of Christian 
Europe in the 7th and 8th centuries. 

HA'LAH, 2 Kin. 17:6; 18: 11; 1 Chr. 5:26. 
Probably a province of Mesopotamia called 
Chalcitis by Ptolemy, on the Khabur north 
of Gauzanitis. See Gozan and Habor. 
The name is traced in the modern Gla, a 
large mound on that river. 

HA'LAK, smooth, perhaps not a proper 
212 



name, but descriptive of some unknown 
hill, the southern limit of Joshua's con- 
quests towards Mount Seir, Josh. 11:17; 
12:7, perhaps the pass es-Sufah. 

HALE, Luke 12:58; Acts 8:3, to draw or 
drag. 

HALL, Luke 12:55, the court or uncov- 
ered space in the midst of a house. The 
"porch," Matt. 26:71 ; Mark 14:68, was the 
vestibule leading to the court from the 
street. See House. 

HALLELU'JAH, and in the New Testa- 
ment Alleluiah, Praise ye Jehovah. This 
word occurs at the beginning and at the 
end of many Psalms. It was also sung on 
solemn days of rejoicing, as an expression 
of joy and praise, and as such it has been 
adopted in the Christian church, and is 
still used in devotional psalmody, Rev. 
19: 1, 3, 4, 6. The Jews gave the name Hal- 
lel to the Psalms from 113 to 118, and sang 
them on their Feast days, as Christ and 
his disciples are supposed to have done at 
the Lord's Supper, Matt. 26:30. 

HAL' LOW, to render sacred, set apart, 
consecrate. The English word is from the 
Saxon, and means to make holy; hence 
hallowed persons, things, places, rites, etc. ; 
hence also the name, power, and dignity of 
God are hallowed, that is, reverenced as 
holy. 

HALT, Psa. 38:17; Matt. 18:8, limping. 

HAM, hot, sunburnt, I., a son of Noah, 
Gen. 5:32; 7:13; 9:18; 10:1. His name 
may prophetically refer to the hot territo- 
ries of his descendants. Compare Gen. 
5:29. The impiety revealed in his conduct 
towards his father drew upon him, or rath- 
er, according to the Bible statement, on his 
son Canaan, a prophetic malediction, Gen. 
9 : 20-27. Ham was the father of Cush, Miz- 
raim, Phut, and Canaan, that is, the ances- 
tor of the Canaanites, Southern Arabians, 
Ethiopians, Egyptians, and the Africans in 
general, Gen. 10:6-20. A Cushite descend- 
ant of Ham is mentioned as the founder of 
Babylon, Gen. 10:8-10; a statement con- 
firmed by the earliest Babylonian monu- 
ments exhumed, the language of which is 
Cushite. 

II. A poetical name for Egypt, Psa. 
78 : 51 ; 106 : 22, the first civilized of the 
Hamite settlements. 

III. An unknown place of the Zuzim, 
Gen. 14:5. 

IV. 1 Chr. 4:40, probably the Philistines, 
as descended from Ham through Mizraim, 
Gen. 10: 14. 

HA'MAN, magnificent, a favorite of Ahas- 



HAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HAN 



uerus, king of Persia. In order to revenge 
himself upon Mordecai the Jew, he plotted 
the extermination of all the Jews in the 
kingdom; but in the providence of God he 
was thwarted by Esther, fell into disgrace 
with the king, and wrought his own ruin 
and the upbuilding of the Jews. He is 
called an Agagite ; and as Agag was a com- 
mon name of the Amalekite kings, the 
Jews believe he was of that race. This 
would help to explain his malice against 
the Jews. See Amalekites. Similar 
wholesale slaughters are still plotted in 
Asia, and the whole narrative is confirmed 
and illustrated by the descriptions of East- 
ern life furnished by modern travellers in 
the same region. The death of Haman 
took place about 473 B. C. His eventful 
history shows that pride goes before de- 
struction; that the providence of God di- 
rects all things ; that his people are safe in 
the midst of perils; and that his foes must 
perish. 

HA'MATH, fortress, an important city 
and province of Upper Syria, settled by a 
Canaanite tribe, Gen. 10:18. " The Enter- 
ing in of Hamath " is probably the north- 
ern part of the valley which led up to it 
from Palestine between Lebanon and Anti- 
Lebanon, often mentioned as Israel's north- 
ern boundary, Num. 13:21; Josh. 13:5; 
Judg. y.y The land of Hamath, appar- 
ently independent in David's time, 2 Sam. 
8:9, 10, seems to have come under Solo- 
mon's control, for he had "store cities" in 
it to accommodate his northern commerce, 
2 Chr. 8:4. It is mentioned in the Assyrian 
inscriptions of Ahab's time as an ally of 
Damascus ; was " recovered " by Jeroboam 
II., 2 Kin. 14:28, taken by the Assyrians, 
2 Kin. 18:34; 19:13; Amos6:2, 14. Com- 
pare 1 Kin. 8:65. Hamah now belongs to 
the Turkish empire, is built on both sides 
of the Orontes, and has 30,000 inhabitants. 

HA'MATH-ZO'BAH, 2 Chr. 8:3, perhaps 
Hamath. 

HAM'MATH, hot springs or baths, a forti- 
fied city in Naphtali, Josh. 19:35 ; probably 
the Levitical city called Hammoth-dor, 
Josh. 21:32, and Hammon, 1 Chr. 6:76. 
About a mile south of Tiberias are still 3 
or 4 hammam, i. e., hot springs. 

HAMME'LECH, the king, probably should 
be so translated, meaning Jehoiakim in Jer. 
36:26, and Zedekiah in Jer. 38:6. 

HA'MON-GOG, Ezek. 39:11, 15, a prophet- 
ic name given to a ravine on the east of 
the Dead Sea, on the thoroughfare of com- 
merce with Arabia and Egypt. 



HA'MOR, an ass, Gen. 33:19; 34; Judg. 
9:28, a Hivite prince, father of Shechem. 
From his sons Jacob bought some land for 
100 "lambs," Gen. 33:19, margin, proba- 
bly rings of silver stamped with the figure 
of a lamb, Josh. 24:32. Called Emmor in 
Acts 7:16, A. V., where Stephen, speaking 
to men familiar with the facts, elliptically 
sums up the Old Testament narrative of 2 
purchases and 2 burial-places, Gen. 50:13. 

HAMU'TAL, kin of the dew, 2 Kin. 23:31 ; 
24:18; Jer. 52:1. 

HANAM'EEL, the grace of God, son of 
Shallum, a kinsman of Jeremiah, from 
whom the prophet bought a piece of ground 
before the captivity, and had the legal rec- 
ord made, in token of his prophetic assu- 
rance that his people would return to their 
possessions, Jer. 32:6-15, yj, 43, 44. See 
Anathoth. The law prohibiting the alien- 
ation of Levitical lands, Lev. 25:25, 34, ap- 
parently did not forbid sales within the 
tribe of Levi ;# 

HANAN'EEL, the tower of, on the north- 
eastern wall of Jerusalem, between the fish- 
gate and the sheep-gate, Neh. 3:1; 12:39; 
Jer. 31:38; Zech. 14:10. 

HANA'NI, gracious, I., a Levitical musi- 
cian and director under David, 1 Chr. 25:4, 
25. B. C. 1014. 

II. A seer in the time of Asa, imprisoned 
for his fidelity, B. C. 941. He was also the 
father of the prophet Jehu, 1 Kin. 16:1-7; 
2 Chr. 16:7-10; 19:2; 20:34. 

III. A brother of Nehemiah, who brought 
to Susa an account of the wretched state of 
the Jews then at Jerusalem, and afterwards 
had charge of the gates of the city, Neh. 
I:I -3I 7:2,3, B. C. 446. 

IV. Neh. 12:35, 36. 

HANANI'AH, gift of the Lord, I., 1 Chr. 
25:4, 5,23. 

II. A false prophet of Gibeon, who for 
his impious hardihood was overtaken with 
speedy death, according to the word of 
God, Jer. 28. Compare Acts 5:1-5; Rev. 
21:8; 22:15. 

III. 1 Chr. 3:19. Identified by some with 
Joanna, Luke 3:27. 

IV. The Hebrew name of Shadrach, Dan. 
1:3,6,7. 

V. A pious and faithful officer under Ne- 
hemiah, Neh. 7:2. 

Many others of this name are mentioned. 

HAND, a symbol of skill, power, and 
various actions, Psa. 24:4; Ezek. 23:37; 
also of God's vengeance, 1 Sam. 5:6, 7; 
Psa. 21 :8, and mercy, Isa. 65:2. The hand 
was given as a pledge of faithfulness to an 

213 



HAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HAR 



agreement, Prov. 6:1; of submission to a 
master or conqueror, 2 Chr. 30:8, margin; 
Ezek. 17:18; Lam. 5:6; Jer. 50:15. It was 
raised in taking an oath, or in blessing, Gen. 
14 : 22 ; Lev. 9 : 22, also in prayer, Job 11:13; 
Psa. 28 : 2 ; 63 : 4 ; 1 Tim. 2 : 8. The offerer of 
a sacrifice, by placing his hand on its head, 
betokened the transfer of his guilt and pen- 
alty to a divinely-appointed substitute, Lev. 
1:4; 3:2; 4:15; Isa. 53:6; 2 Cor. 5:21. In 
the case of the scape-goat, Lev. 16, the com- 
plete removal of pardoned sin was sym- 
bolized. Compare Psa. 103:12; Mic. 7:19. 
The " laying on of hands " signified conse- 
cration to office and the bestowal of a bless- 
ing or of divine gifts, Gen. 48:14; Num. 
8:10; 27:18; Mark 10:16; Acts 6:6; 19:6; 
1 Tim. 4:14; Heb. 6:2. To kiss the hands 
was an act of adoration, Job 31 : 27 ; to pour 
water on them, of service, 2 Kin. 3:11; to 
wash them in public was a protest of inno- 
cence, Deut. 21: 6, 7; Matt. 27:24. "At the 
right hand of God " is the place of honor, 
power, and happiness, Psa. 16:11; 45:9; 
110:1; Matt. 26:64; Col. 3:1. In descri- 
bing location, " to the right hand " meant 
south, "to the left hand" north, the He- 
brews being wont to speak as if facing the 
east, Gen. 14:15; 1 Sam. 23:19, margin. 
In Zech. 13:6, one calls on an idolatrous 
prophet to account for the scars in his 
hands. Compare 1 Kin. 18:28. See Wash- 
ing. 

. HAND'BREADTH, the width of the palm, 
nearly 4 inches, Exod. -25:25; 1 Kin. 7:26. 
Symbolic of shortness, Psa. 39:5. 

HAND'ICRAFT. See Craft. 

HAND'IWORK, Psa. 19:1, products of 
one's labor. 

HA'NES, Isa. 30:4, a city of Egypt, prob- 
ably Tahapanes. 

HANG'ING was practised among the 
Jews upon the dead bodies of criminals, as 
a mark of ignominy, Num. 25:4; Josh. 
10:26, in which case they were to be re- 
moved by nightfall, Deut. 21 :22, 23. Com- 
pare John 19:31; Acts 5:30; Gal. 3:13, 
where Christ's crucifixion is spoken of. 

Hang'ing, literally cover, means the 
curtain before the door of the tabernacle, 
Exod. 26:36, 37; 39:38, before the entrance 
of the court, Exod. 27:16; 38:18; Num. 
4:26; and the same Hebrew word is "the 
veil of the covering " which shut off the 
Most Holy Place, Exod. 35:12; 39:34; 
40:21 ; Num. 4:5. 

HANG'INGS, the translation of another 
Hebrew word, meaning "that which is in 
motion," formed the walls of the court of 
214 



the tabernacle, Exod. 27:9; 35:17; 38:9; 
Num. 3: 26; 4:26. In 2 Kin. 23:7, for "hang- 
ings " read " tents," for the impure worship 
of Ashtoreth. 

HAN' N AH, grace, favor, the pious wife 
of a Levite of Ramathaim-zophim named 
Elkanah, and mother of Samuel, B. C. 1171. 
She had earnestly besought the Lord for 
him, and freely devoted him to serve God 
according to her vow. She was afterwards 
blessed with 3 other sons and 2 daughters,. 
1 Sam. 1-2:21. Compare Luke 1:46-55. 

HA'NUN, a king of the Ammonites, whose 
father Nahash had befriended David in his 
early troubles. Compare 1 Sam. 11. Upon 
the death of Nahash, David sent an embas- 
sage to condole with his son. The shame- 
ful treatment received by these ambassa- 
dors led to a destructive war upon the 
Ammonites, 2 Sam. 10; 12:25-31; 1 Chr. 
19; 20. 

Two others are honorably on record as 
builders of the wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 

3:13,30- 

HA'RA, hill-country, 1 Chr. 5:26, a place 
in Western Assyria, apparently on or near 
the Khabur, identified by many with Ha- 
ran. 

HA' RAN, strong, mountaineer, L, 3d son 
of Terah, brother of Abraham and Nahor, 
and father of Lot, Milcah, and Iscah. He 
was born in Ur, and died before his father, 
Gen. 11:26-31. B. C. 1990. 

II. A Gershonite Levite in David's time,. 
1 Chr. 23:9. 

HA'RAN, or CHAR'RAN, parched, I., son 
of Hezron's son Caleb, and Ephah, 1 Chr. 
2:46. 

II. An ancient city, called in the New 
Testament Charran, in the northwest part 
of Mesopotamia, that is, Padan-aram, Gen. 
25:20. Here, after leaving Ur, Abraham 
dwelt till his father Terah died; here he 
received a 2d call, Gen. 12:1; Acts 7:2; 
here Nahor remained; and to this old 
homestead Isaac sent for a wife, and Jacob 
fled from the wrath of Esau, Gen. 11:31. 
32; 12:5; 24; 27:43; 28:10; 29:4. Haran 
was ravaged by the predecessors of the 
Assyrian king Sennacherib, 2 Kin. 19:12; 
Isa. 37:12. It traded with Tyre, Ezek. 
27:23. Here Crassus the Roman general 
was defeated and killed by the Parthians. 
Harran, as it is now called, is on the Belik, 
a branch of the Euphrates, in 360 52' N. 
lat., and 390 5' E. long., in a flat and sandy 
plain, and is peopled only by a few wan- 
dering Arabs, who select it for the deli- 
cious water it furnishes. It is 20 miles 



HAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HAR 



from Orfah. See Ur. The traditional 
tomb of Terah is still shown. 

HARD, Psa. 63:8; Matt. 25:24; Acts 18:7, 
close. 

HARD'LY, Isa. 8:21; Matt. 19:23, with 
difficulty. 

HARD'NESS, 2 Tim. 2:3, hardships. 




THE COMMON HARE OF PALESTINE. 

HARE, prohibited to the Israelites for 
food, Lev. 11:6; Deut. 14:7. The hare 
masticates at leisure food which it has 
cropped and retained in its cheeks, and 
also keeps down the undue growth of its 
incisors by a constant grinding motion, re- 
sembling the cud-chewing of true rumi- 
nants ; hence it is popularly classed with 
them. Five varieties of the hare are found 
in Palestine. 

HA'RETH, Forest of, David's refuge, 
1 Sam. 22:5. Conder identifies it with 
the village Kharas a mile above Keilah, 
where ruined walls, cisterns, and caves 
are found — in a region full of ravines and 
thickets. 

HAR'LOT, in old English, any person re- 
ceiving hire, even wages honorably earned ; 
afterwards an abandoned woman, Prov. 
29:3; a type of idolatrous nations and cit- 
ies, Isa. 1:21 ; Ezek. 16; Nah. 3:4; Rev. 17. 
Among the Hebrews, prostitutes were often 
foreigners; hence their name of "strange 
women." They were often devoted to hea- 
then idols, and their abominations were a 
part of the worship, Num. 25:1-5; Hos. 
4:14; a custom from the defilement of 
which the house of God was expressly de- 
fended, Deut. 23:18. 

HAR'NESS, armor or weapons, 1 Kin. 
20:11: 22:34; 2 Chr. 18:33; a coat of mail. 
The Hebrews went out from Egypt " har- 
nessed," that is, properly equipped or ar- 
ranged. 

HA'ROD, terror, a spring near Jezreel 
in the valley between Little Hermon and 
Mount Gilboa, Judg. 7 : 1 ; 2 Sam. 23 : 25, now 
Ain Jalud. 

HARO'SHETH OF THE GENTILES, SO 
called from its mixed population, a city in 
North Canaan, the residence of Sisera, 



Judg. 4:2, 13, 16. Thomson places it at 
the base of Mount Carmel, the entrance to 
the narrow pass through which the Kishon 
flows from the plain of Esdraelon to the 
plain of Acre. Here are found a village 
and a large mound with ruins, called Ha- 
rothieh. Stanley and some others locate 
Harosheth near Lake Merom. 

HARP, Heb. Kinnor, invented by Jubal, 
Gen. 4:21. It was used on joyful occasions, 
sacred or secular, and was the national 
musical instrument of the Hebrews, Gen. 
31:27; 1 Chr. 16:5; 25:1-5; Psa. 81:2. 
Compare Psa. 137:2. David was a pro- 
ficient in its use, 1 Sam. 16:16, 23; 18:10. 
Harps were of various shapes and sizes, 
some being small enough to be played 
upon by one walking, 1 Sam. 10:5. Jose- 




ANCIENT HARPS OR LYRES. 

phus says they had 10 strings, like the in- 
strument called Nebel in Hebrew, trans- 
lated "psaltery," Psa. 33:2; 57:8; 144:9. 
It was played with the hand, 1 Sam. 16:23, 
or with a plectrum, a short iron rod. See 
Music. 

HAR'ROW, 2 Sam. 12:31, probably a 
sharp threshing machine, as it is unlikely 
that anything like our harrow was known 
to the Hebrews. After ploughing and be- 
fore sowing, in modern Palestine, the clods 
are still broken by the trampling of oxen 
or dragging a rugged thorn-bush over the 
ground, Job 39:10; Isa. 28:24; Hos. 10:11. 

HART, or Stag, a species of deer, clean 
by the Levitical law, Deut. 12:15, and cel- 
ebrated for its elegance, agility, and grace, 
Song 2:9; Isa. 35:6. It may have been the 
fallow-deer or the red deer. See Hind and 
Roe. 

HAR'VEST, began in Palestine with bar- 
ley, at the presentation of the first-fruits in 
the temple in Passover-week, the middle 
of Abib, Lev. 23:9-14; 2 Sam. 21:9, 10; 
next came the wheat harvest, the first-fruits 
being offered at Pentecost, Lev. 23:15-20; 
Ruth 2:3; the grain being cut with the 
sickle, Joel 3:13, gathered by hand, bound 

215 



HAS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HAZ 



in sheaves, Psa. 129:7, and carried, some- 
times in carts, Amos 2:13, to the threshing- 
floor or granary. The end of the world is 
described under the figure of a harvest, 
Matt. 13:30, 39. " Feast of Harvest," see 
Pentecost. 

HASHABI'AH, whom God regards, the 
name of many descendants of Levi, 1 Chr. 
26:30; 27:17, etc. 

HATE, a rooted dislike, which in some 
cases is sinless, for God hates all sinful 
thoughts and ways, Jer. 44:4, and the char- 
acter of sinners, Psa. 5:5, 6, while he yet 
earnestly desires their salvation, Ezek. 
18:23, 32; John 3:16. And so with all holy 
beings. But hatred in men is usually a 
malevolent passion — a " work of the flesh," 
Gal. 5:20. No one can hate without sin 
who is not perfect in love. We should hate 
sin, but love and bless even our enemies, 
Matt. 5:44. Plate often in Scripture de- 
notes only a less degree of love, Gen. 29:30. 
31; Deut. 21:15; Prov. 13:24; Mai. 1:2, 3; 
Luke 14:26; Rom. 9:13. 

HAUNT, Ezek. 26:17, to frequent. 

HAU'RAN, caves, a country east of the 
Jordan and south of Damascus, bounding 
Palestine on the northeast, Ezek. 47:16, 
18, its name changed to Auranitis by the 
Greeks and Romans ; now the Hauran. It 
was included loosely in Bashan, the king- 
dom of Og, Num. 21:33-35. Its limits va- 
ried at different periods, at times including, 
besides the beautiful and fertile country 
now called en-Nukra (the granary of Da- 
mascus, occupied by Arab farmers), the 
rocky Trachonitis on the northeast, now 
el-Lejah, and the Hauran range running 
north and south on the east, these hills and 
rocks presenting an astonishing number 
of ruined cities and towns. See Bashan. 
These buildings, including churches and 
amphitheatres, Wetzstein assigns to Arabs 
from Yemen, who settled here and were 
Christianized, retaining the land till con- 
quered by the Moslems, A. D. 635. Some 
of the cave-dwellings of Mount Hauran he 
traces to the ancient Rephaim, Gen. 14:5; 
Deut. 3:13. 

HAVI'LAH, circuit, I., Gen. 2:11, accord- 
ing to one theory, on the southeastern end 
of the Black Sea; according to another, 
at the head of the Persian Gulf. See 
Eden. 

II. A descendant from Ham, Gen. 10:7. 

III. A descendant from Shem and Jok- 
tan, Gen. 10:29. Some suppose these two 
Havilahs to have given name to one re- 
gion in which both Cushites and Joktanites 

216 



are found, and locate this region in Yemen, 
in Arabia Felix, now Khawlan. 

IV. Gen. 25:18, a boundary of the Ish- 
maelites, supposed by Kalisch to have been 
a country between the Persian and Arabi- 
an Gulfs. 

V. 1 Sam. 15:7, thought to be the region 
around Mount Seir. 

HA'VOTH-JAIR, huts or villages of Jair, 
23 small villages taken by Segub's son Jair, 
and so called after him, Num. 32:41, in- 
creased to 30 in the time of the judge Jair, 
Judg. 10:4. They were in Gilead or Ba- 
shan, and are supposed to form, with Ke- 
nath and its villages taken by Nobah, Num. 
32:42, the 60 "fenced cities" of Deut. y.^, 
4, 14. Others distinguish them as being, 
one in Gilead, the other in Bashan. See 

1 Kin. 4:7, 13. 

HAWK, or Falcon, a strong-winged and 
rapacious bird, of several migratory spe- 
cies, in Syria; unclean for the Hebrews, 
Lev. 11:16, but sacred among the Greeks 
and Egyptians. In its migrations it illus- 
trates the wise providence of the Creator, 
Job 39:26. 

HAY, in Prov. 27:25 and Isa. 15:6, de- 
notes the first shoots of grass. The He- 
brews did not prepare and store up hay 
for winter use, as is customary in cold cli- 
mates. Grass was cut as it was needed. 
The word translated chaff in Isa. 5:24; 
33:11, means withered grass . See Mow- 
ings. 

HAZ'AEL, God is seeing, an officer of 
Ben-hadad king of Syria, whose future 
accession to the throne was revealed to the 
prophet Elijah, 1 Kin. 19:15. Many years 
afterwards he was sent by Ben-hadad to 
consult Elisha, then at Damascus, as to his 
recovery from sickness, and on the next 
day smothered the king with a wet cloth, 

2 Kin. 8:7-15, B. C. 886. His discomposure 
under the eye of the prophet was an indi- 
cation that he had already meditated this 
crime. Having usurped the throne, he 
reigned 46 years ; and by his successful 
and cruel wars against Judah and Israel 
justified the forebodings of Elisha, 2 Kin. 
8:28; 10:32; 12:17; 13:3,7. Compare 2 Chr. 
22:5; Amos 1:3, 4. Hazael is mentioned 
on Assyrian monuments as an opponent 
and afterwards a tributary. His son Ben- 
hadad lost the conquests he had made, 
2 Kin. 13:25; 14:25-27; Amos 1:4. 

HA'ZAR, or HA'ZER, pi. Hazerim and 
Hgzeroth, inclosure, village — found in 
many Hebrew names, and denoting a semi- 
permanent collection of dwellings, like the 



HAZ 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HEA 



rude stone walls roofed with tent-cloth still 
found in the East. 

HA'ZAR-AD'DAR, Num. 34:4, called Ad- 
dar — in A. V. Adar — in Josh. 15:3, on the 
southern border of Palestine, west of Ka- 
desh ; now el-Kudeirat, on a ridge between 
Canaan and the desert. 

HA'ZAR-E'NAN, village of springs, at 
the junction of the north and east borders 
of the promised land, Num. 34:9, 10; Ezek. 
47:17; 48:1. Perhaps Ayun-ed-Dara, a 
fountain in the midst of Anti-Lebanon. 

HA'ZAR-GAD'DAH, village of fortune, 
Josh. 15:27, now el-Ghurra, 9 miles east of 
Beer-sheba. 

HA'ZAR-HAT'TICON, middle village, on 
the border of Hauran, Ezek. 47:16. 

HA'ZAR-MA'VETH, court of death, 3d 
son of Joktan, Gen. 10:26; 1 Chr. 1:20, 
ancestor of the people of Hadramaut, in 
Southwestern Arabia, a region abounding 
in myrrh and frankincense, but unhealthy. 

HA' ZAR-SHU' AL, jackal-village, in South- 
ern Judah, Josh. 15:28, afterwards given to 
Simeon, Josh. 19:3; 1 Chr. 4:28; repeopled 
after the Captivity, Neh. 11:27. Now Sa- 
weh, between Beer-sheba and Moladah. 

HA'ZAR-SU'SAH and SU'SIM, village of 
horses, Josh. 19:5; 1 Chr. 4:31. Now Beit- 
Susin, south of Beit-Jibrin. 

HA'ZEL, Gen. 30:37, probably the wild 
almond-tree. 

HAZE'RIM, villages, Deut. 2:23, ancient 
abodes of the Avim, Josh. 13:3, 4, in the 
southernmost part of Canaan. 

HAZE' ROTH, villages, the Israelites' 2d 
station from Mount Sinai, Num. 10: n, ^; 
";3» 34, 35; 33 :I 7> 18; where Aaron and 
Miriam spoke against Moses, Num. 12:1- 
16; probably Hudhera, 40 miles northeast 
of Sinai. 

HAZE'ZON-TA'MAR, Gen. 14:7. See 
En-gedi. 

HA'ZOR, inclosure, I., a chief city of 
Northern Canaan, near Lake Merom, whose 
king Jabin, at the head of an allied host, 
was defeated by Joshua, Josh. 11:1-13. 
Hazor revived, however, and for a time 
oppressed the Israelites; but was subdued 
by Barak, fortified by Solomon, and re- 
mained in the possession of Israel until 
the invasion of Tiglath-pileser, Josh. 19:36; 
Judg. 4:2; 1 Kin. 9:15; 2 Kin. 15:29. The 
site suggested by Wilson and Anderson of 
the English Palestine Survey is Tell Hara, 
a hill 2%. miles southeast of Kedesh, where 
are ancient ruins. 

II. Josh. 15:23, in South Judah. 

III. Another town in South Judah, Ha- 



zor-Hadattah, Josh. 15:25, now el-Hudhe- 
rah. 

IV. Also named in Josh. 15:25, where 
Canon Cook reads " Kerioth-Hezron, which 
is Hazor," and identifies with Kurretein. 

V. A city of Benjamin, Neh. 11:33. 

VI. An unidentified region in Arabia, 
laid waste by Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 49:28- 

33- 

HEAD'-DRESS, among the Hebrews an 
occasional adornment, the head being or- 
dinarily uncovered. It was covered in 
mourning, 2 Sam. 15:30; Jer. 14:3, 4, usu- 
ally with the mantle, 1 Kin. 19:13. One of 
the Hebrew words for the ornamental cov- 
ering indicates a form of the turban : worn 
by distinguished men and kings, Job 29: 14; 
Isa. 62:3, "diadem;" and by ladies, Isa. 
3:23, "hoods." It is the name given to 
the high-priest's mitre, Zech. 3:5. Com- 
pare Exod. 28:39. The ordinary priests' 
bonnets were " for glory and for beauty," 
Exod. 28:40. Another Hebrew term, sig- 
nifying ornament, denotes a head-dress 
worn by the priests. Exod. 39:28; Ezek. 
44:18, "bonnets;" by ladies, Isa. 3:20, 
"bonnets;" by a "bridegroom, Isa. 61:10, 
"ornaments;" and by others on festive 
occasions, ver. 10, "beauty." Compare 
2 Sam. 13:19; Ezek. 24:17, 23, "tire." The 
word translated " hats," in Dan. 3:21, prob- 
ably signifies cloaks. 

HEAD'STONE, Zech. 4:7, the crowning 
or chief stone of a building. 

HEALTH, healing or wholeness. God's 
"saving health," Psa. 67:2, is his gracious 
soul-healing and salvation. 

HEART. In the Bible the seat of the 
affections, desires, hopes, motives, and will, 
Acts 16:14, also °f the intellectual percep- 
tions as influenced by the moral character, 
Psa. 14:1; John 12:40; 1 Cor. 2:9; thus in- 
cluding the whole spiritual nature of man, 
Rom. 1:21; 2 Cor. 4:6. The heart of fall- 
en mankind is naturally and everywhere 
alienated from God, Gen. 8:21; Eccl. 9:3; 
Jer. 17:9, the fountain of sin and crime, 
Matt. 15:19, needing to be renewed by the 
special grace of God, Psa. 51:10; Jer. 32 : 40 ; 
Ezek. 36:26. It is then the seat of faith, 
Rom. 10:10, whereby God purifies it, Acts 
15:9 (compare Heb. 10:22); the abode of 
Christ, Eph. 3:17; of the Holy Spirit, 2 Cor. 
1:22; of the Father, John 14:23. Its re- 
newal is evidenced in the life, Matt. 12:35. 
God looks upon it, 1 Sam. 16:7; Acts 8:21, 
and judges both it and the life, Jer. 17:10; 
Rev. 2:23. We are commanded to yield it 
wholly to God, and to keep it diligently in 

217 



HEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HEB 



his ways, i Sam. 7:3; Prov. 3:1, 4; 23:26; 
Psa. 51:17; Jer. 4:14; Joel 2:12, 13; Phil. 
4:7; 1 Pet. 3:15. 

HEARTH. In Gen. 18:6, heated stones 
on which cakes of dough were laid, and 
covered with hot ashes and embers, as is 
still the Bedouin custom. In Psa. 102:3 a 
fagot. In Isa. 30:14 a burning mass. In 
Jer. 36:22, 23 a large pot or brazier. Such 
portable furnaces, with lighted charcoal, 
placed when required in a cavity in the 
middle of a room, are still used in the 
East. In Zech. 12:6 a small pan for hold- 
ing fire. 

HEATH, supposed to be the juniper, a 
low and stunted tree found in desert and 
rocky places, and thus contrasted with a 
tree growing by a water-course, Jer. 17:5- 
8; 48:6. 

HEATH'EN, Jer. 10:2; Zech. 9:10; Gal. 
3:8, a frequent rendering of the Hebrew 
goyim and the Greek ethne, otherwise trans- 
lated "nations,"' Gen. 18:18; Josh. 23:7; 
Matt. 28:19, an d "Gentiles," Isa. 11:10; 
42:6; Rom. 11:25. I n the English Bible 
this term is applied to all the nations ex- 
cept Israel. It now denotes all except 
Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans. The 
inspired descriptions of the moral and 
mental darkness of the ancient nations that 
ignored the true God, Jer. 10; Rom. 1, are 
borne out by modern heathendom; while 
the Bible promises, which have already re- 
ceived glorious fulfilment, still enjoin and 
encourage faithful effort to win the whole 
race for Christ. 

HEAVEN, heaved up, high, either the 
material realm of the atmospheric and stel- 
lar regions, or the special abode of God 
and holy spirits. In both cases the plural 
is often used, and always in Greek, in the 
expressions " Father in the heavens," 
"kingdom of the heavens." 

1. In the former sense heaven is con- 
trasted with earth, " heaven and earth " 
meaning the universe, Gen. 1:1. It is spo- 
ken of as a broad expanse, " firmament," 
Gen. 1:6-8, metaphorically represented as 
having doors and windows, opened or shut 
to give or withhold rain, etc., Deut. 11:17; 
28:12; Psa. 78:23; in it the sun, moon, and 
stars are set, Gen. 1:14-17; Deut. 4:19; 
Nah. 3:16; in the midst of it the fowl fly, 
Gen. 1 : 20 ; Rev. 19:17. It is to be destroyed 
with the earth, and give place to " a new 
heaven and a new earth" at the end of 
time, Isa. 51:6; Matt. 24:35; 2 Pet. 3:10; 
Rev. 21:1. 

2. In the second sense the word denotes 

218 



the world of holy bliss, the peculiar dwell- 
ing-place of God, 1 Kin. 8:30; Matt. 5:45; 
whence Christ descended, John 3:13; 1 Cor. 
15:47, whither he ascended, Luke 24:51; 

1 Pet. 3 : 22, arid whence he is again to come, 
Phil. 3:20. It is the abode of angels, Matt. 
22:30; Mark 13:32. Into it Elijah passed, 

2 Kin. 2:1. There Christ intercedes for his 
people, Heb. 7 : 25 ; 8:1; 9 : 24 ; and there he 
has a place prepared for them, John 14: 2, 
3; 1 Pet. 1:4, where all shall at length be 
gathered. From it all sin and its bitter 
fruits are for ever excluded. To set forth 
its happiness, which is beyond our concep- 
tion, many images are employed. It is a 
kingdom, an inheritance ; there are rivers 
of pleasure, trees of life, glorious light, 
rapturous songs, robes, crowns, feasting, 
mirth, treasures, triumphs. God also gives 
us positive representations: the righteous 
dwell in the divine presence ; they appear 
with Christ in glory. Heaven is life ever- 
lasting; glory, an eternal weight of glory; 
salvation, repose, peace, fulness of joy, the 
joy of the Lord. There are different de- 
grees in that glory, and never-ceasing 
advancement. It will be a social state, 
and its happiness, in some measure, will 
arise from mutual communion and con- 
verse, and the expressions and exercises 
of mutual benevolence. It will include the 
perfect purity of every saint; delightful 
fellowship with those we have here loved 
in the Lord, Matt. 8:11; 17:3, 4; 1 Thess. 
2:19; 4:13-18; the presence of Christ, and 
the consciousness that all is perfect and 
everlasting, Rev. 7:9-17. We are taught 
that the body will share this bliss as well 
as the soul : the consummation of our bliss 
is subsequent to the resurrection of the 
body; for it is redeemed as well as the 
soul, and shall, at the resurrection of the 
just, be fashioned like unto Christ's glori- 
ous body. By descending from heaven, 
and reascending thither, he proves to the 
doubting soul the reality of heaven; he 
opens its door for the guilty by his atoning 
sacrifice ; and all who are admitted to it by 
his blood shall be made meet for it by his 
grace, and find their happiness for ever in 
his love. See Kingdom of heaven. 

" The third heaven," 2 Cor. 12:2, is prob- 
ably equivalent to the " heaven of heav- 
ens," Deut. 10:14, the highest heavens, 
thought of as above the aerial and also the 
starry heavens. 

HE'BER, alliance, I., a grandson of Ash- 
er, Gen. 46:17; Num. 26:45; 1 Chr. 7:31. 

II. A Kenite descended from Hobab. 



HEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HEB 



He resided in North Canaan, and seems to 
have been a man of note. His wife Jael 
slew Sisera, Judg. 4:11, 17; 5:24. 

III. Used in the A. V. for Eber, Luke 
3:35. See Eber, Hebrews. 

Four others are named in 1 Chr. 4:18; 
5:13; 8:17, 22. 

HE'BREWS, that branch of Abraham's 
posterity whose home was in the land of 
promise. The name is first applied to 
Abraham himself, Gen. 14:13, and is gen- 
erally supposed to have been derived from 
Eber, Gen. 10:24; 11:14-17, who was the 
last of the long-lived patriarchs, and out- 
lived Abraham himself, after whose death 
he was for many years the only surviving 
ancestor of Isaac and Jacob. Others de- 
rive the name from the Hebrew verb abar, 
to pass over, and suppose it to have been 
applied to Abraham by the Canaanites as 
the man from beyond the Euphrates. " He- 
brews " appears to have been the name 
given to and used by the chosen people in 
their relations with foreigners, Gen. 39:14; 
40:15; 41:12; Exod. 2:7; Deut. 15:12; 
1 Sam. 4:6; Jonah 1:9. Their home name 
was "the children of Israel." Compare 
Exod. 3: 15 and ver. 18. The name "Jews," 
at first applied to the inhabitants of Judaea 
only, 2 Kin. 16:6, afterwards became more 
general. 

1. Origin. God chose Abram in Ur of 
the Chaldees to be the founder of the He- 
brew nation, Gen. 11:31; 12:1, 2, through 
Isaac and Jacob ; hence their names, "the 
seed of Abraham," "the children of Isra- 
el," or of "Jacob," Exod. 1:13; Psa. 105:6; 
John 8:37. 

2. Government. This was patriarchal 
under Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. After 
their 430 years in Canaan and Egypt, dur- 
ing 215 of which they were subjects and 
slaves of Egyptian kings, Gen. 15 : 13 ; 
Exod. 1, God brought them out by his ser- 
vant Moses, and established the theocracy, 
Exod. 6:7, a form of government in which 
God is the recognized king of the state, 
gives it its laws, and specially manages all 
national affairs. This government was va- 
riously administered under the legislator 
Moses, his successor Joshua, the judges, 
kings, and high-priests ; but amid all these 
revolutions God was considered the true 
monarch of Israel, and more or less loy- 
ally served. In the time of Moses God 
dwelt among his people as a king in his 
palace or in the midst of his camp. He 
gave them the law, moral, ceremonial, so- 
cial, and political, and compacted them into 



a nation during their 40 years in the wil- 
derness. He dwelt visibly among them in 
the pillar of cloud and fire, ordering their 
journeyings and encampments, accessible 
for consultation, giving relief in emergen- 
cies, and miraculously supplying their 
wants, while punishing their rebellions. 
This was the time of the theocracy in the 
strictest sense of the term. Under Joshua 
and the judges it continued nearly the 
same : the former was appointed by God, 
Num. 27:18-21, and being filled by the 
spirit which animated Moses, would under- 
take nothing without consulting Jehovah ; 
and the latter were leaders, raised up by 
God himself, to deliver the Hebrews and 
govern in His name. The demand of the 
people for a king occasioned to Samuel, 
the prophet-judge, great disquietude, for 
he regarded it as a rejection of the theo- 
cratic government, 1 Sam. 8:6, 7. God 
complied with the wishes of the people; 
but he still asserted his own sovereign au- 
thority, and claimed the obedience of all, 
appointing and deposing Saul, 1 Sam. 10: 1 ; 
16:1, and choosing David, 16:12, and Solo- 
mon and his descendants, 1 Chr. 28:6, 7. 

3. Religion. The religion of the He- 
brews may be considered in different points 
of view, with respect to the different condi- 
tions of their nation. Under the patriarchs 
they were instructed in the will of God by 
direct revelation, worshipped him by prayer 
and sacrifices, opposed idolatry and athe- 
ism, used circumcision as the appointed 
seal of the covenant made by God with 
Abraham, and followed the laws which the 
light of grace and faith discovers to those 
who honestly and seriously seek God, his 
righteousness, and truth. They lived in 
expectation of the Messiah, the Desire of 
all nations, to complete their hopes and 
wishes, and fully to instruct and bless 
them. Such was the religion of Abraham, 
Isaac, Jacob, Judah, Joseph, etc., who main- 
tained the worship of God and the tradi- 
tion of the true religion. After the time of 
Moses the religion of the Hebrews became 
more fixed, and ceremonies, days, feasts, 
priests, and sacrifices were determined 
with great exactness. This whole dispen- 
sation only prefigured that more perfect 
one which should in after times arise, when 
the Messiah should come, and bring life 
and immortality to light in his gospel, and 
make a full atonement for the sins of the 
world, Heb. 8:7; 10:1; 1 Pet. 1:10-12. See 
Type. 

The long abode of the Hebrews in Egypt 
219 



HEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HEB 



had nourished in them a strong propensity 
to idolatry; and neither the miracles of 
Moses, nor his precautions to withdraw 
them from the worship of idols, nor the 
rigor of his laws, nor the splendid marks 
of God's presence in the Israelitish camp, 
were able to conquer this unhappy perver- 
sity. We know with what facility they 
adopted the adoration of the golden calf, 
when they had recently been eye-witnesses 
of such divine wonders. Saul and David, 
with all their authority, were not able en- 
tirely to suppress such inveterate disorders. 
Superstitions, which the Israelites did not 
dare to exercise in public, were practised 
in private. They sacrificed on the high 
places, and consulted diviners and magi- 
cians. Solomon, whom God had chosen to 
build his temple, was himself a stone of 
stumbling to Israel. He erected altars to 
the false gods of the Phoenicians, Moabites, 
and Ammonites, and not only permitted 
his wives to worship the gods of their own 
country, but himself to some extent adored 
them, i Kin. 11:5-7. Most of his succes- 
sors showed a similar weakness. Jerobo- 
am introduced the worship of the golden 
calves into Israel, which took such deep 
root that it was never entirely extirpated. 
It was for this cause that God gave the 
Hebrews over into the hands of their ene- 
mies, to captivity and dispersion. See 
Idolatry. After the Captivity they ap- 
pear to have been wholly free from the 
worship of idols ; but they were still cor- 
rupt and far from God, and having filled 
the cup of their guilt by rejecting and cru- 
cifying the Lord of glory, they were extir- 
pated as a nation, and became strangers 
and sojourners over all the earth. 

4. Political History. This may be divi- 
ded into 7 periods, as follows: 

(1.) From Abraham to the Exodus. This 
embraces the partriarchal period and the 
sojourn in Egypt, where Jacob's descend- 
ants dwelt 215 years, during which time the 
Egyptians reduced them to state of sore 
bondage. See Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, 
Joseph, etc. 

(2.) From the Exodus to the Kingdom. 
The Hebrews were delivered from Egypt 
by Jehovah through Moses, who led them 
out with great signs and wonders to Sinai, 
where God gave them his law; and then, 
after 40 years of wanderings, he brought 
them to the borders of the promised land. 
Here Moses died, and was succeeded by 
Joshua, who conquered the desired coun- 
try, and allotted it to the several tribes. 
220 



From this time they were governed in the 
name of Jehovah by chiefs, judges, or pa- 
triarchal rulers, until the time of Samuel, 
when the government was changed to a 
monarchy, and Saul anointed king. See 
Moses, Exodus, Judges, Samuel. 

(3.) To the Division of the Kingdom. 
This period, of about 120 years, includes the 
time of Israel's greatest prosperity, under 
David and Solomon. David, a shepherd 
youth, but the man after God's own heart, 
was made king instead of the disobedient 
and rejected Saul, and founded a family 
which continued to reign in Jerusalem un- 
til the entire subjugation of the country by 
the Chaldaeans. It was during the reigns 
of David and Solomon that Israel's territo- 
rial limits were most extended, 1 Kin. 
4:21-24. Foreign nations then most ac- 
knowledged the glory and power of the 
kingdom, 1 Kin. 5:1; 10:1. But Solomon's 
reign, the period of the greatest prosperity, 
was marked also by the beginnings of de- 
cline — in the introduction of idolatry and 
oppression, 1 Kin. 11:4-8; 12:4. See Saul, 
David, Solomon, Temple. 

(4.) To the Return from Captivity. At 
Solomon's death the 10 tribes revolted from 
his son Rehoboam, and formed under Je- 
roboam a separate kingdom, that of Israel, 
between which and that of Judah there 
were hostile feelings and frequent wars. 
Both fell into idolatry, and prophets were 
sent, from time to time, to reprove, warn, 
and instruct them. Temporary and par- 
tial recoveries from idolatry were followed 
by relapses. Both kingdoms came into 
collision with surrounding nations, God's 
instruments to punish them for their sins ; 
and both declined in power, until the north- 
ern kingdom was finally led away captive 
by the Assyrians, B. C. 721, 2 Kin. 17:6-18, 
and the southern by the Babylonians, B. C. 
588, 2 Kin. 25:1-21. Between B. C. 536 and 
457 two colonies of Hebrews, chiefly of Ju- 
dah, Benjamin, and Levi, returned under 
Zerubbabel and Ezra, Ezra 2:2; 8:1, being 
followed bv Nehemiah in 445, Neh. 2:7-11. 
They rebuilt the temple, and the walls and 
houses of Jerusalem, and attempted to re- 
establish their nation, the majority of which 
preferred to remain in the lands of their 
captivity. See Kings. 

(5.) To the Coming of Christ. Contrary 
to the command of God, Jer. 42:7-22, many 
Jews after the Chaldaean conquest went 
into Egypt, Jer. 43:1-7, fell into idolatry 
there, Jer. 44:15-19, and were taken cap- 
tive by Nebuchadnezzar when he overran 



HEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HEB 



Egypt, B. C. 570, Jer. 46:13-28. Later, un- 
der Alexander the Great and the Ptolemies, 
great numbers of Jews settled in Egypt, 
where they enjoyed many privileges. In 
Alexandria they became exceedingly nu- 
merous ; and there, under the patronage of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, B. C. 285, their schol- 
ars made the Septuagint version of the Old 
Testament. About B. C. 168 the Jews erect- 
ed a temple at Leontopolis in Lower Egypt, 
and worshipped there after the Mosaic rit- 
ual. This temple, like that in Jerusalem, 
was destroyed in Vespasian's reign. Philo, 
the celebrated Jewish philosopher and his- 
torian contemporary with Christ, was a 
resident at Alexandria. 

After the return from captivity, B. C. 536, 
the Jews remained under the dominion of 
Persia till the overthrow of that kingdom 
by Alexander the Great, who granted them 
many favors. On the disruption of his 
kingdom at his death, B. C. 323, Palestine 
was for over a century alternately subject 
to the Graeco-Egyptian Ptolemies and the 
Grsco-Syrian Seleucidae, the " kings of the 
south" and "of the north," who in their 
frequent wars were often traversing the 
country with their armies. The Jews final- 
ly revolted from Egypt, after persecution 
by Ptolemy Philopator, to Antiochus the 
Great of Syria, B. C. 203, who treated them 
kindly. But his youngest son, Antiochus 
Epiphanes, violated the temple and dedi- 
cated it to Jupiter Olympius, and endea- 
vored to force the Jews to worship heathen 
divinities. Of the Jews, one party, led by 
the renegade high-priests Jason and Mene- 
laus, favored the adoption of Greek cus- 
toms, while the mass of the people clung to 
their ancient faith, and many suffered tor- 
ture and death rather than apostatize from 
Jehovah. These were led by the Asmone- 
an and Maccabean priestly and princely 
family, and after a 30 years' struggle gained 
their independence, peace being made with 
the Syrian king Antiochus Sidetes by John 
Hyrcanus, B. C. 133. His son Aristobulus 
assumed the title of king B. C. 133. From 
that time till B. C. 63, when Jerusalem was 
taken by Pompey, the nation was engaged 
in external wars and in struggles between 
the rival parties of the Pharisees and Sad- 
ducees. The Idumaean Antipater, father 
of Herod, was made procurator of Judaea 
B. C. 47, and 10 years later Herod, on 
whom the Roman Senate conferred the 
crown of Judaea, took possession of his 
kingdom with the aid of the Roman army. 
See Herod. 



(6.) To the Destruction of Jerusalem. 
As the gospels relate, the Jewish nation re- 
jected the Messiah, and thus by despising 
God's greatest offer of mercy brought ruin 
upon itself, Matt. 23:34-37. The Jews suf- 
fered much from the cruel Roman govern- 
ors after Pilate, and at length were pro- 
voked to an insurrection, which resulted 
in the destruction of the temple and Jeru- 
salem, A. D. 70. The Roman army under 
Titus attacked the city when the nation 
was gathered there to celebrate the Pass- 
over. Fearful sufferings were endured, 
and multitudes perished, as the Saviour 
had foretold, Matt. 24:2; Luke 21:20-24. 

(7.) To Modern Times. On the fall of 
Jerusalem the Jews were scattered into all 
parts of the Roman empire, multitudes 
being sold as slaves. Many afterwards 
returned to the ruins of Jerusalem. The 
Jews were admitted to Roman citizenship 
by the emperor Claudius, but were treated 
with great severity by his successors. In 
Hadrian's reign, A. D. 135, multitudes 
flocked to the standard of the fanatical 
Bar-Cocheba, who proclaimed himself the 
Messiah; but the Romans speedily brought 
this insurrection to a bloody end, desola- 
ting Judaea again, redestroying Jerusalem, 
and on its ruins planting a Roman colony, 
which they named iElia Capitolina, and 
forbade the Jews to enter. An unsuccess- 
ful attempt to rebuild the temple was made 
by the emperor Julian, A. D. 331-363, out 
of hostility to Christianity. 

Since the downfall of the Western Ro- 
man empire, A. D. 476, the Jews have had 
a variety of masters and fortunes, and have 
endured much cruel persecution. Spread 
over all parts of the earth, and in most 
places exposed to contempt and oppres- 
sion, they have yet remained a distinct 
people and everywhere maintained obser- 
vances peculiar to themselves : such as 
circumcision, performed after the law of 
their fathers ; the great day of expiation ; 
also the observance of a sabbath or day of 
rest on Saturday, and not on the Christian 
Sabbath. They have generally retained 
the observance of the Passover in some 
form. They everywhere consider Judaea 
as their proper country, and Jerusalem as 
their metropolitan city. However com- 
fortably they may be settled in any resi- 
dence, they hope to see Zion and Jerusa- 
lem revive from their ashes. Their con- 
tinued existence as a distinct people is a 
standing proof of the truth of Scripture, 
and of the Christian as well as the Jewish 

221 



HEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HEB 



religion. It evinces God's providential 
care over them, and his intention yet to 
fulfil his gracious promises concerning 
them, Rom. 11:26. 

They are divided into various sects. 
Some of them, who may be regarded as 
successors of the ancient Pharisees, are 
extremely attached to the traditions of the 
rabbins, and to the multiplied observances 
enjoined in the Talmud. Others, as the 
Caraites, reject these, and adhere solely to 
Scripture. The Rabbinical Jews, who are 
the most numerous, are also called Ortho- 
dox. Many Jews are deists or atheists. 
Between these extremes are the " Conser- 
vative " and the " Reformed " or " liberal " 
Jews. The great Jewish theologian Moses 
Maimonides, A. D. 1 135-1204, drew up a 
confession of faith still used by the Ortho- 
dox Jews. The modern epoch is marked 
by the name of Moses Mendelssohn, 1729- 
1786, whose translation of the Pentateuch 
into German, with comments, was the 
groundwork of reform. Within the pres- 
ent century nearly all the European States 
have admitted the Jews to political liberty 
and nominal equality, which they fully en- 
joy in the United States also. The strictly 
Orthodox or Rabbinical Jews prevail in 
Russia, Poland, and the East ; the Conser- 
vative in Great Britain, France, and Hol- 
land; the Reformed in Germany and Amer- 
ica. Of late years the Jews have been in- 
creasing in Jerusalem, where they gather 
every Friday at the foundation of the tem- 
ple wall and lament their forefathers' sins 
and Jerusalem's desolation. See Walls. 

The Jews have distinguished themselves 
in nearly all occupations, and many great 
statesmen, artists, and scholars have arisen 
among them. They have long been the 
bankers of the world. Their number is 
now estimated at 6,000,000, of whom 50,000 
are in the city of New York. 

For the language of the Jews, see Lan- 
guage. 

" Hebrew of the Hebrews," one of 
pure Hebrew descent on the side of both 
parents, Phil. 3:5. 

Hebrews, Epistle to the. The object 
of this epistle, which ranks among the most 
important of the New Testament books, 
was to prove to the Christian Hebrews 
from the Old Testament the divinity, hu- 
manity, atonement, and intercession of 
Christ, particularly his preeminence over 
Moses and the angels of God ; to demon- 
strate the superiority of the gospel to the 
law, and the real object and design of the 
222 



Mosaic institution ; to fortify the minds of 
the Hebrew converts against apostasy un- 
der persecution, and to engage them to a 
deportment becoming their Christian pro- 
fession. In this view, the epistle furnishes 
a key to the Old Testament Scriptures, and 
is invaluable as a clear elucidation and an 
inspired, unanswerable demonstration of 
the doctrine of the great atoning Sacrifice 
as set forth in Old Testament institutions. 
The name of the writer of this epistle is 
nowhere mentioned. Its authorship is dis- 
puted, many ascribing it to the apostle Paul, 
others to Apollos, Luke, or Barnabas. It 
has been suggested that it may have been 
written by Paul in Hebrew, and transferred 
to Greek by Luke or some other of the great 
apostle's disciples. This would account 
for its difference in style and unity of sen- 
timent as compared with the known wri- 
tings of Paul. It is believed to have been 
written in Italy about A. D. 63. See Paul. 
HE'BRON,/rie?tdship, I., an ancient city 
of Canaan, and one of the most ancient in 
the world, built 7 years before Tanis, the 
capital of Lower Egypt, Num. 13:22. It 
was anciently called Kirjath-arba (see Ar- 
ba) and Mamre, and was a favorite resi- 
dence of the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, 
and Jacob. Here too they were buried, 
Gen. 13:18; 14:13; 23:2-19; 35:27. Under 
Joshua and Caleb the Israelites conquered 
it from the Canaanites, and it was assigned 
to the priests and made a Levitical city of 
refuge, Josh. 14:13-15; 15:13; 21:11, 13; 
Judg. 1 : 10, 20. It was David's seat of 
government during the 7 years when he 
reigned over Judah only, 2 Sam. 2:3; 5:5. 
Here Absalom raised the standard of re- 
volt, 2 Sam. 15:9, 10. It was fortified by 
Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:10, and reoccupied 
after the Captivity, Neh. 11:25. It was re- 
covered from Edom by Judas Maccabeus ; 
burned by the Romans, A. D. 69; taken by 
the Mohammedans in the 7th century, and 
by the Crusaders early in the 12th; it was 
the seat of a "bishopric" till 1187, when it 
again fell into Moslem hands, and has so 
remained. It is one of the 4 holy cities of 
the Moslems, and a hot-bed of fanaticism. 
It is also one of the 4 holy cities of the 
Jews. At present Hebron is an unwalled 
city of about 10,000 inhabitants, of whom 
some 500 are Jews, and the remainder 
Turks and Arabs. It lies in a deep valley 
and on the adjacent hillside, in the ancient 
hill country of Judaea, about 20 miles south 
of Jerusalem, and 20 north of Beer-sheba, 
and 3,040 feet above the sea. Its modern 



HEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HEL 




HEBRON: THE GREAT MOSQCE AND PART OF THE TOWN. 



Arabic name, el-Khulil, "the friend," is in 
honor of Abraham, "the friend of God." 
In one quarter of the town is the Haram — 
a sacred inclosure surrounding a small 
mosque, which it is generally believed 
stands over the venerated cave of Machpe- 
lah. The outer structure is built of mas- 
sive stones, and is about 60 feet high, 150 
feet wide, and 200 long. With the excep- 
tion of its 2 minarets, it is evidently of very 
high antiquity — according to Tristram and 
Stanley, probably as early as David or 
Solomon. The mosque within was proba- 
bly a Christian church in Justinian's time. 
The Moslems guard it jealously against 
the entrance of Jews or Christians, though 
the Prince of Wales, with Dean Stanley, 
was admitted in 1862, the Marquis of Bute 
in 1866, and the Crown-prince of Prussia in 
1869. The real tomb is beneath the floor of 
the mosque. See Machpelah. Other rel- 
ics of antiquity exist in 2 stone reservoirs, 
the larger 133 feet square and 21 feet deep. 
They are still in daily use; and one of 
them was probably the " pool in Hebron," 
above which David hung up the assassins 
of Ishbosheth, 2 Sam. 4:12. The city con- 
tains 9 mosques and 2 synagogues. Its 
streets are narrow; the houses of stone, 
with flat roofs surmounted by small domes. 
Large quantities of glass lamps and col- 
ored rings are here manufactured; also 
leathern bottles, raisins, and dibs, or grape- 
syrup. A brisk trade is carried on with 
the Bedouins, who exchange their wool and 



camels' hair for the commodities of the 
town. The environs of the city are very 
fertile, furnishing the finest vineyards in 
Palestine, numerous plantations of olive 
and other fruit trees, and excellent pas- 
turage. See Eshcol, Mamre. Two miles 
west of Hebron is the tree venerated as 
"Abraham's oak." Its trunk measures 
32 feet in circumference, and its crown of 
spreading branches 275 feet. Josephus 
speaks of a great oak or terebinth on this 
spot, and of the tradition that it was as old 
as the world. See Oak. 

II. A city of Asher, Josh. 19:28, perhaps 
the same as Abdon, Josh. 21:30. 

HE'BRONITES, descendants of Hebron, 
a son of Kohath, Num. 3:19, 27; 26:58. 

HEDGE. A close row of thorny shrubs 
still often surmounts in the East a wall of 
dried earth or of stone, Psa. 80: 12, 13 ; Isa. 
5:5; Mic. 7:4; a formidable barrier in the 
way of the slothful, Prov. 15:19. The nar- 
row paths amid thorny hedges, Num. 22 : 24, 
are contrasted-' with the highways in one 
of our Saviour's parables, Luke 14:23. 

HEIF'ER, a symbol of w r anton wildness, 
especially when highly fed, Jer. 50: 1 1 ; Hos. 
4:16. A red heifer was sacrificed without 
the camp, Heb. 13 : 12, as described in Num. 
19, because all contact with death — the 
penalty of sin — was defiling; illustrating 
the superior cleansing power of the blood 
of Christ for polluted but penitent souls, 
Heb. 9:13, 14; 10:22. 

HEIR. See Inheritance. 

223 



HEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HEL 



HEL'BON, fertile, Ezek. 27:18, noted 
for its wine, supplied to Tyre by Damas- 
cus merchants. Not, as formerly thought, 
Aleppo (Arabic, Haleb), which is about 180 
miles north of Damascus, and produces no 
wine of reputation, but a wild glen and 
village still called Helbon, high up on the 



eastern slope of Anti-Lebanon, about 10 
miles north of Damascus, and famous for 
its vineyards and wool. Many ancient 
ruins are to be seen here. 

HE'LEPH, exchange, Josh. 19:33, a place 
on the border of Naphtali. Perhaps Beit- 
lif, but not identified with certainty. 




PLAIN AND OBELISK OF HELIOPOLIS. 



HELIOP'OLIS, city of the sun, I., a cele- 
brated city of Egypt, called in Coptic, He- 
brew, and the English version, On, sun, 
light, Gen. 41:45. The 70 mention ex- 
pressly, Exod. 1 :n, that On is Heliopolis. 
Jeremiah, 43:13, calls this city Beth-she- 
mesh, that is, house or temple of the sun. 
In Ezekiel, 30:17, the name is pronounced 
Aven, which is the same as On. The Arabs 
called it 'Ain-Shems, fountain of the sun. 
All these names come from the circum- 
stance that the city was the ancient seat of 
the Egyptian worship of the sun. It was 
in ruins in the time of Strabo, who men- 
tions that 2 obelisks had already been car- 
ried away to Rome. At present its site, 6 
miles north-northeast from Cairo, is marked 
only by extensive ranges of low mounds 
full of ruinous fragments, and a solitary 
obelisk formed of a single block of red 
granite, rising 66 feet above the sand, and 
covered on its 4 sides with hieroglyphics. 

II. Another Heliopolis is alluded to in 
Scripture under the name of the " plain of 
Aven," or field of the sun," Amos 1 : 5. This 
224 



was the Heliopolis of Ccele-Syria, now Ba- 
albek. Its stupendous ruins have been the 
wonder of past centuries, and will continue 
to be the wonder of future generations, till 
barbarism and earthquakes shall have done 
their last work. The most notable remains 
are those of 3 temples, the largest of which, 
with its courts and portico, extended 1,000 
feet from east to west. A magnificent por- 
tico, 180 feet long, with 12 lofty and highly- 
wrought columns, led to a large hexagonal 
court, and this to a vast quadrangle, 440 
feet by 370. Fronting on this rose 10 col- 
umns of the peristyle which surrounded 
the inner temple. There were 19 columns 
on each side, or 54 in all, only 6 of which 
are now standing, and they were 7 feet in 
diameter, and 62 feet high, besides the en- 
tablature of nearly 14 feet. This temple 
rested on an immense vaulted substruc- 
ture, rising nearly 50 feet above the ground 
outside, and in this are 3 stones 63 feet 
long and 13 feet high, lying 20 feet above 
the ground. The temples are of Roman 
origin ; and in vastness of plan, combined 



HEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HEL 




RUINS OF BAALBEK. 



with elaborateness and delicacy of execu- 
tion, they seem to surpass all others in the 
world. " They are like those of Athens for 
lightness, but far surpass them in vastness ; 
they are vast and massive, like those of 
Thebes, but far excel them in airiness and 
grace." (Robinson.) 

HEL'KATH-HAZ'ZURIM,f eld of heroes, 
or of rocks, a place near Gibeon, so named 
from a fatal duel-like combat, preceding a 
battle between the armies of David and 
Ishbosheth, 2 Sam. 2:16. 

HELL. This word, from the Anglo-Saxon 
he/an, "to cover," represents in the A. V. 
one Hebrew and two Greek words. I. The 
Hebrew is sheol, from a root meaning " to 
demand," or from another root, " to make 
hollow." It occurs in the Old Testament 
Hebrew 65 times, and is translated 31 times 
" hell," 31 times "grave," and 3 times " pit." 
In the Septuagint it is rendered "Hades," 
" the invisible," a name which the Greeks 
first applied to the king of the unseen world, 
and later to the place of disembodied spir- 
its. This use of hades for sheol proves a 
general agreement in the ideas expressed 
by the two words. But while the Greeks 
pictured hades as ruled over by a god in- 
dependent of the gods of heaven and earth, 
the Hebrew thought of sheol as a part of 
Jehovah's kingdom, Psa. 139:8; Prov. 
15:11. The heathen looked for no deliv- 
erance from hades, but the pious Hebrew, 
while he regarded sheol with dread, looked 



for a release from it and the resurrection 
of the body, Dan. 12:2 ; Acts 23:6-8, though 
until Christ brought " life and immortality 
to light " Hebrew ideas concerning the 
future state were necessarily indefinite. 
Sheol is spoken of as the common subter- 
ranean home after death of all human spir- 
its, godly and ungodly, Gen. 37:35; Num. 
16:30,33; Psa. 9:17; 16:10; Isa. 14:4, 9-15; 
the receptacle for the body being expressed 
by a different word in Hebrew, Isa. 14:19, 
20. It is a place of restraint, Job 17:16; 
Isa. 38:10, of gloom, 2 Sam. 22:6; Psa. 6:5; 
as a refuge from earthly afflictions, Job 
14:13, where earthly occupations cease, 
Eccl. 9:10; a place to be delivered from, 
Psa. 49:15; Hos. 13:14. It is implied that 
there were in it different abodes for the 
righteous and the wicked, Deut. 32:22; 
Psa. 86:13; Prov. 14:32; Isa. 57:2. Sheol 
is never spoken of as the abode of Satan 
or fallen angels. 

II. In the New Testament, A. V., "hell" 
is 10 times the translation of hades, the 
Greek word itself being retained in the 
R. V. In 1 Cor. 15:55 the true reading in 
the Greek is now thought to be " death," 
as in the R. V. Like sheol, Job 11:8, hades 
is used as antithesis to the visible heaven, 
Matt. 11:23; Luke 10:15. From it Christ 
will deliver his church, Matt. 16:18. In 
hades the rich man, Luke 16:22-31, was 
"in anguish," R. V. ver. 25, while, appar- 
ently in the same realm though far off and 

225 



HEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HEM 



above, Lazarus was " comforted." See 
Abraham's Bosom and Paradise. It is 
distinguished from the final place of tor- 
ment in Rev. 20:13, 14. 

The teaching of the New Testament in 
regard to the home after death of the dis- 
embodied spirits of the redeemed differs 
widely from that of the Old Testament. 
They are repeatedly spoken of as depart- 
ing to be with Christ: see John 14:2, 3; 
17:24; Acts 7:55, 56; 2 Cor. 5:8; Phil. 1:23; 
Heb. 12:22-24; 1 Pet. 3:22; compare Acts 
3:21. In explanation of this difference it 
has been held by some that Christ, on his 
descent into hades, Acts 2:27, 31, or "the 
lower parts of the earth," Eph. 4:9, there 
proclaimed the news of his completed 
atonement, 1 Pet. 3:18-20, and having pre- 
pared a place in his Father's house, " led 
captive" thither "the captivity" of the 
saints then in hades; since which event 
hades remains the abode of the wicked 
only. 

III. Gehenna (Geenna), another New 
Testament Greek word represented by 
" hell " in both the A. V. and R. V., occurs 
12 times. It was the Grecized term for 
" the valley of Hinnom," and was adopted 
by the Jews after the Captivity and by our 
Lord to designate the place of torment to 
which evil spirits and wicked men are to 
be consigned at the judgment day. It is 
referred to by our Lord in the most solemn 
and awful terms, Matt. 5:22, 29, 30; 10:28; 
18:9; 23:15,33; Mark 9:43-48; Luke 12:5; 
Jas. 3:6; compare Matt. 25:41, 46. The 
gehenna of the gospels and James seems 
synonymous with the " destruction " of the 
Old Testament, Job 26:6, the "furnace of 
fire" of Matt. 13:42, the "lake of fire" of 
Rev. 19:20; 20:10, 14, 15, and the "perdi- 
tion" of Rev. 17:8, 11. "Cast down to 
hell," in 2 Pet. 2:4, is literally "consigned 
to Tartarus," the place of punishment in 
Greek mythology ; compare Jude 6. 

Under the government of an infinitely 
holy, just, wise, and loving God, bound by 
his own nature and regard for the well- 
being of his universe to express his abhor- 
rence of sin and to put a check upon it, as 
a ruinous and hateful thing, the existence 
of a hell for the confinement and punish- 
ment of his free, responsible, sinning, but 
unrepentant, creatures, who have abused 
the probation accorded and rejected the 
grace offered by him, is a reasonable ne- 
cessity, Rom. 6:23; 2 Thess. 1:6-11; Rev. 
20:11-15. The strong desire of God that 
men should be saved from hell is mani- 
226 



fested in the all-sufficient atonement by the 
death of Christ, and the divine warnings 
and pleadings throughout the Bible. 

The misery of hell will consist in the 
privation of the vision and love of God, 
exclusion from every source of happiness, 
perpetual sin, remorse of conscience in 
view of the past, malevolent passions, the 
sense of the just anger of God, and all 
other sufferings of body and soul which 
are the natural results of sin, or which the 
law of God requires as penal inflictions, 
Matt. 7:21, 23; 22:13; 25:41; 2 Thess. 1:9. 
The degrees of anguish will be propor- 
tioned to the degrees of guilt, Matt. 10:15; 
23:14; Luke 12:47, 48. And these punish- 
ments will be eternal, like the happiness 
of heaven. The wrath of God will never 
cease to abide upon the lost soul, and it 
will always be "the wrath to come." 

HEL'LENISTS. See GREECE. 

HEL'MET. See ARMOR. 

HELPS, only in 1 Cor. 12:28. This di- 
vinely recognized form of work in the 
primitive church is believed by many to 
have included the ministrations of the dea- 
cons and deaconesses in the care of the 
poor and sick. Other interpretations, how- 
ever, have been given, and we cannot de- 
termine with certainty the exact nature of 
the "aids" denoted by it. It suggests all 
the kindly ministries by which Christian 
charity alleviates human woe. They all 
come from Christ as their source, are in- 
spired by him, and lead to him. 

In Acts 27:17 the "helps" were cables 
passed under and around the ship to 
strengthen it. 

HEM OF GAR'MENT. See GARMENTS. 

HE' MAN, faithful, I., a son of Zerah, of 
the tribe of Judah, noted for wisdom, 1 Kin. 
4:31 ; 1 Chr. 2:6. 

II. A Kohathite Levite, son of Joel and 
grandson of Samuel, a chief musician for 
the temple in David's time, 1 Chr. 6:33; 
15:17. 19; 16:41, 42; 25:1, 4-6; 2 Chr. 5:12; 
29:14; 35:15- Psalm 88 is attributed to 
him. Some explain " Ezrahite " as equiv- 
alent to "son of Zerah," and thus identify 
the singer and seer with Heman I.— born 
a Levite, but connected with and reckoned 
to the tribe of Judah. 

HEM'LOCK, Hos. 10:4; Amos 6:12, in 
Hebrew, rosh, usually translated gall or 
bitterness, Deut. 32:32, and mentioned in 
connection with wormwood, Deut. 29:18; 
Jer. 9:15; 23:15; Lam. 3:19. It indicates 
some wild, bitter, and noxious plant, which 
it is difficult to determine. According to 



HEN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HER 



some it is the poisonous hemlock, while 
others consider it to be the poppy, or the 
euphorbia with its acrid juices. 

HEN. The care of a hen to protect her 
brood from hawks, etc., illustrates the Sa- 
viour's tender care of his people when 
exposed to the swoop of the Roman eagle, 
as in all similar perils, Matt. 23:37; 24:22. 
The common barn-door fowl is not often 
mentioned in Scripture, Mark 13:35; 14:30; 
Luke 22:34; but at the present day they 
and their eggs are more used in Syria than 
any other food not vegetable. 

HE'NA, supposed to have been a city of 
Mesopotamia afterwards called Ana, on 
the Euphrates, about 20 miles above Baby- 
lon, 2 Kin. 18:34; 19:13; Isa. 37:13- 

HEPH'ZIBAH, my delight is in he?', I., 
the wife of Hezekiah and mother of Ma- 
nasseh, 2 Kin. 21:1. From her name and 
her son's character it might be inferred 
that she was chosen for her beauty rather 
than her piety. 

II. A name applied to restored Jerusa- 
lem, Isa. 62:4; compare Isa. 1:1. 

HER'ALD, one who makes official and 
public proclamations, e. g., in the name 
of a king, or of the rulers of the Grecian 
games, Dan. 3:4. The apostles, in preach- 
ing the gospel, are the "heralds" of the 
King's message, 1 Tim. 2:7; 2 Tim. 1:11; 
2 Pet. 2:5. 

HERBS, plants with a soft, not woody 
stem, dying entirely in the dry season, if 
annuals ; or down to the ground and revi- 
ving after the fall rains, or in the spring, if 
not annuals, Gen. 2:5; 3:18; Psa. 72:16; 
92:7; 102:4, IX - See Exod. 12:8; Num. 
9:11. 

HERD, HERDS'MAN. Herds and flocks 
formed a chief part of the wealth of Abra- 
ham and his near descendants, Gen. 13:2; 
26:14; 3 2: 5. an d were among the most val- 
ued possessions of the Hebrews all through 
their national life, Gen. 46:6; Exod. 9:4, 
20; 12:38; 2 Chr. 26:10; 32:28, 29; 35:7-9; 
Eccl. 2:7. The herd supplied many young 
for sacrifices, Lev. 1:3; 4:3; Psa. 69:31; 
Isa. 66:3, besides furnishing milk, butter, 
cheese, flesh-meat, horns, and hides. See 
Ox. The grassy and wooded table-lands 
east of the Jordan afforded fine pasturage 
for cattle, Num. 32:1-4. West of the Jor- 
dan the chief feeding-grounds were Shar- 
on, 1 Chr. 27:29, and Carmel, 1 Sam. 25:2. 
In the hot season, when the grass was 
dried up, cattle were stalled, Hab. 3:17; 
Mai. 4:2, and fed on mixed grains and 
chopped straw, Gen. 24:25; Job 6:5; Isa. 



11:7; 30:24; 65:25. In Solomon's time 
cattle - raising declined as commerce in- 
creased, but was still pursued, Eccl. 2:7. 
Uzziah built towers in the "desert," uncul- 
tivated lands, to protect the pasturing cat- 
tle, 2 Chr. 26: 10. Josiah also seems to have 
had numerous herds. The early Israelites 
regarded the occupation of herdsmen as 
honorable. King Saul himself kept cattle, 
1 Sam. 11:5, and Doeg the herdsman was a 
favorite, 1 Sam. 21:7. The superintend- 
ents of David's herds were among his 
prominent officers, 1 Chr. 27:29; 28:1. 
The Egyptians, though possessing exten- 
sive herds, Gen. 47:17; Exod. 9:3, held 
herdsmen in abomination, Gen. 46:34, and 
the monuments often represent them as 
bearded, dwarfish, or deformed. Pharaoh 
committed the oversight of his herds to 
Joseph's brethren, Gen. 47:6. The proph- 
et Amos was a herdsman, Amos 1:1 ; 7:14. 
See Sheep. 

HE'RES, sun. Mount Heres, in Hebrew 
Cheres, Judg. 1:35, was probably a city 
identical with Beth-shemesh, or connected 
with it. 

The same word is found in some Hebrew 
texts of Isa. 19:18, which would change 
" city of destruction," A. V., to " city of the 
sun," perhaps Heliopolis. The passage 
is thought to refer to one of 5 cities in 
Egypt partly or wholly inhabited by Jews, 
who were very numerous in Egypt at the 
period of Greek dominion. The Jewish 
town Onion was destroyed by Titus. 

HER'ESY, choice. Applied to the adop- 
tion of religious views and practices new 
and obnoxious. In the New Testament 
sometimes translated "sect," and not im- 
plying any judgment as to its tenets, Acts 
5 :i 7; 15:5; 26:5. Sometimes censure is 
implied, Acts 24:5; when those who call 
others heretics deserve the name them- 
selves instead, Acts 24: 14. In the Epistles 
" heresies " and schisms in the Christian 
church are strongly condemned, 1 Cor. 
11:19; Gal. 5:20; Tit. 3:10; 2 Pet. 2:1, the 
word early coming to mean a departure 
from the fundamental truths of the gospel. 

HER'MAS, a Christian at Rome, Rom. 
16:14; supposed by some to have been the 
writer of the ancient work called "The 
Shepherd" — a singular mixture of truth 
and piety with folly and superstition. But 
this was written in the 2d century. 

HERMOG'ENES and PHY'GELUS de- 
serted Paul during his 2d imprisonment at 
Rome, 2 Tim. 1:15. 

HER'MON, mountain-nose, or peak; call- 
227 



HER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HER 



ed also Sirion or Shenir, breastplate, Deut. 
3:9; Ezek. 27 : 5, in allusion to its ice-capped 
top; also Sion, lofty, Deut. 4:48. It is the 
southern part of the Anti-Lebanon range, 
40 miles north by east of the Sea of Galilee, 
and 30 west by south of Damascus. It is 
the highest mountain in Syria, and now 
bears the name Jebel esh-Sheikh, old man's 
mountain. It has 3 peaks, Psa. 42:6, form- 
ing a triangle inclosing a small plateau, 
the northern and southern being each 9,053 
feet above the sea level and 11,000 above 
the Jordan valley; the western peak, 600 
yards off, being 100 feet lower. Hermon 
was the northern limit of Israel east of the 
Jordan, Deut. 3:8; 4:48; Josh. 11:3, 17; 
12:1; 13:11; 1 Chr. 5:23. See also Psa. 
89:12; Song 4:8. It appears to have been 
a sanctuary for Baal, and the ruins of an 
ancient temple are found on its southern 
peak. 

Hermon is crowned with snow or ice 
throughout the year. In November the 
fresh snow begins to cover it, and gradu- 
ally extends 5,000 feet down its sides. 
Melting as summer advances, only a little 
is left in shaded spots by September, and 
the ice in the ravines around the summit 
glitters in silvery stripes under the rays of 
the sun, like the snowy locks of an old 
man — esh-Sheikh. This majestic mountain 
can be seen from all the heights of Pales- 
tine, and its summit commands an exten- 
sive view over the Damascus plain on the 
east, the Mediterranean on the west, and the 
Holy Land on the south. Its copious dews, 
from the hot moist air rushing up through 
the Ghor and condensed on its cold sides, 
are referred to in Psa. 133:3 as an emblem 
of the spiritual dew of blessing vouchsafed 
on Mount Zion ; travellers speak of them 
as very heavy, their tents affording an 
insufficient protection. The mountain is 
frequented by bears, wolves, foxes, and 
various kinds of game; compare Song 4:8. 
At its base lay Caesarea-Philippi, now Ba- 
nias, Matt. 16:13, where Jesus was shortly 
before his transfiguration, which it is be- 
lieved took place at some retired spot on 
the mountain, Matt. 17:1-8; Mark 9:1-8. 

The " Little Hermon " of travellers, not 
mentioned in Scripture, is a shapeless mass 
of hills north of the smaller valley of Jez- 
reel; it is called Jebel ed-Duhy by the 
Arabs. 

HER'OD, hero-like, the name of several 

princes, Idumaeans by descent, who bore 

rule in Palestine under the Romans and 

are mentioned in the New Testament. 

228 



The Idumaeans had been subdued by John 
Hyrcanus B. C. 130, and constrained to 
adopt Judaism. 

I. Herod the Great, Matt. 2; Luke 
1:5, king of Judaea, etc., B. C. 40. He was 
the second son of Antipater, an Idumaean 
made procurator of Judaea by Julius Caesar 
B. C. 47, Hyrcanus II. being then high- 
priest. Herod, then 25, was made by his 
father governor of Galilee; in B. C. 41 he 
and his brother Phasael were made joint 
tetrarchs of Judaea by Antony, and the next 
year he was made king of Judaea by the 
Roman Senate. In 3 years he established 
himself in his kingdom; Jerusalem being 
taken, Antigonus, then high-priest, being 
captured and executed B. C. 37, and all the 
Sanhedrin but 2 put to death. Herod won 
the favor of Octavius, the conqueror and 
successor of Antony, and retained it by 
heavily taxing his subjects, thus losing their 
good-will. Though professedly a Jew, he 
used religion solely to advance his ambi- 
tious designs. He rebuilt the temple at Je- 
rusalem, but also constituted one on Mount 
Gerizim for the Samaritans, established 
heathen worship in Caesarea for the Gen- 
tiles, a temple to Augustus at Paneas, and 
rebuilt that of Apollo at Rhodes. Among 
the cities he adorned with costly buildings 
were Caesarea and Sebaste, formerly Sa- 
maria. At Jerusalem he built a theatre 
and instituted games, and sought to lessen 
the popular dissatisfaction by donating 
large sums in relief of a famine, by build- 
ing the fortress Antonia, and rebuilding the 
temple, which see. His life was marked 
by many acts of cruelty. He put to death 
the brother (about B. C. 37) and the grand- 
father (Hyrcanus, B. C. 30) of his wife Ma- 
riamne, Mariamne herself (B. C. 29), her 
mother, and her 2 sons Alexander and 
Aristobulus (B. C. 7), and a few days before 
his death ordered the execution of his son 
Antipater, and also commanded that the 
chief men of Judaea, whom he had assem- 
bled and confined at Jericho, should be 
slain as soon as he expired— to insure tears 
on that occasion. This order, however, 
was not fulfilled. It must have been short- 
ly before his death that he caused the in- 
fants of Bethlehem to be slain, in the hope 
of thus destroying Jesus. This event and 
the death of Antipater are recorded by the 
Latin author Macrobius, A. D. 420. He 
appointed Archelaus his successor " in the 
kingdom," subject to the emperor's ap- 
proval, dividing his territories between him 
and his brothers Herod Antipas and Philip. 



HER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HER 



He was a man of great shrewdness and 
strong will, but of violent passions and in- 
satiable ambition, and devoid of scruples. 
His attempt on the life of the Messiah 
makes him preeminent among the foes of 
God and his church. 

II. Herod Philip, I., Matt. 14:3; Mark 
6:17; called Herod by Josephus; the son 
of Herod the Great and his 2d Mariamne, 
daughter of Simon the high-priest. Dis- 
inherited by his father for his mother's 
treachery, he seems to have lived a private 
life. He was the first husband of Hero- 
dias. See Herodias. 

III. Archela'us, son of Herod the Great 
and elder brother of Herod Antipas. See 
Archelaus. Josephus says that before 
going to Rome to obtain imperial confirma- 
tion in his kingdom, he quelled an insur- 
rection by slaughtering 3,000 men in the 
temple at the Passover. He was confirmed 
in spite of the protests of the people, but 
with the title of ethnarch instead of king. 

IV. Herod An'tipas, son of Herod the 
Great by Malthace his Samaritan wife, and 
full brother to Archelaus, along with whom 
he was educated at Rome. After the death 
of his father he was confirmed by Augus- 
tus as tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea, that 
is, the southern part of the country east of 
the Jordan, Luke 3:1, whence also the gen- 
eral appellation of king was given to him, 
Mark 6:14. He first married a daughter 
of Aretas, an Arabian king ; but afterwards 
becoming enamored of Herodias, the wife 
of his brother Herod Philip I., and his own 
niece, he dismissed his former wife, and 
induced Herodias to leave her own hus- 
band and connect herself with him. This 
sin was the source of misfortune, further 
sin, and shame to Herod. Aretas made 
war upon him, and severely chastised him. 
John the Baptist, reproving him, incurred 
the hate of Herodias, who influenced her 
husband to imprison and finally kill John, 
Matt. 14:1-12; Mark 6:14-29; Luke 3:13- 
20. Self-indulgent, he chose to continue in 
sin and kill one whom he knew to be "just 
and holy" rather than break an improper 
oath. If a Sadducee, as might be inferred 
from comparing Matt. 16:6 with Mark 8:15, 
and from his "perplexity" at the view of 
Jesus as John risen from the dead, Luke 
9:7-9, Herod's guilty fears seem to have 
overcome his disbelief in spirits and the 
resurrection, Matt. 14:2; Mark 6:14-16. 
His cunning is alluded to in Luke 13:32. 
Christ, as a Galilean, was under Herod's 
jurisdiction, and Pilate's acknowledgment 



of this when the two rulers were at Jerusa- 
lem for the Passover made them friends, 
Luke 23:7-12. Christ, declining to satisfy 
Herod's curiosity, was mocked by him, the 
combination of the two against Christ hav- 
ing been foretold, Psa. 2:2; Acts 4:25-27. 
Herod Antipas, like his father, spent much 
money in public works, including the city 
Tiberias, which he built and named after 
Tiberius. In A. D. 38 he was induced, 
mainly by Herodias, to go to Rome and 
sue for the title of king, which Caligula had 
just conferred on Herod Agrippa I.; but at 
the accusation of the latter he was banished 
to Lyons, and died in exile. 

V. Herod Philip II., son of Herod the 
Great by his 5th wife, Cleopatra, from B. C. 
4 to A. D. 34 tetrarch of lturaea, Gaulonitis, 
Auranitis, and Trachonitis, Luke 3:1. He 
married Salome, the dancing daughter of 
Herod Philip I. and Herodias. He enlarged 
Paneas and named it Caesarea-Philippi, 
and made Bethsaida a city, calling it Julias, 
after a daughter of Augustus. At Julias he 
died, without children. He was just and 
moderate in his life and government. 

VI. Herod Agrip'pa Major or I., Acts 
12; 23:35, a grandson of Herod the Great 
and Mariamne I., and son of the Aristobu- 
lus who was put to death with his mother, 
by orders of his father. See Herod I. He 
was brought up at Rome with Drusus, son 
of Tiberius. On the accession of Caligula 
to the imperial throne, Agrippa was taken 
from prison, where he had been confined 
by Tiberius, and received from the em- 
peror, A. D. t,j, the title of king, together 
with the tetrarchies formerly of his uncle 
Philip and Lysanias. After the death of 
Herod Antipas, Caligula conferred Gali- 
lee and Peraea on Agrippa, and in A. D. 
41 gave him Judaea and Samaria, thus 
making his kingdom equal to his grand- 
father's. He was a strict observer of the 
Jewish ceremonial, and dissuaded Caligu- 
la from erecting a statue of himself in the 
temple at Jerusalem. In order to ingra- 
tiate himself with the Jews, he commenced 
a persecution against the Christians; but 
seems to have proceeded no farther than 
to put to death James and to imprison 
Peter, since he soon after died suddenly 
and miserably at Caesarea, A. D. 44. He 
began to strengthen Jerusalem by the ad- 
dition of a massive " third wall " around the 
new northern part, Bezetha, but desisted 
on account of the suspicions of Claudius. 
The wall was finished in an inferior man- 
ner. 

229 



HER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HEZ 



VII. Herod Agrippa Minor or II., Acts 
25; 26, was the son of Herod Agrippa I., 
and was educated at Rome under the care 
of the emperor Claudius. Being only 17 
at his father's death, the emperor thought 
him too young to succeed to the kingdom, 
which was again made a Roman province. 
After the death of Agrippa's uncle Herod, 
in A. D. 48, Claudius gave; his small king- 
dom of Chalcis to Agrippa, A. D. 50. In 
A. D. 52 he was transferred with the title 
of king to the tetrarchies of Philip and 
Lysanias first possessed by his father ; to 
which Nero added, in A. D. 55, Tiberias 
and Taricheae in Galilee, and Julias with 
circumjacent villages in Peraea. In A. D. 
60 Agrippa and his sister Bernice heard 
the defence of Paul at Cesaraea, Acts 25:13 
to ch. 26. In A. D. 66 he endeavored to 
dissuade the Jews from waging war with 
the Romans, and when they persisted he 
took sides with Rome. After the fall of 
Jerusalem he retired with Bernice to Rome, 
where he died, aged 70, in the 3d year of 
Trajan's reign, A. D. 100. 

HERO'DIANS, a Jewish political party, 
devoted to the Herods. As the Herodian 
princes were dependent on Rome, their 
partisans willingly submitted to the Ro- 
man power, and maintained the propriety 
of paying tribute to the emperors, which 
the Pharisees denied. Yet both parties 
desired the continuance of the Jewish reli- 
gion, and coalesced in opposing the spirit- 
ual kingdom of the true Messiah, Matt. 
22:16; Mark 3:6; 12:13; Luke 20:20. 

HERO'DIAS, a granddaughter of Herod 
the Great and Mariamne, daughter of Aris- 
tobulus, and sister of Herod Agrippa I. 
She was first married to her uncle Herod 
Philip I., but afterwards abandoned him 
for his brother Herod Antipas. It was by 
her artifice that Herod was persuaded to 
cause John the Baptist to be put to death, 
she being enraged at John on account of 
his bold denunciation of the incestuous and 
adulterous connection which subsisted be- 
tween her and Herod. When Herod was 
banished to Lyons, she accompanied him, 
Matt. 14:3, 6; Mark 6:17; Luke 3:19. See 
Herod IV. 

HER'ON. See next column. 

HESH'BON, intelligence, a city taken 
from the Moabites by Sihon, king of the 
Amorites, and made his capital ; conquered 
from him and occupied by Israel, Num. 
21:25-30; Judg. 11:19, 26. It was as- 
signed to Reuben, being on the boundary 
between Reuben and Gad, Josh. 13:17,26; 
230 



was rebuilt by Reuben, Num. 32:37, but 
reckoned to Gad when made a Levitical 
city, Josh. 21:39; 1 Chr. 6:81. In later 
times Heshbon was repossessed by Moab, 
and denounced by the prophets, lsa. 15:4; 
16:8, 9; Jer. 48:2, 34, 45 ; 49:3. In the time 
of the Maccabees it again belonged to the 
Jews. Its ruins, now Hesban, are 15 miles 
east of the head of the Dead Sea, on a hill 
200 feet high, covering a circuit of about a 
mile. East of the city a vast pool, etc., are 
still found, Song 7:4. 




GOLDEN PLOVER : CHARADRIUS PLUVIALIS. 

HER'ON, Lev. 11:19; Deut. 14:18. The 
reference of the Hebrew word has been 
much debated. According to Jerome it is 
the Golden Plover, found in Palestine and 
feeding along the water-side of rivers and 
lakes. According to Tristram, the long- 
billed and long-legged heron, also found in 
Palestine. 

HESH'MON, a town in the south of Ju- 
dah, Josh. 15:27, identified by Conder with 
el-Meshash, between Beer-sheba and Mo- 
ladah. 

HETH, dread, a descendant of Canaan, 
and ancestor of the Hittites, Gen. 10:15; 
23; 25:10; 27:46. See Hittites. 

HETH'LON, on the northern border of 
Palestine, Ezek. 47:15; 48:1, apparently 
adjoining the "entrance of Hamath." 

HEZEKI'AH, whom God strengthens, a 
pious king of Judah, who succeeded his 
father Ahaz about 726 B. C, and died about 
698 B. C. His history is contained in 2 Kin. 
18-20; 2 Chr. 29-32. Compare lsa. 36-38. 
His reign is memorable for his faithful 
efforts to restore the worship of Jehovah, 
removing "high places," and destroying 
the brazen serpent; contrast 2 Chr. 28:22- 
25; for the final deportation of the Ten 
Tribes, 2 Kin. 17; 18:9-12; for his revolt 
against the Assyrians, compare 2 Kin. 16:7, 
8; 2 Chr. 28:16-21; for their 2 invasions of 



HEZ 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



H1G 



his land: the first marked by the capture 
of the fortified cities of Judah, an attack 
on Jerusalem, and Hezekiah's payment of 
tribute, 2 Kin. 18:13-16. Assyrian annals 
of Sennacherib discovered at Nineveh agree 
with this account. A 2d invasion seems 
to have followed in the course of 2 years, 
when Sennacherib, having been checked 
in an attempt upon Egypt, Hezekiah's ally, 
Isa. 30:1-7, returned and "dealt treacher- 
ously" with Hezekiah in attacking La- 
chish, Isa. 30:1-7; 33:1. Then followed 
Sennacherib's threatening letters from La- 
chish and Libnah, the supernatural de- 
struction of a great part of his army, and 
the retreat of the rest to Assyria, in answer 
to Hezekiah's prayer. Compare Isa. 31:8, 
9! 37'- 33S7- The other notable events in 
this king's reign were his sickness, humili- 
ation, and prolongation of life 15 years in 
peace, miraculously assured to him; his 
vain conduct when visited by ambassadors 
of Merodach-baladan, and the prediction 
that Babylon, then feeble and friendly, 
would one day carry his descendants into 
captivity, Isa. 39; Mic. 4:10. Hezekiah col- 
lated the Proverbs of Solomon, Prov. 25:1. 
The prophecies of Hosea and Micah were 
delivered partly in his reign ; compare Jer. 
26: 17-19 ; and Nahum was perhaps his con- 
temporary. Psalms 46 and 76 are believed 
to commemorate the overthrow of Sennach- 
erib's host. Hezekiah was succeeded by 
the unworthy Manasseh. 

HEZ'RONITES, a family in Reuben, and 
another in Judah, Num. 26:6, 21. 

HID'DEKEL, rapid Tigris, Gen. 2:14; 
Dan. 10:4. The ancient Zend name was 
Teger, "stream;" in the Assyrian inscrip- 
tions Tiggar ; modern name Dijleh. This 
river has its sources, west and east, in the 
mountains of Armenia and of Kurdistan. 
The 2 branches unite at Tilleh, and the 
river rushes through a long and deep gorge 
down into the Assyrian plain. At Mosul it 
is 300 feet wide, but lower down it averages 
600 feet. After flowing 1,146 miles it meets 
the Euphrates at Kurnah, and they form 
the Shat-el-Arab, which flows on about 120 
miles to the Persian Gulf. The Tigris is 
navigable for vessels of light draft nearly 
600 miles from the Persian Gulf. An active 
trade is carried on between Bassorah and 
Bagdad by fleets of boats, and rafts float 
down from Mosul. An ancient canal still 
connects the Tigris below Bagdad with the 
Euphrates. The banks of the river, once 
occupied by populous cities, are now cov- 
ered with mounds and ruins, with few per- 



manent settlements. The river rises in 
April with the melting of the mountain 
snows, and in November with the rains. 
See Nineveh. 

HI'EL, God liveih, a Bethelite, who re- 
built Jericho in despite of the woe de- 
nounced 500 years before, Josh. 6:26. The 
fulfilment of the curse by the death of his 
children proves the truth which his name 
signified, 1 Kin. 16:34. 

HIERAP'OLIS, sacred city, named either 
from its healing warm springs, carbonate 
of lime, or from being a chief seat of the 
worship of Astarte; a city of Phrygia, 5 
miles from Laodicaea, and also near Co- 
lossae, beautifully situated above the junc- 
tion of the rivers Lycus and Meander. It 
shared with its two neighbors the ministra- 
tions of the faithful Epaphras, Col. 4:12, 13. 
On its desolate site are extensive ruins, 
among them the remains of 3 churches. 
The white front of the cliffs below it gave 
it its present name Pambouk-kalessi, or 
Cotton Castle. 

HIGGA'ION, in Psa. 9:16, is supposed to 
indicate a pause in the singing of the 
Psalm, for meditation. The word occurs 
also in Psa. 19:14, "meditation," and in 
Psa. 92:3, "solemn sound," and seems to 
have had both a general and a technical 
meaning. 

HIGH PLACES. From the idea of heav- 
en as the divine abode arose the practice 
of worship upon mountains and hills, a 
custom observed by Trojans, Greeks, Per- 
sians, and many other nations. The patri- 
archs erected altars to Jehovah wherever 
they sojourned, Gen. 12:7, 8; 26:25; 28:18; 
sometimes on mountains, Gen. 22:2; 31:54. 
Moses did likewise, Exod. 17:10, 15; Num. 
20:25-28, and the first altar of Israelites in 
Palestine was built at God's command on 
Mount Ebal. The Moabites, Num. 21:28; 
22:41; Isa. 15:2; Jer. 48:35, and the Ca- 
naanites, Num. 33:52; Deut. 12:2, wor- 
shipped their idols on high places ; which 
the Israelites were commanded to destroy, 
and to repair for sacrifice and worship to 
the place which the Lord would choose, 
Deut. 12:2-14. But they did not fully obey 
this command, Judg. 2:2, and they even 
worshipped the deities of the heathen. Be- 
fore the building of the temple, sacrifices 
were offered at various places away from 
the Tabernacle, with the sanction of the 
Divine Lawgiver himself, Judg. 6:25, 26; 
1 Sam. 9:12, 13, 25; 10:8; 11:15; 16:2-5, a 
state of things apparently contemplated in 
Exod. 20:24, 25; Deut. 12:10, 11; 1 Kin. 

231 



HIG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HIG 



8 : 16-20. These Jehovistic high places 
probably were local centres of religion, 
1 Kin. 3:2,3, like the synagogues of a much 
later time. But after the temple was built 
the continued use of high places was reck- 
oned a transgression, 2 Chr. 7:12-16; 8:12, 
13. Yet God sanctioned Elijah's act on 
Mount Carmel, 1 Kin. 18:30-38. In the 
latter part of David's reign and at the ac- 
cession of Solomon the "great high place" 
was at Gibeon, where the tabernacle and 
altar then were, 1 Chr. 21:29; 2 Chr. 1:3-6. 
Solomon wickedly revived the worship of 
heathen gods in high places, 1 Kin. 11:6-8. 
Jeroboam instituted an idolatrous system 
for the northern kingdom, and ordained 
priests for his high places at Dan and Beth- 
el, 1 Kin. 12:26-33; and from that time in 
Israel high places were used chiefly for 
idol-worship, and Elijah complains that 
the altars of Jehovah were thrown down, 
1 Kin. 19: 10, 14. In Judah also high places 
for false gods multiplied, 1 Kin. 14:22, 23. 
Even pious kings tolerated the high places, 
though doubtless only for the worship of 
Jehovah: Asa, Jehoshaphat, Joash, Amazi- 
ah, Uzziah, and Jotham. The high places 
were denounced by the prophets, Hos. 
10:8; Amos 7:9; Mic. 1:5; and Hezekiah 
set himself to remove them, 2 Kin. 18:4, 22, 
and after their renewal under Manasseh 
and Amon, Josiah completed their destruc- 
tion, whether idolatrous or Jehovistic, 2 Kin. 
22:8-13; 23; 2 Chr. 34:3, 33. After Josiah 
no mention is made of the worship of Jeho- 
vah in high places, though their use for 
idol- worship lingered still, Jer. 17:3; 19:5; 
Ezek. 6:3, 6. 

The high places were either natural em- 
inences or artificial mounds, with their own 
priests, altars, and sacrifices, 1 Kin. 12:32; 
13:33; 2 Kin. 17:32; 23:9, 15, 20; frequent- 
ly with chapels or temples, " houses of the 
high places," 1 Kin. 12:31; 2 Kin. 23:19. 

HIGH-PRIEST, the head of the priest- 
hood of Israel, Lev. 21:10, distinguished 
from the other priests by the mode of his 
consecration, by peculiar functions, and a 
peculiar dress. Aaron was chosen by God 
the first high-priest, of the tribe of Levi, 
Exod. 6:20; 28:1. The office descended 
to his 3d son Eleazar, Num. 3:32; 20:28; 
Deut. 10:6, in whose family it continued, 
Judg. 20:28, until it passed to Eli, a de- 
scendant of Ithamar, Aaron's youngest son, 
1 Sam. 1:9; 14:3; 21:1; 22:20; 23:6, 9; 
1 Chr. 24:3, 6. Solomon retransferred it, 
from Abiathar, to Eleazar's family in the 
person of Zadok, 1 Kin. 2:35, because Abi- 
232 



athar was disloyal, 1 Kin. 1:7, 25; thus the 
prophecy concerning Eli's house was ful- 
filled, 1 Sam. 2:27-36; 3:11-14. Previously 
Abiathar and Zadok would seem to have 
been colleagues in office, 2 Sam. 15:24-29; 

1 Chr. 15:11. An incomplete list of the 
high-priests succeeding Zadok to the Cap- 
tivity, in 1 Chr. 6:8-15, is supplemented by 
notices in Kings and Chronicles of several 
who came between Amariah and Shallum, 

2 Kin. 11; 12; 2 Chr. 22-24; 26:17; 2 Kin. 
16:10; 2 Chr. 31:10, ending with Seraiah, 
2 Kin. 25:18. His grandson Jeshua, Ezra 
3:2, was high-priest after the Captivity; 
and his successors appear, Neh. 12:10, 11. 
According to Josephus,Jaddua in his priest- 
ly robes won the reverence of Alexander 
the Great, B. C. 332. After the close of the 
Old Testament canon, in the time of the 
high-priest Simon the Just, B. C. 300-291, 
the high-priesthood often became a tool in 
the hands of civil rulers. Some of its in- 
cumbents, in the days of -the Syro-Greek 
kings, were unworthy men, unfaithful to 
their religion. It passed into the brilliant 
Asmonean or Maccabean family, of the 
course of Joiarib, 1 Chr. 24:7, B. C. 153, 
and was generally conjoined with the royal 
authority and title from B. C. 105 to 63, 
when Jerusalem was taken by Pompey; 
but the Asmoneans held princely and 
priestly power until Herod became king, 
B. C. 37. He murdered Aristobulus, B. C. 
35, the last of that line, whom he had 
appointed; and alternately elevated and 
deposed 4 other priests. Under Arche- 
laus and the Romans the office was degra- 
ded by frequent changes, no less than 28 
persons having filled it between Herod's 
accession, B. C. 37," and the destruction of 
Jerusalem, A. D. 70, several of these living 
at the same time. Compare John 11:51. 
The last high-priest was an ignorant rus- 
tic, Phannias, whom the Zealots chose by 
lot, closing a series of 76, continuing through 
14 centuries. 

In 2 Kin. 25 : 18 a " second priest " is men- 
tioned, the sagan or deputy, often appoint- 
ed to officiate when the true high-priest 
was disabled. 

The consecration of the high-priest was 
distinguished by a peculiar anointing— by 
pouring the sacred oil upon his head, Exod. 



29:7; 30:22-33; Lev. 8:12; 21:10, 12: 



Psa. 
: 2— in addition to the washing and the 
sprinkling with oil, etc., which he shared 
with all priests, Exod. 29:4, 20, 21; Lev. 
8:6, 23, 24, 30. So Christ, our great High- 
Priest, was anointed with the Holy Spirit, 



HIG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HIN 



Dan. 9:24; Acts 10:38; John 3:34. Pecu- 
liar garments were put upon the high- 
priest, Exod. 29:5, 6, 29, 30; Lev. 8:7-9, 
and sacrifices were offered 7 days, Exod. 
29:1-37; Lev. 8:14-36. 

The high-priest's sacred garments, be- 
sides the drawers, linen tunic, and girdle 
of other priests, were 4 in number, Exod. 
28:4, 39-43; Lev. 8:7-9: the robe of the 
ephod, Exod. 28:31-35; the ephod, with its 
"curious girdle," Exod. 28:6-12; the breast- 
plate, with the Urim and Thummim, ver. 
15-30; and the mitre, ver. 36, 39. See the 
respective titles. These garments were 
worn only when the high-priest was minis- 
tering in the sanctuary, Ezek. 42: 14; 44: 17- 
19; Acts 23:5. On the Day of Atonement 
his dress was of plain white linen, Lev. 
16:4, 23, 24. 

The peculiar and most solemn function 
of the high-priest was to enter the Holy of 
Holies once a year on the Day of Atone- 
ment, to make expiation for the sins of the 
nation, Lev. 16. See Expiation. By the 
Urim and Thummim God disclosed to him 
secret and future things, Exod. 28:30; 
Num. 27:21; Deut. 33:8. Scripture says 
nothing of this function after David's time, 
1 Sam. 23:6-9; 30:7, 8; compare Ezra 2:63. 
The prophets superseded the high-priests 
as mediums of divine revelations, 2 Chr. 
15:1-8; 18; 20:14-17; 2 Kin. 19:2; 22:12- 
14; Jer. 21 : 1, 2. The high-priest had a pe- 
culiar place in the law of the man-slayer, 
Num. 35 : 25, 28. At first, as chief of all the 
priests, he was at the head of all religious 
affairs and of the administration of justice 
in Israel, Deut. 17 : 8-12 ; 19 : 17 ; 21 : 5 ; 33 : 8, 
10; compare 2 Chr. 19:8-11; Ezek. 44:24. 
But after the establishment of the monar- 
chy the kings generally led in great reli- 
gious movements : as David, 1 Chr. 24 ; 25 ; 
Solomon, 2 Chr. 657; Jehoshaphat, 2 Chr. 
17:7-9; 19:4-11; Joash, 2 Chr. 24:4-6; Hez- 
ekiah, ch. 29-31 ; Josiah, ch. 34. When the 
king undertook evil, the high-priest some- 
times withstood : as Jehoiada queen Ath- 
aliah, 2 Chr. 22:10 to 23:20, and Azariah 
Uzziah, 2 Chr. 26:16-20; but sometimes he 
yielded, as Urijah to Ahaz, 2 Kin. 16:10-16. 
The high-priest was president of the San- 
hedrin in our Lord's time, Matt. 26:62. 

The high-priest was to be without blem- 
ish, was to marry a virgin of his own peo- 
ple, and was not to mourn for the death of 
any relative ; strict laws guarded him from 
ceremonial defilement, Lev. 21:10-24. He 
was supported from the tithes and offer- 
ings. See Priests. 



Christ is our " merciful and faithful High- 
Priest," of a better order than Aaron's, 
because his priesthood is intransmissible; 
holy, not needing to offer sacrifice for him- 
self, but having once for all made propitia- 
tion for our sins with his own blood, with 
which he passed through the heavens into 
the presence of God, where he ever liveth 
to make intercession for us; who blesses 
by turning his people from their iniquities, 
Num. 6:23-26; Acts 3:26; who has opened 
a way of access to God through himself, 
and will appear a second time, from the 
Holy of Holies, to the complete salvation, 
bodily as well as spiritual, of those who 
believe in him — welcoming them to the 
abode which as Forerunner he has pre- 
pared and entered, 1 Thess. 4:13-18; He- 
brews. That his work may avail for us, 
we need to accept, trust, and obey him, 
Heb. 10:19-39. 

HIGH'WAYS. Anciently Palestine must 
have had roads practicable for vehicles, 
since carts and chariots were used, Gen. 
46:5; Josh. 17:16; Judg. 4:13; 2 Kin. 10:16; 
Acts 8:28. Traces of Roman roads still 
remain. But now even the most important 
routes are only narrow winding paths for 
the passage of beasts of burden, usually in 
single file. See Hedge. In Matt. 22:9, 
read, " the crossings of the highways." 

HILKI'AH, God is my portion, I. and II. 

1 Chr. 6:45; 26:n.—III. 2 Kin. 18:18; Isa. 
22:20; 36:3, 22. — IV. High-priest in Josi- 
ah's reign. He found "the book of the 
Law," the sacred copy of the Pentateuch, 
in the temple, and aided Josiah in his refor- 
mation, 2 Kin. 22:8 to 23:25; 2 Chr. 34:14- 
35. He was probably an ancester of Ezra, 
Ezra 7:1. — V. Jer. 1:1. — VI. Jer. 29:3. — 
VII. Neh. 12:7, 21.— VIII. Neh. 8:4. 

HILL, sometimes improperly used in A. 
V. for mountain — a height, range, or dis- 
trict, Exod. 24:4, 12, 13, 18; Num. 13:29; 
14:40, 44, 45; Josh. 15:9. In Deut. 1:7; 
Josh. 9:1, the mountain district of Southern 
Palestine; in Josh. 15:8 the Mount of Ol- 
ives; in Psa. 3:4; 24:3, Mount Zion; in 

2 Kin. 1:9; 4:27, Mount Carmel, 1 Kin. 
18 : 19 ; 2 Kin. 4 : 25. In Luke 9 : 37 the R. V. 
has mountain as in ver. 28. 

HIN. See Measures. 

HIND. See next page. 

HIN'GES, pivots, often of one piece with 
the door, turning in sockets hollowed above 
and below in the door-frame, Prov. 26:14. 
The golden pivots in 1 Kin. 7:50 were sep- 
arate and fitted to the corners of the 
doors. 

233 



HIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HIT 



HIND, the hornless female of the hart 
active, Gen. 49:21 ; compare Judg. 4:6-10: 




HIND AND FAWN. 

5:18; swift and sure - footed on rocky 
heights, 2 Sam. 22:34; Psa. 18:33; Hab. 
3:19; affectionate, Prov. 5:18, 19; Jer. 14:5; 
easily agitated, Song 2:7; 3:5; timid, Psa. 
29:9. See Thunder. 

HIN'NOM, a valley west and south of 
Jerusalem, called also the " valley of the 
son of Hinnom;" a deep ravine with rocky 
sides, passing south from the Jaffa gate 
and then east, between Mount Zion on the 
north and the " Hill of Evil Counsel " on 
the south, and joining the Kedron valley 
on the east. It was the boundary between 
Judah and Benjamin, Josh. 15:8; 18:16; 
Neh. 11:30. Its width varied from 50 to 
100 yards, and near the wider part opening 
to the Kedron it was called Tophet, Jer. 
7:31, 32; 19:2-6; 2 Kin. 23:10, where Solo- 
mon built high places to Moloch, 1 Kin. 
11:7, and Ahaz and Manasseh made their 
children " pass through the fire," 2 Kin. 
16:3; 2 Chr. 28:3; 33:6; Jer. 32:35. To 
end these abominations Josiah defiled the 
spot with human bones and other corrup- 
tions, 2 Kin. 23:10, 13, 14; 2 Chr. 34:4, 5, 
and it became a cesspool to receive the 
sewage of the city to be carried off into the 
Kedron. From the fires of Moloch and 
from the defilement of the valley (compare 
Isa. 30:33; 66:24), if not from the supposed 
ever-burning funeral fires (not well authen- 
ticated), the later Jews applied the name 
of the valley, in the Septuagint Geenna, to 
the place of eternal suffering for lost angels 
and men ; and in this sense it is used in the 
New Testament, Matt. 5:22, 29, 30; 10:28; 
Mark 9:43, 45, 47; Luke 12:5; Jas. 3:6. 
See Hell. An ancient aqueduct crosses 
it below the western gate and above " the 
234 



lower pool." The "upper pool" is 700 
yards west by north of the gate. No water 
now flows in the bed of the valley, which 
is cultivated in parts, and in Tophet are 
gardens watered from the pool of Siloam. 
The hill on the south of Hinnom is full of 
ruined tombs; and on the slope south of 
Tophet is the traditional site of "the pot- 
ters' field " (see Aceldama), where a bed 
of clay is still worked by potters. The 
valley is now called Wady er-Rababi. 

Warren and Stanley have argued that 
Hinnom is identical with the Kedron val- 
ley, but are not generally followed in this. 

HI'RAM, or Hu'ram, high-born, I., a 
king of Tyre, a friend of David, 1 Kin. 5:1, 
whom he furnished with materials and 
workmen for his palace, 2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Chr. 
14:1; and afterwards of Solomon, whom 
he, or perhaps his son, supplied with gold, 
timber, and men to build the temple, and 
probably Solomon's palace, 1 Kin. 5; 9:11 ; 
10:11, 12; 2 Chr. 2:3-16; 9:10, 11. Solo- 
mon in return sent yearly supplies of grain, 
wine, and oil to Tyre, and gave Hiram 20 
cities in Galilee, 1 Kin. 9:11-13. See Ca- 
bul. Hiram assisted Solomon in com- 
mercial enterprises by sea, 1 Kin. 9:26-28 ; 
10:11, 22; 2 Chr. 8:17, 18; 9:10. Josephus 
says he greatly improved Tyre, and reigned 
34 years. 

II. A skilled artificer of Tyre, under 
whose direction the interior decorations 
and utensils of Solomon's temple were 
made, 1 Kin. 7:13-45; 2 Chr. 2:13, 14; 
4:11-16. 

HIRE'LING, a laborer employed for a 
limited time, Job 14:6; to be paid prompt- 
ly, Lev. 19:13; Jas. 5:4. "The years of a 
hireling" mean time measured w T ith exact- 
ness, Isa. 16:14; 21:16. In our tford's time 
a laborer's "hire " was a penny, Matt. 20: 1- 
14. A hireling took less interest in his 
charge than the owner, John 10:12, 13. 

HIS, in A. V. often used for Us, which is 
nowhere found, Gen. 1:11, 12; Lev. 11:22; 
Deut. 14:14, 15. 

HISS, an expression of contempt, Job 
27:23; 1 Kin. 9:8; Jer. 19:8; Ezek. 27:36; 
Mic. 6:16. Also a mode of calling an at- 
tendant, still common in the East, Isa. 5 : 26 ; 
7:18; Zech. 10:8. 

HIT'TITES, descendants of Heth, second 
son of Canaan, Gen. 10:15; J 5 '■ 2 °- I n Abra- 
ham's time they were settled around He- 
bron, and appear as a peaceable commer- 
cial people in selling him the cave of Mach- 
pelah, Gen. 23; 25:9. Esau married Hit- 
tites, Gen. 26:34, 35. Later they are found 



HIV 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HOL 



in the mountains, Num. 13:29; Josh, un- 
united in a confederation against Israel, 
and were subdued, Josh. 9:1, 2; 11:1-9; 
12:7, 8, as God had promised Abraham, 
Gen. 15:18, 20, and Moses, Exod. 3:8. For- 
bidden intercourse with them helped to 
lead Israel into idolatry, Judg. 3 : 5-7. Uri- 
ah was a Hittite, 2 Sam. 11:3; 23:39. Sol- 
omon brought the remaining Hittites un- 
der subjection, 1 Kin. 9:15-21; 2 Chr. 8:1- 
8, and married among them, 1 Kin. 11:1. 
"The kings of the Hittites," an ancient 
and powerful kingdom north of Palestine, 
purchased some of the chariots Solomon 
imported from Egypt, 1 Kin. 10:29; 2 Chr. 
1:17 ; compare 2 Kin. 7:6; Josh. 11:4. The 
Hittites were not lost as a people till after 
the Captivity, Ezra 9:1. The exact extent 
of their "land" is not known. 

Hittites are mentioned on Egyptian mon- 
uments of the 19th and 20th dynasties, in- 
cluding Joshua's time, as conquered ene- 
mies of Egypt in the valley of the Orontes, 
and in Assyrian inscriptions of 2 or 3 cen- 
turies later as in the same region. Ash- 
toreth is named in the Egyptian records 
as one of their divinities. See Canaan- 
ites. 

HI'VITES, descendants of Canaan, Gen. 
10:17, at Shechem in Jacob's time, when 
they appear commercial and unwarlike, 
Gen. 33:18 to 34:31. In Joshua's time they 
possessed Gibeon, etc., Josh. 9 : 3-27 ; 11:19; 
and though accounted powerful, Josh. 10: 1- 
5, they secured terms from Israel by craft 
and not by force. See Gibeonites. They 
also had a home in Mount Lebanon, Josh. 
11:3; Judg. s : 3> even till David's time, 
2 Sam. 24:7; and these were defeated by 
Israel at the waters of Merom, Josh. 11 :3~8, 
17, 19. Israel did not exterminate the Hi- 
vites, but unlawfully mingled with them in 
marriage and idolatry, Judg. 3:5-7. They 
as well as the Hittites furnished bond-ser- 
vants to Solomon for his extensive con- 
structions, 1 Kin. 9:15-21; 2 Chr. 8:1-8; 
compare 1 Kin. 5:15. See Canaanites. 

HO'BAB, favored, a Midianite prince, 
son of Raguel or Reuel, Num. 10:29-32, and 
probably the brother-in-law of Moses. He 
is mentioned in the record of the 2d year 
after the Exodus. He finally acceded to 
Moses' request to cast in his lot with Israel, 
Judg. 1:16; 4:11. The word translated 
"father-in-law," and applied to Jethro as 
well as to Hobab, Exod. 3:1; 4:18; 18:1, 
may mean in Judg. 4:11 simply a connec- 
tion by marriage — one whose house gave I 
Moses a wife. See Jethro. 



HO'BAH, a place 2 or 3 miles north of 
Damascus, to which Abraham pursued his 
allied foes, Gen. 14:15. 

HOLD, Exod. 20:7; Job 9:28; 13:24; 
Prov. 16:5; 17:5; 19:5, margin; Zech. 
11:5; Matt. 21:26, regard and treat. 

HO'LY, HO'LINESS. The primitive 
meaning of these words is a separation or 
setting apart to God and his service. True 
holiness characterizes outward acts, but 
still more the motive and intent of the 
heart. It is an inward principle ; not mere 
rectitude or benevolence, or any one moral 
excellence, but the harmonious and perfect 
blending of all, as all the colors of the 
prism duly blended form pure light. God 
is holy in a transcendent and infinitely 
perfect manner, Isa. 1:4; 6:3. The Mes- 
siah is called "the Holy One," Psa. 16:10; 
Luke 4: 34; Acts 3:14; and Holy is the epi- 
thet commonly given to the third person of 
the Trinity, the Holy Spirit. God is the 
fountain of holiness, innocence, and sancti- 
fication. The angels who kept their purity 
are called holy, Matt. 25:31. Mankind lost 
all holiness in the fall ; but God makes his 
people gradually " partakers in his holi- 
ness" here, and in heaven they will be 
found perfectly and for ever sanctified ; as 
an earnest of which, he looks upon them 
as already, in Christ, holy and beloved. 
The Bible applies the epithet holy to what- 
ever pertains especially to God — to heaven, 
to his temple, its parts, utensils, and servi- 
ces ; to his day, his ministers, priests, proph- 
ets, and apostles. The children of Israel 
were called a holy nation, because they 
were separated unto God to be a religious 
and consecrated people, Exod. 19:6; Deut. 
7:6; and Christians, as a body, are also 
called holy, because they are in like man- 
ner separated unto Christ, 1 Pet. 2:9. But 
a "holy man," in the ordinary Christian 
sense, is one who exhibits in his conduct 
the inward purity, benevolence, and holy 
devotedness to the Saviour with which his 
heart overflows. The conception of God 
as the Holy One, perfectly free from and 
averse to sin, distinguishes the religion 
of the Bible from all ancient and modern 
heathen systems, which attribute to imag- 
ined deities human passions and sins. 

HO'LY SPIR'IT, or HO'LY GHOST, both 
English words being the rendering of the 
same word in Greek, the 3d person in the 
blessed Trinity. He is said to proceed 
from the Father, and to be sent by the 
Father and the Son upon disciples, John 
14 : 26 ; 15 : 26 ; to be the Spirit of the Father, 

235 



HOM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HOP 



Matt. 10:20; 1 Cor. 2:11; and the Spirit of 
Christ, Gal. 4:6; Phil. 1:19. 

That he is a real person, and not merely 
an attribute or emanation of God, is clear 
from the numerous passages in the Bible 
which describe him as exercising the acts, 
thoughts, emotions, and volitions of a dis- 
tinct intelligent person. None other could 
be pleased, vexed, and grieved — could 
speak, console, and intercede, or divide his 
gifts severally to every one as he will. 

That he is a divine person, equally with 
the Father and the Son, is proved from his 
association with them in a great variety of 
acts purely divine ; as in the work of crea- 
tion, Gen. 1:2; Psa. 33:6; 104:30. He is 
honored as they are in the baptismal for- 
mula, Matt. 28:19, and in the apostolic 
benediction, 2 Cor. 13:14; Rev. 1:4, 5. He 
receives the names of God: Jehovah; com- 
pare Acts 18:25 with Isa. 6; Heb. 3:7-9 
with Exod. 17:2-7; Jer. 31:31-34 with 
Heb. 10:15, 16. — God; Acts 5:3, 4. — Lord; 
2 Cor. 3:17, 18. He exercises the attri- 
butes of God, 1 Cor. 2:10, 11; Isa. 40:13, 
14; Psa. 139:7-10; Heb. 9:14; and blas- 
phemy against him is unpardonable, Matt. 
12:31, 32. See Blasphemy. 

The work of the Holy Spirit is divine. 
Of old he inspired the sacred writers and 
teachers, and imparted miraculous gifts. 
Under the Christian dispensation he ap- 
plies the salvation of Christ to men's hearts, 
convicting them of sin, John 16:8, 9, show- 
ing them "the things of Christ," illumina- 
ting and regenerating them, John 3:5; 
1 Cor. 12:3-11. He is the Comforter of the 
church, John 14:16, 17, 26; calls laborers 
into the ministry and directs them, Acts 
13:2, 4; 20:28; witnesses with believers, 
Rom. 8:15-17, aids them in prayer and in- 
tercedes for them, ver. 26, 27, directs them 
in duty, ver. 14, and sanctifies them for 
heaven, Gal. 5:16-26; 1 Pet. 1:2. All are 
warned not to "quench," "vex," "resist," 
or "grieve" him, Isa. 63:10; Acts 7:51; 
Eph. 4:30; 1 Thess. 5:19, for without him 
we have no part in Christ, Rom. 8:9. 

HO'MER, or Cor, the largest dry meas- 
ure of the Hebrews, equal to 10 baths or 
ephahs, and containing about 8 of our bush- 
els, Ezek. 45:14. See Measures. 

HON'EST, HON'ESTY, HON'ESTLY, 
often used in the A. V. in the original sense 
of "honorable," etc., Rom. 12:17; 2 Cor. 
13:7; Phil. 4:8; 1 Tim. 2:2; Heb. 13:18. 

HON'EY was formerly very plentiful in 
Palestine, a land flowing with milk and 
honey, Exod. 3:17; Lev. 20:24. Wild bee 
236 



honey was often found in hollow trees and 
clefts in the rocks, Deut. 32 : 13 ; Psa. 81 : 16. 
Jonathan refreshed himself with it, 1 Sam. 
14:25-27, and it was a part of John the 
Baptist's food, Matt. 3:4. The "vegetable 
honey " which some writers refer to, the 
exudation from twigs of the gharrab-tree 
in the Jordan valley, is found only in small 
globules, needing to be carefully collected 
and strained. Honey was highly prized, 
Psa. 19:10; Prov. 27:7, and inconstant use, 
2 Sam. 17:29; Isa. 7:15. A mixture of 
honey with curdled milk or butter is still 
a Bedouin delicacy. Honey, like leaven, 
was not to be offered on the altar, Lev. 
2:11. It symbolized flattery, Prov. 5:3, and 
pleasant and wholesome discourse, Song 
4:11. The term "honey" also includes a 
3d substance — a syrup prepared by boiling 
down the fresh juice of grapes or dates, 
2 Chr. 31:5, margin. Grape honey, in Ara- 
bic dibs, is much used by the Arabs as a 
condiment, and resembles thin molasses. 
It may have been this that Jacob sent to 
Egypt, Gen. 43:11, and the Tyrians pur- 
chased from Palestine, Ezek. 27: 17. Pales- 
tine still abounds in honey ; bee-keeping is 
much practised, and swarms of wild bees 
are numerous. See Bee, Grapes. 

HOOD, Isa. 3:23, a turban. See Head- 
dress. 

HOOK, used in A. V. for several Hebrew 
words of different senses. I. Fish-hook, 
Job 41:1; Amos 4:2.-11. Probably a ring 
for the noses of lions and other animals, to 
lead them with, 2 Kin. 19:28; Ezek. 19:4, 
9, A. V. "in chains;" 29:4; 38:4. Captives 
were sometimes thus led, as Assyrian 
sculptures show, 2 Chr. 33:11, A. V. "in 
the thorns." Large fish were secured alive 
in the water, Job 41:2, A. V. "thorn," and 
attached by a cord, A. V. "hook," to a 
stake.— III. Hooks by which the curtains 
of the tabernacle hung, Exod. 26:32, 37. — 
IV. Pruning-hooks, curved knives, Isa. 2:4; 
18:5.— V. Flesh-hooks, 1 Sam. 2:13, 14 — 
VI. Perhaps hooks on which carcases were 
hung up for flaying, Ezek. 40:43. 

HOPE, the desire and expectation of 
some good, 1 Cor. 9:10, especially the as- 
sured expectation of salvation and all its 
blessings for this life and the life to come, 
through the merits of Christ. It is one 
of the 3 great elements of Christian char- 
acter and life, 1 Cor. 13:13. Its earnest is 
the spiritual life already begun in believ- 
ers, to be prolonged through eternity, Rom. 
8:23-25; 1 Cor. 15:19; Gal. 5:5; I Thess. 
5:8-10; 2 Tim. 4:8; Tit. 3:4-7- The Hol y 



HOP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HOR 



Spirit inspires and maintains it, i Pet. 
1:3-5; Rom. 8:11; 15:13. Unbelievers 
are without hope because without God, 
Eph. 2:12; 1 Thess. 4: 13. Christ is the be- 
lievers' " hope," because all their depend- 
ence is on him, and because it is at his 2d 
coming that their hope of glory is to be 
realized, Col. 1:27; 1 Tim. 1:1; Tit. 2:13. 
Hope enables them to bear present trials, 
Rom. 8:25; 1 Thess. 1:3, and stimulates 
them to labor diligently and perseveringly, 
1 Cor. 15:51-58, and to strive to grow into 
the likeness of Christ, Heb. 12:14; 1 John 

3:2,3- 

HOPH'NI, a boxer, and PHIN'EHAS, the 
wicked sons of Eli the high-priest, called 
" sons of Belial." They grossly and con- 



tinuously abused the influence of their po- 
sition and sacred office ; and their cupidity, 
violence, and impious profligacy, overbear- 
ing the feeble remonstrances of their fa- 
ther, brought disgrace and ruin on their 
family. Though professedly the servants 
of God, they knew him not, 1 Sam. 2:12 ; 
compare Jer. 22:16; Matt. 7:21-23; Tit. 
1 : 16. The ark, which they had carried to 
the camp, was taken, and they were slain 
in battle, 1 Sam. 2-4. See Eli. The ark 
of God protects only those who love and 
obey him. Compare Jer. 7:4. Men in all 
ages are prone to rely on a form of reli- 
gion, while the heart and life are not right 
with God; and all who thus sin, like the 
sons of Eli, must perish likewise. 




MOUNT HOR, AND AARON'S TOMB. 



HOR, mountain, I., the mountain on which 
Aaron died, and Eleazar his son succeeded 
him as high-priest, Num. 20:22-29; 33:38, 
39; Deut. 32:50. It was on the border of 
Edom, Num. 33:37, between Kadesh and 
Zalmonah, ver. 36, 41. Mosera lay at its 
foot, Deut. 10:6. It is the highest and most 
conspicuous peak in the sandstone range 
of Mount Seir, which extends along the 
eastern side of the Arabah from near the 
Dead Sea to the Gulf of Akaba, lying mid- 
way in the range, about 50 miles from each 
end. It is now called Jebel Neby Harun, 
"mount of the prophet Aaron." It rises 
4,800 feet above the Mediterranean, 4,000 
above the Arabah, 6,000 above the Dead 
Sea, "marked far and near," says Stanley, 
"by its double top, which rises like a huge 



castellated building from a lower base." 
On the eastern peak is " Aaron's tomb," a 
small Mohammedan chapel, erected from 
the remains of an older building, over the 
supposed grave, to which pilgrimages are 
made. See Selah. 

Many scholars, however, now identify 
the Mount Hor where Aaron died with Je- 
bel Madurah, 33 miles southwest of the 
Dead Sea, and on the west border of 
Edom, which the Hebrews were forbidden 
to enter, Num. 20:14-21, or possess, Deut. 
2:5. Madurah is a lofty, isolated mountain- 
citadel, at a point where Canaan, Edom, 
and Zin meet. See Kadesh, Mosera. 

II. A mountain on the northern bound- 
ary of the Promised Land, Num. 34:7, 8; 
according to some, the whole Lebanon 

237 



HOR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HOR 



range ; but perhaps the highest peak of that 
range, Dahar el-Kudib, about 25 miles from 
the northern end. See Lebanon. 

HO'REB. See Sinai. 

HOR'ITES, or Ho'rim, cave-dwellers, a 
race of early dwellers in Mount Seir, 
whence they were expelled by the Edom- 
ites, Gen. 14:6; Deut. 2:12, 22. They are 
supposed to have lived in caves, like the 
men referred to in Job 30:6, and to have 
been divided into several tribes, Gen. 
36 : 20-30. 

HOR'MAH, destruction, Num. 21:1-3; 
also called Zephath ; a city in the extreme 
south of Canaan, near which the rebellious 
Hebrews were defeated, in the 2d year 
after leaving Egypt, Num. 14:45; it was 
afterwards laid waste, Judg. 1 : 16, 17. The 
Simeonites repeopled it, Josh. 19:4, and 
David sent them some of his spoils taken 
from the Amalekites, 1 Sam. 30:30. In 
some passages the name seems to be given 
by anticipation. Palmer and Drake place 
it at Sebaiteh; Robinson at es-Sufa, 30 
miles east. See Zephath. 

HOR'NET. This formidable insect was 
a means of expelling the Canaariites before 
Israel, Exod. 23 : 28 ; Deut. 7 : 20 ; Josh. 24 : 12. 
Some scholars regard the term as figura- 
tive, vividly denoting the consternation 
which God would send upon Israel's ene- 
mies, Exod. 23:27; Deut. 1:44; 2:25; Josh. 
2:11. But real hornets may well have done 
the work described. Swarms of these in- 
sects are known to have rendered some 
places uninhabitable. They are numerous 
still in some parts of Palestine, and, Cap- 
tain Warren says, " attack human beings 
in the most furious manner. I can readily 
conceive the rout of an army being occa- 
sioned by them." See Zoreah. 

HORNS were used as cups and vessels 
for liquids, 1 Sam. 16:1; 1 Kin. 1:39. See 
Keren-happuch. Also as trumpets, Josh. 
6:5, though the words translated "trum- 
pets of rams' horns," ver. 4, 6, 8, 13, should 
be rendered "trumpets of jubilees," and 
"rams' horn" in ver. 5 should be "horn 
of jubilee." Artificial instruments of like 
form are no doubt sometimes intended, 
and were used in the temple worship, 1 Chr. 
25:5. The horns of the altar were eleva- 
tions at its 4 corners, Exod. 27 : 2 ; 30 : 2. As 
the chief ornament and defence of many 
beasts are in their horns, these are often 
symbols of strength, honor, victory, and 
dominion, Deut. 33:17; 1 Sam. 2:1, 10; 
1 Kin. 22:11; Psa. 75:10; Hab. 3:4; Rev. 
5:6. Horns often denote kings and king- 
238 



doms, Dan. 7:20-24; 8:3-9; Zech. 1:18-21; 
Rev. 17:7, 12. Assyrian kings in the Nin- 
evite sculptures wear conical one-horned 
caps, and coins of Alexander the Great rep- 
resent him as horned. "A horn of salva- 
tion," Luke 1:69, is One " mighty to save," 
Isa. 63 : 1. To abase or defile the horn sym- 
bolizes humiliation, Job 16: 15 ; to cut ©ff the 
horn, to ruin, Jer. 48:25. The Indian chief 
who treated with William Penn asserted 
his authority by first putting on a crown 
with a horn upon it. Silver and even gold 
horns of great length were formerly worn 
by married Druse ladies on Mount Leba- 




non, as in the cut; the other head is that 
of an Abyssinian chief. 

HORONA'IM, two caverns, a city of Moab. 
apparently on a height, Isa. 15:5; Jer. 48:3, 

5> 34- 

HO'RONITE, the, Sanballat, Neh. 2 : 10, 19 ; 
13:28, may have come from Horonaim, or 
Beth-horon. 

HOR'SES, anciently used chiefly in war, 
Prov. 21:31; Jer. 8:16, not among Abra- 
ham's acquisitions from Egypt, though 2 
centuries later paid to Joseph for corn. 
Gen. 12:16; 47:17- A force of war-chari- 
ots, each with 2 horses and a "captain," 
besides the driver and perhaps a shield- 
bearer, accompanied Pharaoh in pursuit of 
Israel, and was overwhelmed in the Red 
Sea, Exod. 14:6-9, 23-28; 15; here "horse- 
men" and "riders," some Hebrew schol- 
ars think, denote those who rode in chari- 
ots ; and Egyptian monuments never rep- 
resent Egyptian soldiers on horseback. 
The Arabians in old time seem to have 
had no horses, Num. 31 : 28, 30, 32-34 ; Judg. 
6:3-5; 1 Chr. 5:20-22. The Canaanites and 
Philistines had them, Josh. 11:4; 1 Sam. 
13:5. Israel was forbidden to fear the cav- 



HOR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HOS 



airy of enemies, to preserve the horses of 
the conquered, or to multiply horses, Deut. 
17: 1 5; 20:1 ; Josh. 11:6, 9, but were to trust 
in God alone, Isa. 31 : 1-6. The formidable 
aspect, courage, and strength of the war- 
horse are grandly described in Job 39:19- 
25. See Samuel's prediction as to the king 
the people so desired, 1 Sam. 8:11. David 
reserved horses of the defeated king of 
Zobah, 2 Sam. 8:4, and Solomon imported 
them, received them as tribute from other 
countries, and established a large chariot 
and cavalry force, 1 Kin. 4:26; 10:25-29; 
2 Chr. 1:14, 16, 17; 9:24, 25, 28; and suc- 
ceeding kings did the like, 1 Kin. 22:4; 
Isa. 2:7. Israel's cavalry dwindled under 
Jehoahaz, and Judah's still more under 
Hezekiah, 2 Kin. 13:7; 18:23. Zedekiah 
sought Egyptian cavalry to aid his revolt 
against Nebuchadnezzar, 2 Chr. 36 : 13 ; 
Ezek. 17:15. Idolatrous kings of Judah 
consecrated horses to the sun — either liv- 
ing, to take part in processions in honor of 
Baal, or statues before his temples. Josiah 
removed them, 2 Kin. 23:11. The Jews 
brought back horses with them from Baby- 
lon, Neh. 7:68. The Assyrian mounted 
troops were very formidable, Ezek. 23:6; 
Nah. ^:^; Hab. 1:8; they also used horses 
in hunting, etc. As they were then un- 
shod, hard hoofs were highly valued, Isa. 
5:28. Saddles are not spoken of or de- 
picted, but bells were used, Zech. 14:20. 
The Hebrew distinguishes between horses 
of a heavy and of a light build. Tyre ob- 
tained "chariot-horses and riding-horses " 
from Armenia, Ezek. 27:14. In Joel 2:4 
read, "as riding-horses . . . they run." In 
Isa. 21:7 read, "a cavalcade of horsemen 
riding in pairs," describing the orderly 
march of the Persian cavalry, ver. 2, "two 
by two," as Xenophon *ells us. In 1 Kin. 
4:26 read, "4,000 chariot-horses and 12,000 
riding -horses," 40,000 being probably a 
copyist's error. Compare 2 Chr. 9:25. In 
1 Kin. 10:28 probably "strings" of horses 
should be understood instead of " linen 
yarn." A swift horse is mentioned in 1 Kin. 
4:28 as "a dromedary," Esth. 8:10, 14 as a 
" mule," in Mic. 1 : 13 as " a swift beast." In 
agricultural labor the horse appears in Isa. 
28 : 28— the threshing of wheat or barley by 
driving horses over it. Mention is made of 
the use of horses in locomotion, Isa. 66:20; 
Jer. 17:25; 22:4, ordinarily only by princes 
or great men, Eccl. 10:7. Horses symbol- 
ize angelic powers, 2 Kin. 2:11; 6:15-17; 
and under different colors, different dis- 
pensations of God, Zech. 1:8-11; 6:2-8; 



Rev. 6:2-8. A white horse indicated vic- 
tory, Rev. 6:2; 19:11, 14. At present in 
Palestine horses are used in travelling, not 
in agriculture. 

HORSE' LEECH, the adherer, a well- 
known water-worm very common in Pal- 
estine. It frequently enters the nostrils 
or mouth of animals when drinking, and 
clings until gorged with blood. It is an 
apt emblem of avarice and rapacity, Prov. 
30: 15. Its " two daughters " are the words 
" Give ! Give!" 

HOSAN'NA ! save now! or save, we be- 
seech ! an acclamation, invoking the bless- 
ing of God upon the Messiah, used by the 
multitudes who welcomed Christ's entry 
into Jerusalem, Matt. 21:9, 15. The 2 He- 
brew words composing it begin ver. 25 of 
Psa. 118, and were shouted by the multi- 
tudes in the temple at the joyous Feast of 
Tabernacles, as a response at intervals to 
the chanting of the Great Hallel, Psalms 
113-118, by one of the priests. The early 
Christian church adopted the word in its 
worship. 

HOSE'A, deliverance, was probably the 
4th of the prophets in chronological order, 
exercising his office about 60 years, B. C. 
784-725, from the early part of Uzziah's 
long reign — which coincided with the last 
14 years of Jeroboam II. of Israel, 2 Kin. 
14:23; 15:1 — until sometime in Hezekiah 's 
reign. He was contemporary with Isaiah 
and Micah, and perhaps also with Joel and 
Amos. Though the opening verse loyally 
dates his activity mainly by the kings of 
Judah, Hosea was a prophet of the north- 
ern kingdom, many of whose localities he 
specially mentions, though he incidentally 
warns and comforts Judah also, and pre- 
dicts the union of the two "in the latter 
days," ch. 1:11; 3:5. The prophecy is di- 
vided into 2 parts, ch. 1-3, and 4-14. It is 
disputed whether the actions described in 
the first part are real occurrences, or were 
presented to the prophet's mind in a vis- 
ion ; in all probability the latter is the cor- 
rect view, but in either case the relations 
of idolatrous Israel to her covenant God 
are illustrated, and the prophet is the bet- 
ter qualified to speak with feeling and 
power of the guilt of Israel and the forbear- 
ance and love of Jehovah. The 2d part is 
chiefly occupied with denunciations against 
Israel, and especially Samaria, for the wor- 
ship of idols and accompanying immoral- 
ity. The pictures of Israel's political and 
social life are drawn from the interregnum, 
B. C. 781-773, after the death of Jeroboam, 

239 



HOS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HOS 



and from the troubled reigns of the suc- 
ceeding kings. Hosea predicts the death 
of Zechariah, Jeroboam's son, 4th and last 
of Jehu's line, ch. 1:4; 2 Kin. 15:12. At a 
later date, Hos. 10:14, he is thought to al- 
lude to Shalmaneser's first inroad against 
Hoshea, 2 Kin. 17:1, 3; 18:9. God's judg- 
ments upon Israel are represented by the 
names of Gomer's children, Jezreel, Lo- 
ruhamah, and Lo-ammi ; and the depth of 
the divine mercy and love is shown in 
God's causing the penitent Israel to call 
him Ishi instead of Baali. See these names. 
Ch. 3:4, 5 is a remarkable prophecy of Is- 
rael's state for many centuries, and of its 
final restoration. Gomer's character, ch. 
1:2; 3:1, represents the idolatry of the 
stock of the chosen people in Egypt and in 
Ur, Josh. 24: 14, as well as after the call out 
of both places. The " Egypt " of affliction, 
ch. 8:13; 9:3, is not literal Egypt, ch. 11:5. 
Hosea declares that Assyria, considered 
friendly, will destroy Israel, ch. 5 : 13 ; 7:11; 
8:9; 12:1; 14:3; 3:4; 10:6; 11: 11; and that 
return to God is the only remedy for exist- 
ing and impending evils. 

As Hosea shows acquaintance with the 
already existing sacred writings of Moses 
and others, so succeeding prophets give 
evidence of familiarity with Hosea's proph- 
ecy; compare Hos. 1:11 with Isa. 11:12, 
13 — Hos. 4:3 with Zeph. 1:3 — Hos. 4:6 with 
Isa. 5:13 — Hos. 7:10 with Isa. 9:12, 13 — 
Hos. 10:12 with Jer. 4:3. 

The New Testament references to Hosea 
are Matt. 9:13; 12:7 to Hos. 6:6 — Luke 
23:30; Rev. 6:16 to Hos. 10:8— Matt. 2:15 
to Hos. 1 1 : 1 — Rom. 9 : 25, 26 ; 1 Pet. 2:10 to 
Hos. 1:10; 2:23 — 1 Cor. 15:4 to Hos. 6:2 — 
Heb. 13:15 to Hos. 14:2. 

Paul's application of Hos. 1:10; 2:23 to 
the conversion of the Gentiles, Rom. 9:25, 
26, seems to indicate that the descendants 
of the scattered 10 tribes, absorbed and 
lost in the heathendom around them, were 
among the Gentiles brought into the church 
of Christ. 

Hosea's warnings are mingled with ten- 
der and pathetic expostulations. His style 
is abrupt and obscure, and it is difficult 
now to fix the periods or the divisions of 
his various predictions. 

HO'SEN, old plural of hose, which for- 
merly meant trousers as well as stockings. 
The Chaldee word so rendered in Dan. 
3:21, A. V., means "tunics." 

HOSHE'A, I., Joshua, Deut. 32:44. 

II. The 19th, last, and least wicked king 
of Israel. He slew Pekah, B. C. 738, but 
240 



did not succeed him until B. C. 729, 2 Kin. 
I 5 : 3°; I7-" ij 2 - When his land was inva- 
ded by Shalmaneser, Hoshea became trib- 
utary to Assyria, ver. 3; but afterwards 
formed a secret alliance with Egypt, on 
the discovery of which Shalmaneser rav- 
aged Israel and besieged Samaria, and his 
successor Sargon, more than 2 years later, 
took the city, threw Hoshea into prison, 
and carried the Israelites into captivity in 
Assyria and Media, B. C. 721, in the 9th 
year of Hoshea and the 10th of Hezekiah, 
2 Kin. 17:4-6; 18:9-12. Hosea predicted 
the fate of Samaria and its king, ch. 10:7; 
13:16; compare Mic. 1:6. 

HOSPITAL'ITY, the free unremunerated 
supply of food and lodging to a friend or 
a traveller. This duty is continually set 
before us in God's kindness to men, who 
are pilgrims and sojourners here, Psa. 23:3 ; 
and in Christ's feeding the multitudes with 
bodily and spiritual food, and his gracious 
invitations to the heavenly feast without 
money or price, Luke 14:15-24: Rev. 19:9. 
This was a virtue of great necessity and 
much practised in the ancient world — 
owing to the state of society, the scattered 
population, limited travelling, and lack of 
public houses. It is beautifully illustrated 
in the histories of Abraham, Lot, Gen. 18; 
19, Reuel, Exod. 2:20, Manoah, Judg. 13:15, 
and the Ephraimite of Gibeah, Judg. 19: 17. 
See also Job 31 : 17. It was divinely com- 
manded, Lev. 19:33, 34; Deut. 14:29, and 
the Benjamites who so grossly violated its 
claims suffered fearful punishment, Judg. 
19:15, 22 to 20:48. National animosities 
and fanaticism sometimes interfered with 
its exercise, as in Judg. 19:12; Luke 9:53; 
John 4:9. Our Lord came unto his own, 
but they received him not. He bade his 
apostles accept the kindnesses offered them, 
Luke 10:4-8, and encouraged these acts 
especially when done from love to him, 
Matt. 10:40-42; 25:34-45; Mark 9:41; while 
warning those who should not receive his 
disciples, as rejecting him also. Through 
his apostles he repeatedly urged the duty of 
hospitality, Rom. 12:13; 1 Tim. 3:2; 5:10; 
Tit. 1:8; Heb. 13:2; 1 Pet. 4:9; 3 John 5-8; 
and the early Christians regarded it as a 
chief duty, and so practised it as to win 
the admiration of the heathen. They wel- 
comed especially all members of "the 
household of faith " from any quarter, and 
these were usually bearers of letters of 
commendation. It was accounted a dis- 
grace for a Christian to lodge at an inn 
when any Christian lived near by. Many 



HOS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HOU 



travellers still find this virtue freely exer- 
cised in the East. De la Roque mentions 
an incident at the house of a priest in a 
Maronite village who entertained him over 
night. He says, " He gave us a supper 
under the trees before his little dwelling. 
As we were at table there came by a stran- 
ger, wearing a white turban, who, after 
having saluted the company, sat down to 
the table without ceremony, ate with us 
during some time, and then went away, 
repeating several times the name of God. 
They told us it was some traveller who no 
doubt stood in need of refreshment, and 
who had profited by the opportunity, ac- 
cording to the custom of the East, which is 
to exercise hospitality at all times and to- 
wards all persons." 

Says Niebuhr, "When the Arabs are at 
table, they invite those who happen to 
come, to eat with them, whether they be 
Christians or Mohammedans, gentle or sim- 
ple. In the caravans, I have often seen 
with pleasure a mule-driver press those 
who passed to partake of his repast; and 
though the majority politely excused them- 
selves, he gave, with an air of satisfaction, 
to those who would accept of it, a portion - 
of his little meal of bread and dates ; and 
I was not a little surprised when I saw in 
Turkey rich Turks withdraw themselves 
into corners to avoid inviting those who 
might otherwise have sat at table with 
them." 

We notice here also the obligations un- 
derstood to be contracted by the intercourse 
of the table. Niebuhr says, " When a Bed- 
ouin sheikh eats bread with strangers, they 
may trust his fidelity and depend on his 
protection. A traveller will always do well 
therefore to take an early opportunity of 
securing the friendship of his guide by a 
meal." This brings to recollection the 
complaint of the Psalmist, Psa. 41 :g, pene- 
trated with the deep ingratitude of one 
whom he describes as having been his own 
familiar friend, in whom he trusted, " who 
did eat of my bread, even he hath lifted 
up his heel against me." 

HOST, I., a hospitable entertainer, Rom. 
16:23, or an inn-holder, Luke 10:35. 

II. An army. See War. The "host of 
heaven" is the sun, moon, and stars like 
an army in array, Gen. 2:1; Deut. 4:19. 
Compare Deborah's words in Judg. 5:20. 
The host of heaven was worshipped by 
most of the nations in the East, and by the 
Israelites in their days of apostasy, 2 Kin. 
17:16; 21:3, 5; 23:5; Jer. 19:13; Zeph. 1:5; 

16 



Acts 7:42. "Jehovah of hosts" is Lord of 
the starry heavens, the heaven of heavens, 
and all the legions they contain. 

HOUGH (pronounced hock), to disable 
by hamstringing, or cutting the cords of 
the hind legs, Josh. 11:6,9; 2 Sam. 8:4. 

HOUR, sometimes a short indeterminate 
time, Dan. 3:6; 4:19, 33; Matt. 9:22; John 
7:30; sometimes a determined season, 
Luke 22:53 ; John 2:4 ; 4:21, 23 ; and some- 
times one of the 12 portions into which 
daily time was divided, Acts 5:7; 19:34. 
Though the Egyptians very early divided 
the day and the night each into 12 equal 
portions, the Hebrews did not : but em- 
ployed 3 general divisions — " evening," 
"morning," and "noon" — Psa. 55:17, and 
further divided the day into unequal sec- 
tions, as the Arabs now do. The Babylo- 
nians divided the day into 12 equal parts 
or hours, and afterwards the Greeks, and 
the Jews at or before the Captivity. This 
was the custom in our Lord's time, John 
11:9, reckoning the hours from sunrise to 
sunset — the 3d, 6th, and 9th hours answer- 
ing nearly to our 9 o'clock a. m., noon, and 
3 o'clock p. m. ; and these, according to 
Josephus, were the appointed "hours of 
prayer." See Acts 3:1; 10:9, 30. By the 
Romans the hours were reckoned from 
midnight to noon, and again from noon to 
midnight ; and this is thought by some com- 
mentators to have been the method used 
by John in his gospel, 1:39; 4:6. This 
assumption would harmonize John 19:14, 
where Jesus is said to have been delivered 
to the Jews by Pilate at "about the 6th 
hour " — 6 a. m. — with the statements of the 
evangelists that the crucifixion took place 
at "the 3d hour" — by Jewish reckoning 9 
a. m., and the darkening of the sun from 
the 6th to the 9th hour, 12 to 3 p. m., Matt. 
27:45; Mark 15:33; Luke 23:44, time being 
allowed for delay in going to Calvary, and 
erecting and occupying the other crosses. — 
Scripture hours being counted from sun- 
rise to sunset, of course varied in length 
in winter and summer. The astronomical 
hour, or 24th part of a civil day, did not 
come into general use till towards the 
end of the fourth century. " The eleventh 
hour," ending with sunset, became a pro- 
verbial expression for lateness, Matt. 20:1- 
10. The night was divided into Watches. 
(See.) It is not known by what means the 
Jews determined the length of their hours, 
but some kind of a dial, with careful divis- 
ions no doubt, for the hours of sunshine, 
existed in Ahaz's time, Isa. 38:8; and they 

241 



HOU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HOU 



probably had the clepsydra, or water time- 
piece, and other contrivances known to 
Persians, Greeks, and Romans. 

HOUSE. The difference between tents 
and permanent dwellings appears very 
early, Gen. 4:17, 20, and a high degree of 
constructive skill had been attained before 
the time of the ark and the tower of Babel, 
Gen. 6:14-16; 11:3-5. Abraham and his 
near descendants dwelt in tents, Heb. 11:9, 
but at the time of the Exodus the Hebrews 
occupied houses, Exod. 12:7, as did the 
Canaanites whom they dispossessed, Deut. 
6:10, 11, having long lived in cities, like the 
Assyrians and Egyptians, Gen. 10:10-12, 
19. The mode of building in the East 
seems to have been much the same from 
the earliest ages, as the houses shown in 
Egyptian and Assyrian records accord 
nearly with those now in use. The ruins 
of ancient cities show only the more sub- 
stantial public buildings. 

The rural poor live in huts of sun-burnt 
brick or mud, usually of one story and 
often with but one apartment— which in 



some cases holds the cattle as well as the 
family, 1 Sam. 28:24. The windows are 
small and high, and sometimes with wood- 
en gratings ; the roofs, reached by a ladder 
outside, are flat, a thick plaster of mud and 
straw laid upon boughs, and booths of 
boughs or rushes are often erected on them 
for sleeping-places. In parts of Arabia 
and Syria stone is abundant, and is used 
for the houses of the poor. Their dwell- 
ings in towns are similar, though some- 
times they have more than one story, a bet- 
ter roof, and a shaded platform in front. 
Such huts afford shelter for vermin and 
serpents, Amos 5:19, and may easily be 
"dug through," Job 24:16; Ezek. 12:5-7; 
Matt. 6:19, 20; under the wind and rain 
they soon melt away if deserted, Job 15:28, 
illustrating the frailty of human life, Job 
4: 19, and of delusive teachings and ground- 
less hopes, Ezek. 13:10-16; compare Matt. 
7:24^27. See Inns. 

Houses of a better class, of which there 
are many grades, Jer. 22:14, are usually 
built in the form of a hollow square with 




INTERIOR OF AN 

an open " court " or yard " in the midst," 
2 Sam. 4:6; Luke 5: 19. The materials used 
are brick and stone, sometimes marble, 
2 Sam. 12:31; 1 Chr. 29:2; Jer. 43:9; Amos 
5:11; Nah. 3 : 14, wood being used for floors, 
ceilings, and doors. Cramp-irons anciently 
held the great blocks of stone together, and 
tiles were united by mud or mortar. The 
outer or street wall of an Eastern house 
looks gloomy and inhospitable, having only 
a door and a projecting window or two, 
242 



ANCIENT HOUSE. 

with closely-latticed casements opened only 
on public occasions, 2 Kin. 9:30-33. See 
Lattice. The door, usually locked and 
attended by a porter, Acts 12: 13, opens into 
a porch containing benches for the ser- 
vants. Passing through the porch one en- 
ters the court, which is commonly paved, 
sometimes with costly mosaic, and often 
contains a well or fountain, 2 Sam. 17:18, 
with vines or trees, Psa. 52:8; 92:13. In 
hot weather it may be covered with an 



HOU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HOU 



awning; compare the description of the 
heavens in Psa. 104:2. The wealthy spare 
no pains to render the court a delightful 
place of resort in summer. Here guests 
are received, and at a wedding, etc., Esth. 
1:5, it is furnished with carpets, rugs, di- 
vans, flowers, etc. The appearance of a 
deserted, court is described in Isa. 34:13. 
Some of our Saviour's discourses were 
probably delivered in the courts of large 
houses. The stairs leading to the upper 
story, if there is one, and to the roof, open 
on a corner of the court, or on the porch. 
The court is surrounded by a colonnade or 
veranda several feet deep, over which, in 
houses of more than one story, is a gallery 
of the same dimensions, bordered by a bal- 
ustrade or lattice-work. Spacious cham- 
bers communicate with the verandas, by 
open fronts, by arches, or by doors, in this 
case receiving light and air from the court 
by windows. These rooms do not com- 
municate with each other, except by the 
veranda. On the ground floor facing the 
entrance into the court there is generally 
a "guest-chamber," Luke 22:11, where the 
master of the house receives his friends ; 
it often has a portion of its floor lower than 
the rest and paved with tiles, with fre- 
quently a fountain in the centre. Around 
the 3 inner sides of the room is a raised 
platform with divans, which are seats by 
day and beds at night, there being usually 
no special bedrooms. The host retains a 
corner seat of the divan as a place of honor. 
The guests remove their sandals before 
stepping on the platform, Exod. 3:5; Josh. 
5:15; Luke 7:38. The ceiling is often richly 
wainscoted and painted, inlaid, or adorned 
with stucco, Jer. 22:14; Hag. 1:4, and the 
walls are similarly ornamented, sometimes 
with hangings. See Ivory. Some of the 
other rooms on the ground-floor are used 
as store-rooms, and others are for servants 
and guests. Many houses have more than 
one court, some in Damascus as many as 7. 
When there are 2, the master has his pri- 
vate rooms opening on the inner court, on 
which also open the rooms of the women of 
the family, the "harem," secluded, 1 Kin. 
7:8; Esth. 2:3, which no man but the mas- 
ter may enter— though in Israel the women 
enjoyed much greater freedom than mod- 
ern Orientals. Much expense is lavished 
on these apartments, which are perhaps 
referred to under the name of " palaces," 
1 Kin. 16:18; 2 Kin. 15:25; Isa. 34:13. In 
this inner court it is usual to have a foun- 
tain and basin of water, 2 Sam. 11:2. If 



there is but one court, the females are 
lodged in a separate building, or in an up- 
per story — where also in fine houses the 
rooms are spacious and furnished with 
mats, divans, and curtains, and considered 
more desirable than the lower rooms. 
There is often another "guest-chamber" 
on the upper floor. Some houses have 3 
stories, Acts 20:9, or even more. The up- 
per story often projects over the lower, 
and through the lattice of a window thus 
overhanging the street Ahaziah seems to 
have fallen, 2 Kin. 1:2. A structure called 
aliyyah is sometimes annexed to a house, 
often over the porch, communicating with 
the gallery of the main building by a door, 
or with the porch by private stairs, and 
containing but one or two rooms, devoted 
to the entertainment of visitors, or for re- 
tirement, Matt. 6:6. Its roof was more 
secluded than the main roof. In such a 
structure may have been Eglon's summer- 
chamber, Judg. 3:20-23, David's retiring- 
place, 2 Sam. 18:33, Elijah's loft, 1 Kin. 
17:19, Elisha's little chamber, 2 Kin. 4:10, 
and Ahaz's upper chamber, 2 Kin. 23:12. 

The roof, or housetop, is reached by out- 
side stairs from the porch or the court, 
Matt. 24:17; 2 Kin. 9:13. The roof is usu- 
ally flat, though modern houses sometimes 
have domes over upper rooms to enlarge 
them. A common mode of construction is 
to lay beams about 3 feet apart, lay across 
these shorter sticks or thorn-bushes, and 
cover the whole with a kind of cement. 
Stone rollers are kept on many roofs to 
pack them when they crack and leak, Prov. 
27:15. Or the coating may be mainly of 
hardened earth, upon which grass grows 
in the spring rains, but soon withers in the 
sun, Psa. 129:6, 7; Isa. 37:27. In some 
places the roof-floor is of stone or brick. 
A wall or parapet guards the sides, often 
so low that a person can easily pass from 
house to house over a whole row. The 
wall overlooking the court is always breast- 
high, but is sometimes only a balustrade or 
lattice-work, though the Israelites were by 
law required to make their roofs safe, Deut 
22:8. These were much frequented for va- 
rious purposes — such as drying linen, corn, 
flax, figs, and raisins, Josh. 2:6; conver- 
sing, 1 Sam. 9:25, and sleeping, ver. 26 — 
where Samuel "called to Saul upon the 
house-top." Roofs were used for idola- 
trous worship, 2 Kin. 23:12; Jer. 19:13; 
32:29; Zeph. 1:5, for lamentation in time 
of public calamity, Isa. 15:3; Jer. 48:38, 
for public proclamations, Matt. 10:27, f° r 

243 



HOU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HUM 



observation in time of danger, 2 Sam. 
18:24; I sa - 22:1, and for prayer, Acts 10:9. 
Booths were erected on them at the Feast 



of Tabernacles, Neh. 8:16. The doors of 
Eastern houses were hung in a peculiar 
way. See Hinge. A fire was sometimes 




ANCIENT APARTMENT 

made with wood in the open court, Luke 
22:55, or rooms were warmed by charcoal 
in a portable furnace, the "hearth " of Jer. 
36:22. Chimneys were unknown, and the 
smoke escaped by holes in the wall, Hos. 
13:3. The kitchen is in the inner court, if 
there are 2, and contains a raised platform 
of brick, with holes in it for fire, like the 
"boiling-places" of Ezek. 46:23. There 
were sometimes special apartments in large 
houses for summer and winter, Jer. 36:22; 
Amos 3:15. In Jerusalem some houses 
have no less than 4 cisterns, cut in the 
limestone rock, 2 Kin. 18:31 ; into these the 
rain-water is conducted from the roof. 
Great care was, and still is, taken in pre- 
paring the foundations of fine houses, 1 Kin. 
5: 17, digging many feet to reach solid rock, 
whence arches are built up to the surface, 
Luke 6:48. A new house was dedicated 
by its owner, Deut. 20:5. 

" House " sometimes denotes a family, 
Gen. 12:17; Exod. 1:21; property, 1 Kin. 
13:8; the earthly and the spiritual body, 
Eccl. 12; 2 Cor. 5:1; the grave, Job 30 : 23 ; 
Isa. 14:18; the tabernacle, Exod. 23:19; 
the church, 1 Tim. 3:15; and heaven, John 
14:2. 

"House of the rolls" and "treasure- 
house," the depository of public archives, 
Ezra 6:1 ; 5: 17. 

"House of God," in Judg. 20:18, 26, 27; 
21:2, means Bethel, where the ark of God 
tarried for some time. See Bethel. 

HUK'KOK, incised, in the boundary of 
244 



Jpr>&_ 



WITH STONE CEILING. 

Naphtali, Josh. 19:34; now Yakuk, west of 
the Sea of Galilee, 7 miles south of Safed. 

HUL'DAH, weasel, wife of Shallum, a 
prophetess in the reign of Josiah, consult- 
ed respecting the denunciations in the new- 
found copy of the Book of the Law, 2 Kin. 
22:14-20; 2 Chr. 34:22-28, B. C. 623. See 
College. 

HUMIL'ITY (from the Latin humus, the 
ground), low-mindedness, a proper charac- 
teristic of all created beings, and possessed 
by all the holy, whether unfallen or re- 
deemed, Isa. 6:2,3; Rev - 4:8-11; 7:9-12. 
As a Christian grace it is wrought in the re- 
newed heart by the Holy Spirit. It springs 
from a realization of one's personal weak- 
ness, unworthiness, and sinfulness, and 
one's obligation to the grace of God for any 
good ; and results in not thinking of one's 
self more highly than he ought, Luke 17: 10; 
Rom. 12:3; Phil. 2:3, 4, giving all glory to 
God, 1 Cor. 4:7; 2 Cor. 3: 5, and submitting 
one's self to him. As a recognition of need 
it is indispensable to acceptance with him, 
and to growth in holiness. Hence it is re- 
quired by God, Mic. 6:8, has the promise of 
his blessing, Isa. 57:15; 1 Pet. 5=5, is urged 
by Christ as indispensable to his followers, 
Matt. 18:4; Luke 18:14; Col. 3:12, and rec- 
ommended by his example, John 13:4-17; 
Phil. 2:5-8. Punishment is threatened for 
its opposite, pride, which is an abomination 
to God, Isa. 2:11-17; Prov. 16:5. There is 
an affected and false humility, which is a 
veil for spiritual pride— a voluntary self- 



HUN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HUS 



subjection to things not commanded of God, 
accompanied by a depreciation and neglect 
of Christ. Against this we are warned, 
Col. 2:18-23. 

HUNT'ING. The Scripture account of 
primeval men exhibits them not as mere 
savages, subsisting by the chase, but as 
living an agricultural and pastoral life, 
dwelling in cities, and skilled in various 
arts, Gen. 2:15; 4:2, 17, 20-22; 5:29. It is 
not known that the use of animal food was 
customary before the flood, but Noah was 
permitted to make use of the beasts, both 
domestic and wild, for food, after draining 
off the blood, Gen. 9:2-4. Nimrod was " a 
mighty hunter," Gen. 10:9, also Esau, Gen. 
25:27, 28; 27:3, 4; but in general the patri- 
archs seem to have lived a quiet pastoral 
and agricultural life, Gen. 9:20; 13:2; 
26:12-14; 37:2-7. In Egypt, as the monu- 
ments show, hunting was pursued as a 
sport, hounds and the lasso being employed. 
When the Israelites conquered Canaan, the 
expulsion of the heathen was to be grad- 
ual, to guard against an undue increase of 
wild beasts, Exod. 23:27-30. Afterwards 
hunting was practised, both of edible ani- 
mals, Lev. 17:13; 25:7; Prov. 12:17, and of 
wild beasts: we read of animals of the an- 
telope and deer kinds, Deut. 12:15; 1 Kin. 
4:23, and of lions and bears, Judg. 14:5; 
1 Sam. 17:34; 2 Kin. 2:24, jackals, Judg. 
15:4, and foxes, Song 2:15.— The methods 
of hunting were various : bows and arrows 
were used, Gen. 27:3, large animals, like 
the lion, were taken in a pit dug for the 
purpose, 2 Sam. 23:20; Ezek. 19:4-8; some 
being driven between nets inclosing a wide 
region, converging and ending in a capa- 
cious pit. Traps of several kinds were 
used, some lying in the ground in the ani- 
mals' run, and catching them by the foot, 
Job 18 : 9, 10 ; Prov. 22 : 5. Birds were caught 
by a net stretched over a frame, or held 
open by a stick so placed as to give way at 
a touch, Amos 3:5; by a snare to entangle 
the leg, Job 18:10; Psa. 140:5; and by a 
trap containing a decoy bird, Jer. 5:26, 27. 
The Assyrian and Babylonian monuments 
show wild-bulls and lions hunted by kings 
on horseback and in chariots. War is spo- 
ken of under the image of hunting, Jer. 
16:16. 

HUR, a hole, a chief man among the He- 
brews in the desert, associated with Aaron 
in upholding the hands of Moses at Rephi- 
dim, and in supplying his place while on 
the summit of Sinai, Exod. 17:10, 12; 24:14. 

Four other men of this name are men- 



tioned, Exod. 31:2; Num. 31:8; 1 Kin. 4:8; 
Neh. 3:9. 

HU'RAM. See Hiram. 

HUS'BAND, a man betrothed, Matt. 1 :i6, 
19, as well as one actually married, be- 
trothal being held to be inviolable. 

HUS'BANDMAN, a cultivator of the 
ground, an ancient and honorable occupa- 
tion, Gen. 2:15; 9:20. God is so styled, 
John 15:1; compare Isa. 5:1-7, a figure 
which well represents his assiduous care 
for his people — his vineyard, branches of 
his Vine, Christ — and his plot of tilled 
ground, his "husbandry," 1 Cor. 3:9. 

HU'SHAI, haste, the Archite, perhaps a 
citizen of Archi, Josh. 16:2. See 2 Sam. 
1 5 : 3 2 ~37', 16:16-19; I 7: x Kin. 4 :l6 ; 1 Chr. 
27:33. He was David's friend or compan- 
ion, and probably an aged man, since 
David suggested that he would be a " bur- 
den " to him in fleeing from Absalom, com- 
pare 2 Sam. 19:35, but might do him valu- 
able service as an adviser of Absalom. 
God did not sanction the deceitful policy 
of David and Hushai, yet he allowed Absa- 
lom's hypocrisy and treachery to be pun- 
ished by like sins in Hushai. 




HUSKS, Luke 15:16, the fruit of the ca- 
rob-tree, Ceratonia Siliqua, a handsome 
evergreen common in the countries bor- 
dering on the Mediterranean. It attains a 
height of from 20 to 30 feet, and has clus- 
ters of dark red blossoms, which mature 

245 



HUZ 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HYS 



into flat brown pods 6 to 10 inches long 
and an inch or more wide. They resem- 
ble the pods of the American locust-tree, 
which is of the same family. From their 
curved shape came their Greek name kera- 
tia, "little horns." The pods contain a 
number of small flat seeds imbedded in a 
sweet nutritious pulp. In their native lands 
they are a chief food of cattle, and much 
used by the poor. From the erroneous 
idea that they were the " locusts " on which 
John the Baptist subsisted, they are often 
called St. John's bread. 

HUZ'ZAB, Nah. 2:7, A. V., often regard- 
ed as a queen of Nineveh. But most mod- 
ern scholars reject this opinion. Rawlin- 
son thinks the fertile " Zab country," on 
the river so called 12 centuries before 
Christ, may be intended, as a representa- 
tive of all Assyria. Others interpret it as 
in the A. V. margin, "it is decreed," i. <?., 
Nineveh's fall; or, connecting it with the 
preceding verse and a different Hebrew 
verb, "shall flow away," i. e., the palace, 
ver. 6. 

HYMENjE'US, pertaining to marriage, a 
member of the church, probably at Ephe- 
sus, who fell into great errors of principle 
and practice, 1 Tim. 1 :2o, and was " deliv- 
ered unto Satan" by Paul. The expres- 
sion probably denotes ecclesiastical excom- 
munication, and the infliction, through the 
permitted agency of Satan, of some bodily 
infirmity, intended for the sufferer's spirit- 
ual profit; compare Job 1:6-12; Matt. 4:1; 
1 Cor. 5:552 Cor. 12:7. Hymenaeus is spo- 
ken of later as still in error, denying the 
resurrection, and corrupting the faith of 
others, 2 Tim. 2:17, 18, having perhaps 
wrested Paul's teachings as to the raising 
of the spirit from the death of sin, Rom. 
6:4; Eph. 2:6; Col. 2:12; 2 Pet. 3:16. 

HYMN, a religious canticle, song, or 
psalm, Eph. 5:19; Col. 3:16. Paul bids 
Christians edify one another with "psalms 
and hymns and spiritual songs." Matthew 
says that Christ and his disciples, having 
supped, sang a hymn— probably a part of 
the Psalms which the Jews used to sing 
during the Passover, which they called the 
Hallel; that is, the Hallelujah Psalms. 
These are Psalms 113-118, of which the 
first 2 are supposed to have been chanted 
before the Passover was eaten, and the 
others afterwards. Paul and Silas sang 
hymns in prison, Acts 16:25, R. V. Pliny 
relates that the early Christians sang hymns 
to Christ as God. 

HYP'OCRITE, one who, like a stage- 
246 



player, feigns to be what he is not. The 
epithet is generally applied to those who 
assume the appearance of virtue or piety, 
without possessing the reality. Our Sa- 
viour accused the Pharisees of hypocrisy, 
Luke 12:1. Besides the self - deceived, 
writers distinguish 4 sorts of hypocrites: 
"worldly," professing religion for selfish 
purposes, Matt. 23:5; "legal," obeying the 
law to merit heaven, without a renewea 
heart, Rom. 10:3; " evangelical," rejoicing 
in the idea that Christ died for them, with- 
out a life that proves a genuine faith, 2 Pet. 
2:20; "enthusiastic," trusting in frames 
and feelings, without the fruits of the Spir- 
it, 2 Cor. 11:13-15. 




THE CAPPARIS SPINOSA, OR CAPER-PLANT. 

HYS'SOP was used in the 1st celebration 
of the Passover, Exod. 12:22, and in the 
ceremonial purifications of the Israelites, 
Lev. 14:4-7,49-52; Num. 19:6, 18, 19; Heb. 
9 : 19-21 ; compare Psa. 51 : 7. It sometimes 
grew on walls, 1 Kin. 4:33. It appears to 
have had a long stem, John 19:29, though 
sprigs of it may have been bound around 
the sponge, and both fastened to a reed or 
stick, Matt. 27 : 48. It was perhaps a spe- 
cies of marjoram, Origanum maru, a plant 
with a strong straight stalk, small downy 
leaves, and a white blossom, with an aro- 
matic odor and a pungent taste, abundant 
in Syria, and sometimes found on the walls 
of terraces. Others have thought that the 
caper-plant was intended, which is found 
in Palestine, grows on walls, has detergent 
qualities, and may furnish a stalk 3 or 4 
feet long. 



IBL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



1DO 



I. 

IB'LEAM, people-waster, a city of Ma- 
nasseh, in the territory of Issachar or Ash- 
er, Josh, 17:11; Judg. 1:27; 2 Kin. 9:27; 

1 Chr. 6:70. Supposed to be Jelama, 2 
miles north of Jenin. 

IB'ZAN, illustrious, the 10th "judge of 
Israel," born at Bethlehem in Zebulun. 
He held office 7 years, and was noted for 
his large and prosperous family, B. C. 1182, 
Judg. 12:8. 

ICH'ABOD, Where is the glory? a son of 
Phinehas, and grandson of Eli, both of 
whom, and his mother also, died on the 
day of his birth, 1 Sam. 4: 19-22; 14:3. 

ICO'NIUM, a large and opulent city of 
Asia Minor, generally assigned by ancient 
writers to Lycaonia, but by some to Phry- 
gia or Pisidia. It was at the foot of the 
Taurus range, surrounded by mountains 
except on the east, where was a large and 
fertile plain. Lying on the great Roman 
highway that connected Ephesus with Tar- 
sus, Antioch, and the East, and at the in- 
tersection of several important roads, it 
was a favorable centre for the spread of 
the gospel, which was preached here by 
Paul and Barnabas, A. D. 45, on Paul's 1st 
missionary journey, Acts 13:51. He made 
many converts, both Jews and Greeks, but 
the unbelievers not only expelled him, but 
pursued him to Lystra, Acts 14:1-6, 19; 

2 Tim. 3:11. Paul, however, revisited the 
city later, Acts 14:21. On his 2d circuit, 
with Silas, A. D. 51, he seems to have been 
again at Iconium, Acts 16 : 1-3, and associ- 
ated Timothy with him ; also again on his 
3d circuit, Acts 18:23. The church thus 
planted flourished until extinguished by 
the persecutions of the Saracens, and later 
of the Seljukian Turks, whose sultans re- 
sided at Iconium and surrounded it with 
strong walls, still standing, and 108 square 
towers. It is now called Konieh, and is 
the capital of Caramania, having a popula- 
tion of 30,000, composed of Turks, Arme- 
nians, Greeks, and Jews. 

ID'DO, timely, I., a prophet of Judah, who 
prophesied against Jeroboam, and wrote 
the histories of Rehoboam and Abijah, 2 Chr. 
9:29; 12:15; 13:22; identified by Josephus 
and others with the prophet sent to Jerobo- 
am at Bethel, and killed by a lion, 1 Kin. 13 ; 
but this is a mere conjecture.— II. Grand- 
father of the prophet Zechariah, Zech. 1:1, 
7; compare Ezra 5:1; 6:14. He returned 
from Babylon with Zerubbabel, Neh. 12:4, 
16.— III. 1 Kin. 4:14.— IV. A Levite, 1 Chr. 



6 : 21 . — V. Mishap, Ezra 8 : 17-20. B. C. 459-— 
VI. Lovely, 1 Chr. 27:21. B. C. 1014. Three 
different words in Hebrew are translated 
alike in English, meaning as above. 

I'DLE, in Matt. 12:36, means empty and 
fruitless. The "idle word" which Christ 
condemns is a word morally useless and 
evil. 

I'DOL, IDOL'ATRY. The word idol sig- 
nifies literally a representation or figure. 
It is always employed in Scripture in a bad 
sense, for representations of heathen dei- 
ties of what nature soever. In many pas- 
sages idols are called devils, Lev. 17:7; 
Deut. 32:17; 2 Chr. 11:15; Psa. 106:37; 
1 Cor. 10:20; Rev. 9:20. God forbids all 
sorts of idols, or figures and representa- 




THE IDOL JUGGERNAUT. 

tions of creatures, formed or set up with 
intention of paying superstitious worship 
to them, Exod. 20:3-5; 34:13; Deut. 4:16- 
1 9', 7 :2 5, 26. He also forbids all attempts 
to represent him by any visible form, Exod. 
32:4,5; Deut. 4:15; Neh. 9:18. 

The heathen had idols of all sorts — paint- 
ings, bas-reliefs, and all varieties of sculp- 
ture — and these of many kinds of materi- 
als, as gold, silver, brass, stone, wood, pot- 
ter's earth, etc. Stars, spirits, men, ani- 
mals, rivers, plants, and elements were the 
subjects of them. Scarcely an object or 
power in nature, scarcely a faculty of the 
soul, a virtue, a vice, or a condition of 
human life, has not received idolatrous 
worship. See Stars. Some nations wor- 
shipped a rough stone. Such is the black 
stone of the ancient Arabs, retained by 
Mohammed, and now kept in the Caaba at 
Mecca. 

It is impossible to ascertain the period at 
247 



IDO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



IDO 



which the worship of false gods and idols 
was introduced. No mention is made of 




THE HINDOO IDOL PULLIAR. 

such worship before the deluge; though 
from the silence of Scripture we cannot 
argue that it did not exist. Josephus and 
many of the fathers were of opinion that 
soon after the deluge idolatry became prev- 
alent; and certainly, wherever we turn our 
eyes after the time of Abraham, we see 
only a false worship. That patriarch's 
forefathers, and even he himself, were im- 
plicated in it, as is evident from Josh. 
24:2, 14. 

The Hebrews had no peculiar form of 
idolatry; they imitated the superstitions of 
others, but do not appear to have been 
the inventors of any. When they were in 
Egypt, many of them worshipped Egyptian 
deities, Ezek. 20:8; in the wilderness they 
worshipped those of the Canaanites, Egyp- 
tians, Ammonites, and Moabites ; in con- 
quered Canaan, those of the Phoenicians, 
Syrians, and other people around them, 
Num. 25; Judg. 10:6; Amos 5:26; Acts 7:43. 
Rachel, it may be, had adored idols at her 
father Laban's, since she carried off his 
teraphim, Gen. 31:19, 30. Jacob, after his 
return from Mesopotamia, required his peo- 
ple to reject the strange gods from among 
them, and also the superstitious pendants 
worn by them in their ears, which he hid 
under a terebinth near Shechem, Gen. 
35:2-4. He preserved his family in the 
worship of God while he lived. 

Under the government of the judges, 
" the children of Israel did evil in the sight 
248 



of the Lord, and served Baalim. They for- 
sook the Lord God of their fathers, and fol- 
lowed other gods— of the gods of the people 
that were round about them ; and they for- 
sook the Lord, and served Baal and Ashta- 
roth," Judg. 2 : 1 1-13. Gideon, after he had 
been favored by God with a miraculous 
deliverance, made an ephod, which en- 
snared the Israelites in unlawful worship, 
Judg. 8:27. Micah's teraphim also were 
the objects of idolatrous worship till the 
captivity of Israel under the Philistines, 
Judg. 17:5; 18:30,31; 1 Sam. 4. See Ter- 
aphim. 

During the times of Samuel, 1 Sam. 7:3, 
4, Saul, and David, the worship of God 
seems to have been preserved compara- 
tively pure in Israel, though, judging from 
the presence of " teraphim " in the home of 
the daughter of Saul and wife of David, 
1 Sam. 19:13, some veneration for these 
images then existed. Solomon, seduced by 
complaisance to his strange wives, caused 
temples to be erected in honor of Ashto- 
reth goddess of the Phoenicians, Moloch 
god of the Ammonites, and Chemosh god 
of the Moabites. His son and successor in 
Judah, Rehoboam, continued the worship 
of heathen divinities, 1 Kin. 14:21-24; and 
Jeroboam, king of the northern tribes, set 
up golden calves at Dan and Bethel, and 
made Israel to sin, 1 Kin. 12 : 20, 26-33. The 
people, no longer restrained by royal au- 
thority, worshipped not only these golden 
calves, but many other idols, particularly 
Baal and Ashtoreth. Under the reign of 
Ahab, idolatry reached its height. The 
impious Jezebel endeavored to extinguish 
the worship of the Lord, by persecuting his 
prophets (who, as a barrier, still retained 
some of the people in the true religion), till 
God, incensed at their idolatry, abandoned 
Israel to the kings of Assyria and Chal- 
daea, who transplanted them beyond the 
Euphrates. Judah was almost equally cor- 
rupted. The descriptions given by the 
prophets of their irregularities and idola- 
tries, of their abominations and lascivious - 
ness on the high places and in woods con- 
secrated to idols, and of their human sac- 
rifices, fill us with dismay, and unveil the 
awful corruption of the heart of man. See 
Moloch. The tendency to idolatry was 
not wholly eradicated by the severe disci- 
pline of the Babylonish Captivity. Many 
of the Hebrews, even priests and Levites, 
after the return married heathen women 
and followed them in their abominations ; 
yet they repented at the remonstrance of 



IDO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



IDU 



Ezra, Ezra 9; 10. Later, at the time of 
Antiochus Epiphanes, B. C. 167, we find 
some of the Jews apostatizing to Greek 
idolatry, voluntarily or under compulsion, 
though many remained faithful to their 
God, 1 Mace. 1 ; 2. Even in the army of 
the noble Judas Maccabeus, men were 
found who engaged in idolatrous practi- 
ces, 2 Mace. 12:39, 40. The sufferings in- 
flicted on the Jews by heathen persecu- 
tors, and the knowledge of the Scriptures 
gained by their perusal in the synagogues 
every Sabbath, Acts 15:21, at length ban- 
ished all forms of heathen idolatry, and 
made them abhor the images adored by 
their Roman masters. 

As the maintenance of the worship of 
the only true God was one of the funda- 
mental objects of the Mosaic polity, and as 
God was regarded as the king of the Isra- 
elitish nation, so we find idolatry, that is, 
the worship of other gods, occupying, in 
the Mosaic law, the first place in the list 
of crimes. The only living and true God 
was also the civil legislator and ruler of Is- 
rael, and accepted by them as their king ; 
and hence idolatry was a crime against 
the state, and therefore just as deservedly 
punished with death as high treason is in 
modern times. By the Mosaic law an 
idolater was to be stoned to death, and an 
idolatrous city must be wholly destroyed, 
with all it contained, Deut. 13:12-18; 17:2- 
5. Another aspect of the idolatry of Israel 
is that of adultery against Jehovah, who 
represents himself as the Husband of his 
chosen race, Isa. 54 : 5 ; Jer. 3 ; Ezek. 16. 
By the Mosaic law this crime also was pun- 
ished with death. 

Of the 19 Hebrew words translated 
" idol " or " image " in A. V., many express 
in the original the foolishness of idolatry, 
the abhorrence against it which should ex- 
ist, the shame connected with its rites and 
in which it involves its votaries, and the 
suffering consequent upon its practice. Its 
folly is graphically set forth in Isa. 40:18- 
20; 44:9-20; Jer. 10:2-16; and its unrea- 
sonableness and immorality by Paul in 
Rom. 1 : 18-32. John warns the Christians 
against every form of it, 1 John 5:21, and 
announces the terrible doom of idolaters, 
Rev. 21:8. 

At the present day idolatry prevails over 
a great portion of the earth, and is prac- 
tised by about 800,000,000, or nearly two- 
thirds, of the human race. In some lands 
professedly Christian, it is to be feared that 
the adoration of crucifixes and paintings 



is nothing more nor less than idol-worship. 
But as idolatry consists not merely in the 
external worship of false gods, but in the 
preference of and devotion to something 
else than the Most High, many in Chris- 
tian lands must fall under this charge. 
Whoever loves this world, or the pursuits 
of wealth or honor or ambition, or selfish- 
ness in any form, and for these forgets or 
neglects God and Christ, such a one is an 
idolater as truly as the ancient Israelites, 
and cannot hope to escape an awful con- 
demnation, 1 Sam. 15:23; Col. 3:5. 

IDUMiE'A, Isa. 34:5, 6, in Hebrew E'dom, 
and so usually rendered in the A. V. Idu- 
maea originally extended from the southern 
extremity of the Dead Sea to the Gulf of 
Akaba, and from the Arabah valley on the 
west to the Arabian desert on the east, 100 
miles by 20. At a later period a portion of 
Southern Palestine and the adjacent region 
of Arabia Petraea was won by the Edom- 
ites, Ezek. 36:5; 1 Mace. 5:65; Mark 3:8. 
The original Edom is a rugged mountain 
district whose highest elevation, 3,000 feet, 
is a limestone range on the east, bordering 
the Arabian plateau, into which it gently 
sinks; limestone hills skirt the Arabah 
valley on the west, and the mid-chain is 
formed of porphyritic rocks surmounted 
by sandstone. Abrupt cliffs and deep ra- 
vines abound, and the sandstone portion is 
gorgeously colored with yellow, pink, blue, 
purple, and brown, a deep crimson pre- 
dominating — whence the name of Edom, 
red, was readily transferred to his land. 
In the valleys and on the broad heights 
grass, flowers, and trees grow luxuriantly, 
nourished by many springs and a fertile 
soil. Gen. 27:39; Num. 20:17; and crops of 
grain are raised by the fellahin or semi- 
Bedouin peasants. The chief cities were 
Bozrah, the ancient capital, Elath, Maon, 
Ezion-geber, and the later capital Sela. 
(See.) The country is now divided into 2 
provinces, the northern called Jebal, per- 
haps the ancient Gebal, the southern Esh- 
Sherah. The prophecies which foretold 
the destruction of Edom have been stri- 
kingly fulfilled, as every traveller testifies. 
See Jer. 49:7-22; Ezek. 25:12-14; 35:3~ I 5- 
The ruins of many cities are visible, and a 
few villages are inhabited by the fellahin 
who cultivate the soil ; and hordes of tur- 
bulent Bedouins roam through the region. 

Dwelling " in the clefts of the rocks " here 
were first the Horites, Gen. 14:6, whose 
ancestor Seir gave it its name Mount Seir, 
rugged, Gen. 36:20-30. The Horites were 

249 



1DU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



IMA 



probably cave-dwellers, and cave-dwellings 
abound in Southern Edom. They were 
dispossessed by Esau, Gen. 32:3; 36:1, 8, 
9; Deut. 2:5, 12, 22. The " dukes" of Idu- 
maea were probably much the same as the 
Bedouin sheikhs of modern times, and also 
acknowledged the supremacy of an emir or 
king, Gen. 36:31-43; Exod. 15:15; Num. 
20:14. The enmity of Jacob and Esau was 
perpetuated in their descendants. On Is- 
rael's approach from the west, the Edom- 
ites refused a peaceful passage through 
their country, Num. 20:14-21, but after- 
wards granted it, Deut. 2:28, 29. Israel 
was commanded to preserve friendly rela- 
tions with them, Deut. 2:4-7; 23:7. Yet 
hostilities seemed inevitable. Saul warred 
with them, 1 Sam. 14:47; David subdued 
them, 2 Sam. 8:14; 1 Kin. 11:15; 1 Chr. 
18:11-13, fulfilling Isaac's prophecy, Gen. 
27:29. Under Hadad they revolted against 
Solomon, 1 Kin. 11:14-22, but helped Isra- 
el and Judah against Moab, 2 Kin. 3. They 
joined other enemies of Judah against Je- 
hoshaphat, 2 Chr. 20:1, 10, 11; Psa. 83:6, 
but were miraculously overthrown, 2 Chr. 
20:14-29, and subjected to Judah, 1 Kin. 
22:47. In the reign of Jehoram they as- 
serted their independence, 2 Kin. 8:20-22; 
2 Chr. 21:8, 10, fulfilling Isaac's 2d proph- 
ecy, Gen. 27:40. Amaziah chastised them, 
and took Sela, 2 Kin. 14:7; 2 Chr. 25:10, 
12, but adopted their idolatry, ver. 14, 20. 
They were successful against Judah in the 
days of Ahaz, 2 Chr. 28: 17, and encouraged 
Nebuchadnezzar against Jerusalem, Psa. 
\yj--7. Punishment for their violence was 
often denounced against them, Joel 3:19; 
A.mos 1 : 1 1 ; Jer. 49 : 17 ; Ezek. 25 : 12-14 ; 35 ; 
Obad. After the taking of Jerusalem, Neb- 
uchadnezzar, according to Josephus, hum- 
bled all the states around Judah, though 
he did not carry them captive, Jer. 27 : 1-11 ; 
Mai. 1:3, 4. Subsequently the Edomites 
seized the southern part of Judah, and were 
succeeded in their proper domain, Mount 
Seir, by the Nabatheans, descendants of 
Nebajoth, son of Ishmael, Gen. 25:13. Thus 
the country between the Arabah valley 
and the Mediterranean, and from Elath 
to Eleutheropolis northwest of Hebron, 
gained the name of Idnmcea. In Edom 
proper the Nabatheans founded the king- 
dom of Arabia Petraea, and were ruled 
by kings, some of whom have the name of 
Aretas, 2 Cor. it :32. The true Idumaeans, 
in the south of Judah, were defeated by 
Judas Maccabeus, and subjugated and for- 
cibly proselyted by John Hyrcanus, B. C. 
250 



130. Antipater, governor of Judaea, B. C. 
47, and his son Herod the Great, were Idu- 
maeans. Twenty thousand Idumaeans were 
invited into Jerusalem previous to its siege 
by Titus, but instead of defending the city 
they gave themselves up to rapine and 
murder. After Edom was conquered by 
the Romans under Trajan, A. D. 105, its 
commerce and wealth increased, roads 
were made to enlarge its old trade be- 
tween India and Persia and the Levant, 
and the wonderful temples, palaces, tombs, 
and stairways of the rock city Petra were 
carved out of the solid cliffs. Christianity 
was planted here, and Petra had its bishop. 
Before, but still more after, the Mohamme- 
dan conquest of Idumaea, its prosperity 
declined and its cities became ruins, as 
had been predicted. The Crusaders pen- 
etrated to Petra, whose site they called 
"the valley of Moses," a name which the 
Arabs retain, Wady Musa. The first mod- 
ern traveller who traversed Idumaea was 
Burckhardt in 1812; he has since been fol- 
lowed by many others, though the work of 
exploration is rendered difficult by the 
rival tribes of warlike Bedouins, who ex- 
act the utmost possible from the traveller 
whom they allow to cross their borders. 

1'IM, ruins, I., Num. 33:45, a shorter form 
of Ije-abarim. — II. Josh. 15 : 29, a town in 
the south of Judah. 

I'JE-ABA'RIM, ruins of the Abarim, Num. 
21:11; 33:44, a station in the border of 
Moab, near Aineh, at the southern end of 
the Abarim range. 

I'JON, ruins, a city of Naphtali, smitten 
by Ben-hadad, 1 Kin. 15:20; 2 Chr. 16:4, 
and by Tiglath-pileser, 2 Kin. 15:29. Its 
site is found in the ruin-covered hill Tell 
Dibbin, on the plain Merj Ayun, not far 
from the river Leontes. 

ILLYR'ICUM, a country of Europe, lying 
east of the Adriatic Sea, north of Epirus, 
and west of Macedonia. It was anciently 
divided into Liburnia, now Croatia, on the 
north, and Dalmatia on the south, which 
still retains its name. See Dalmatia. The 
limits of Illyricum varied much at different 
times. It was reached by Paul, preaching 
the gospel of Christ, and probably trav- 
ersed in part, A. D. 57, Rom. 15:19. 

IM'AGE, I., a pillar erected in honor of 
a false god, or a representation of a god, 
painted, graven, molten, etc., Dan. 3. All 
use of images as objects of religious wor- 
ship was strictly prohibited, Exod. 20:4, 5; 
23:24; Lev. 26:1; Deut. 16:22, and their 
original adoption is condemned as " with- 



IMA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



IMM 



out excuse," Rom. 1:18-23. See Idol. 
The "image of jealousy," Ezek. 8:3, 5, is 
referred to Tammuz in verse 14. The 
" chambers of imagery," Ezek. 8:7-12, had 
their walls covered with idolatrous paint- 
ings, such as are found on the ancient stone 
walls of Egyptian temples and in Assyrian 
ruins. See Nineveh. 

II. Likeness. The "image of God" in 
which man was created, Gen. 1 .26, 27 ; 5:1; 
9:6, was a spiritual, intellectual, and moral 
likeness to the Creator. The traces of this 
image which survive the fall should rebuke 
idolatry, and constrain men to mutual re- 
spect and charity, Acts 17:28, 29; Jas. 3:9, 
10; 1 Pet. 2:17. Adam's posterity are born 
in his fallen and sinful likeness, Gen. 5:3, 
needing to be regenerated by the Holy 
Spirit to the moral likeness of God, " in 
righteousness and true holiness," Eph. 
4:24; Col. 3:10. As all men naturally bear 
the image of the sinful Adam, so all be- 
lievers are moulded into the moral like- 
ness of the 2d Adam, even their bodies 
being destined to bear the likeness of his 
glorified body, Rom. 8:29; 1 Cor. 15:47-49; 
2 Cor. 3:18; Phil. 3:21. Christ is "the 
image of God," 2 Cor. 4:4; Col. 1:15, being 
the same in divine nature and attributes, 
and manifesting "the invisible God" as 
the perfect impress of a seal shows every 
trait of the seal itself, Heb. 1:3. Compare 
John 14:9. 

In Psa. 73:20, "thou shalt despise their 
image," is denoted the unreal and transi- 
tory prosperity of the wicked, which God 
cuts short by death, ver. 3-19. Compare 
Psa. 39:6, where the same word is trans- 
lated "vain show." 

Image-worship— of paintings and carv- 
ings — was borrowed in Christian churches 
from the surrounding heathen customs and 
influence, about the close of the 2d century. 
The innovation was at first strenuously 
resisted by church synods, but so increased 
that it was authorized by the 2d Council of 
Nice, A. D. 787, and in spite of sundry pro- 
tests and laws became general throughout 
the Roman Church after the 9th century. 
Images were rejected, more or less com- 
pletely, by the Reformers of the 16th cen- 
tury. In the Romish Church the Council 
of Trent, A. D. 1545-1563, decreed the re- 
tention of them, and the paying of "due 
honor and veneration" to them, making 
a subtile distinction between this and the 
adoration of the divine or human persons 
thus represented— a distinction not appre- 
ciated by the great mass of worshippers in ' 



that church, nor always even by its theolo- 
gians. Images are now universally used 
*by Papists, often in private worship as well 
as in churches ; by most in a gross breach 
of the 2d commandment, and by the best 
in opposition to both the letter and the 
spirit of the Bible, Exod. 20:4, 5; Deut. 
4:15; John 4:24; Rev. 22:8, 9. 

On Gen. 31:19 see Teraphim. 

IMMAN'UEL, Matt. 1:23; in A. V. EM- 
MANUEL, which see. 

IMMORTAL'ITY, undyingness, in God is 
underived and absolute, " who only hath 
immortality," 1 Tim. 6:16. In creatures it 
is dependent on the Creator's will. The 
immortality of the human soul is argued 
from its boundless desires and capacities, 
its unlimited improvement, its desert of 
punishment or reward here unsatisfied, 
etc. The doctrine has been popularly held 
among almost all nations and tribes, and 
was taught more or less confidently by 
some of the wisest ancient philosophers. 
All arguments for it, however, are unsatis- 
factory without the testimony of Scripture. 
It is sometimes alleged that the Old Testa- 
ment contains no distinct intimations of 
it; but Christ refuted the Sadducees, who 
held that death put an end to man in every 
sense, Matt. 22:23; Acts 23:8, by showing 
from the Old Testament that the dead pa- 
triarchs still lived, Exod. 3:6. The ancient 
Hebrew belief in the continued existence 
of the soul after death is shown in the oft- 
recurring expression, used by God himself, 
"gathered to his people," which evidently 
does not apply to the body, whose burial is 
spoken of in other terms, Gen. 25:8, 9; 
35 :2 9; 49 :2 9> 33', Num. 20:24-26; 27:12, 
13; Deut. 32:50; 34:5, 6. Other declara- 
tions evince the writers' assurance that the 
death of the body did not terminate the 
life of the soul, Psa. 17:15; 73:24-26: Dan. 
12:2, 3. But it was reserved for Christ, by 
his clear and authoritative teachings, rais- 
ing the dead and rising from the dead 
himself, to " bring life and incorruption to 
light," 2 Tim. 1 : 10. He assumed the soul's 
immortality in the parable of the rich man 
and Lazarus, Luke 16:19-31, and predict- 
ed the everlasting woe of the wicked and 
the everlasting blessedness of the right- 
eous, Matt. 25:46; John 5:28, 29. His apos- 
tles, taught by the Holy Spirit, spoke posi- 
tively in terms implying the immortality of 
the soul and the resurrection of the body, 
Acts 7:55-60; 10:42; 1 Cor. 15; 2 Cor. 5:1- 
8; Phil. 1:21-23; 1 Thess. 4:13-18. The 
immortal blessedness of the redeemed is 

251 



IMP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



1NH 



the gift of God through Christ, enjoyed by 
them through their union with him by 
faith, John 10:27, 2 8; II:2 5: Rom. 6:23; 
1 John 5:11-13. The terms rendered in 
the A. V. "immortal" and "immortality" 
are in other passages rightly translated 
"incorruptible" and "incorruption," as 
uniformly in the R. V. 

IMPLEAD', Acts 19:38, prosecute at law. 

IM'POTENT, strengthless, either through 
disease or natural malformation, John 5:3; 
Acts 4:9; 14:8. 

IMPRECA'TION. See Oath. 

IMPUTE', to count or reckon to one — to 
put to his account something that does or 
does not belong personally to him, Num. 
18:27; Psa. 32:2; Phile. 18. Thus the 
righteousness of Christ is put to the ac- 
count of the believer in him, Rom. 3:22; 4 
(where the same verb is translated "im- 
pute," "reckon," and "count"), the sin of 
the believer being put to the account of 
Christ and atoned for by his sacrifice, Isa. 
53:5; Luke 22:37; Rom. 5; 10:4; 1 Cor. 
1:30; 2 Cor. 5: 19-21 ; 1 Pet. 2:24. 

IN'CENSE, the sacred perfume offered to 
God by burning, on the incense-altar. The 
gums which composed it are mentioned in 
Exod. 30:34-38, including salt, if the word 
"tempered" in ver. 35 should read "salt- 
ed," as in the margin. See Frankincense, 
Stacte, Galbanum, Onycha. Incense 
was offered on the incense-altar in the 
holy place every morning and evening, by 
the priests, with fire taken from the altar 
of burnt - offering, Exod. 30:1, 6-8; Luke 
1:9; and on the annual Day of Atonement 
the high-priest burned incense in the holy 
of holies, Lev. 16:12, 13. The offering of 
incense pertained to the priests, the sons 
of Aaron, alone; the Levite Korah, with 
the Reubenites Dathan and Abiram, and 
their followers, were killed, and king Uz- 
ziah was severely punished, for claiming 
this priestly prerogative, Num. 16:1-10, 39, 
40; 2 Chr. 26:16-19. While the officiating 
priest was offering incense, the congrega- 
tion prayed silently in the court without, 
Luke 1 : 10, their prayers ascending with 
the fragrance and smoke of the incense 
until the priest reappeared and gave them 
the blessing, Num. 6:22-27, after which the 
Levites burst into song. Incense is re- 
garded by some as a symbol of prayer, 
Psa. 141:2; Rev. 5:8; but still more aptly 
it represents that which accompanies every 
prayer of faith and makes it acceptable to 
God, namely, the merits of Christ, made 
effectual for the believer's acceptance by 
252 



His propitiatory death — symbolized by the 
burning of incense by fire from the altar of 
burnt-offering. So in Rev. 8:3, 4, "much 
incense" is said to be "added" to the 
"prayers of all the saints." Such prayer 
is to be offered in every place, Mai. 1 : 11. — 
Israel and Judah were reproached by the 
prophets for offering incense to idols, Jer. 
11:12-17; Ezek. 8:11; 16:18. 

The early Christians dropped the offer- 
ing of incense, with the other superseded 
types of the Jewish ritual, and their de- 
fenders claimed that they did not " burn 
incense " like pagans. Later on the prac- 
tice seems to have been adopted under the 
plea of purifying the unwholesome air of 
the places in which persecuted Christians 
assembled for secresy and safety. With 
other superstitious usages derived from 
heathenism, incense-burning became es- 
tablished in the Latin Church by the close 
of the 6th century, and is now universal. 
The gum olibanum is used, or some imita- 
tion of it. 

IN'DIA, Esth. 1:1; 8 : 9, the eastern bound- 
ary of the kingdom of Xerxes ; not the pen- 
insula of Hindostan, but the Punjab or re- 
gion around the Indus, perhaps including 
Scinde— north and west of modern India. 
The people and productions of this region 
must have been known to the Jews, for an 
active trade was often carried on between 
India and Western Asia. The imports of 
Solomon's navy were chiefly of Indian arti- 
cles, 1 Kin. 10:11, 22. 

INDITE', Psa. 45:1, Heb. to bubble up. 

INGATH'ERING, Feast of, Exod. 23:16; 
34:22. See Tabernacles. 

INHERITANCE. The laws of inherit- 
ance among the Hebrews were very sim- 
ple. Land might be mortgaged, but could 
not be alienated, Num. 36:6-9. See Jubi- 
lee. The only permanent right to prop- 
erty was by heritage, or lineal succession. 
The eldest son had a double portion, Deut. 
21:15-17. Females had no territorial pos- 
session; but if a man left no sons, his 
daughters inherited— on condition of their 
marrying into a family within the tribe to 
which their father belonged. If a man had 
no children, his land passed to distant rel- 
atives, according to a law laid down in 
Num. 27:8-11. The law of Moses rendered 
wills unnecessary; they were introduced, 
however, at a later period, Gal. 3 :I 5; Heb - 
9: 17. Property was sometimes distributed 
among children during the lifetime of the 
father : thus in the parable of the prodigal 
son, the father divided his property between 



INI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



INS 



the 2 sons, Luke 15:12. The inheritance 
of the believer in Christ is eternal salva- 
tion, Heb. 1:14; 9:15, and "the kingdom 
of God," Luke 12:32; Jas. 2:5. As a child 
of God, he is an heir, and a joint-heir with 
Christ his elder Brother, Rom. 8:17. 

INIQ'UITY, erring from the law of right 
and of God. To " bear iniquity," means to 
have guilt laid to one's charge, Lev. 5:17; 
16:22; Num. 14:34. The priests were ap- 
pointed thus to assume the guilt of the con- 
gregation and " make atonement for them," 
Lev. 10:17, by the prescribed sacrifices. 



In this the priests were types of Christ, 
Isa. 53:6, 11 ; 1 Pet. 2:24; the completeness 
of their typical assumption of the people's 
sins being symbolized by their eating in 
some cases of the people's sin-offering, 
Lev. 6: 25, 26,30. The iniquity of the priests 
themselves, Num. 18:1, was otherwise expi- 
ated, Lev. 8:2, 14-17; 9:2,7; 16:3,6; Heb. 
5:1-3; 9:7. The superiority of Christ's 
priesthood is apparent in that he, being 
sinless, needed no sacrifice for himself, 
Heb. 4:15; 7:26; 9:14. 
INK. See next page. 




INTERIOR OF VIZIR KHAN, AT ALEPPO. 



INN, sometimes merely a station where 
caravans used to halt for the night, at a 
convenient distance for a day's journey be- 
tween two points, near water if possible, but 
not necessarily containing any buildings, 
Gen. 42: 27; Exod. 4:24; Josh. 4:3. At such 
points caravansaries or khans were some- 
times built, Jer. 9 : 2. These were, and still 
are, large buildings, with rooms for travel- 
lers and stalls for their beasts, around a 
square uncovered court, and a fountain if 
possible; but travellers must carry their 
own provisions. In such a stall perhaps 
our Saviour was born, if not in the tradi- 
tional cave, Luke 2:7. Another kind of 
inn, mentioned in Luke 10:34, was in the 
charge of a host, ver. 35, probably paid for 
his attendance on travellers, as well as for 
such provisions and provender as he fur- 
nished. 

INSPIRATION, that supernatural influ- 
ence exerted on the minds of the sacred 



writers by the Spirit of God, in virtue of 
which they unerringly declared his will. 
Whether what they wrote was previously 
familiar to their own knowledge, or, as in 
many cases it must have been, an immedi- 
ate revelation from heaven; whether his 
influence in any given case was dictation, 
suggestion, or superintendence; and how- 
ever clearly we may trace in their writings 
the peculiar character, style, mental en- 
dowments, and circumstances of each ; yet 
the whole of the Bible was written under 
the unerring guidance of the Holy Ghost, 
2 Tim. 3:16. 

Christ everywhere treats the Old Testa- 
ment Scriptures as infallibly true, and of 
divine authority — the word of God. To 
the New Testament writers inspiration was 
promised, Matt. 10:19, 2 9> John 14:26; 
16:13; and they wrote and prophesied un- 
der its direction, 1 Cor. 2:10-13; 14:37; Gal. 
1:12; 2 Pet. 1:21; 3:15; Rev. 1:1, 10-19. 

253 



INK 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ISA 



INK, Jer. 36 : 18. The ink of the ancients 
was much thicker than ours. It was com- 
posed of powdered charcoal, or lampblack, 
or ivory-black, mixed with gum and water, 
and sometimes an acid to make it perma- 
nent. The black liquid contained in the 
cuttle-fish was also used. Often it could 
be washed off with water, Num. 5 : 23. The 




ink-horn (on the floor in the cut) was, and 
is, a small vessel attached to the long case 
for reed-pens, and when not in use was 
carried within the girdle or suspended from 
it, Ezek. 9.2. See Girdle and Writing. 

IN'STANT, IN'STANTLY, urgent, ear- 
nestly, Luke 7:4; 23:23; Acts 26:7; Rom. 
12: 12 ; 2 Tim. 4:2. 

INTEND', Psa. 21:11, not only desire, 
but plot. 

INTERCESSION, pleading in behalf of 
others. As the antitypical High -priest, 
Christ intercedes with God for men : gen- 
erally, Isa. 53:12; Luke 23:34; and special- 
ly, as the Advocate of his believing people, 
Rom. 8:34; Heb. 7:25; 9:24; 1 John 2:1. 
His intercession, begun upon earth, John 
17, is continued in heaven, where he pre- 
sents before the Father his finished and 
accepted work of obedience and sacrifice, 
and obtains the bestowal of salvation, with 
all it includes of present and eternal good, 
upon all those who come to God through 
him — the " one Mediator between God and 
men/' 1 Tim. 2:5. The Holy Spirit, called 
by Christ "the Advocate," John 14:16, 26, 
is also said to intercede for believers, Rom. 
8:26, 27 — dwelling in their "hearts, giving 
them desires and words they would other- 
wise fail of, which are according to the will 
of God and acceptable to him through 
254 



Christ. It is also the privilege and duty 
of believers to intercede for others, Gen. 
18:23-33; 1 Tim. 2:1. 

in'terest. See Usury. 

INTERPRETATION, revealing the true 
meaning of supernatural dreams, Gen. 41 ; 
Dan. 2 ; 4, or of unknown tongues, etc., 
1 Cor. 12:10, 30; 14:5, 13. 

For the right interpretation of the Word 
of God, the chief requisites are, a renewed 
heart, supremely desirous to learn and do 
the will of God; the aid of the Holy Spirit, 
sought and gained; a firm conviction that 
the Word of God should rule the erring rea- 
son and heart of man ; a diligent compari- 
son of its different parts, for the light they 
throw upon each other ; all reliable infor- 
mation as to the history and geography, 
the customs, laws, and languages, the pub- 
lic, domestic, and inner life of Bible times. 
Thus to study the Bible for one's self is the 
privilege and duty of every one. 

IR'ON was early known and wrought, 
Gen. 4:22; Job 28:2. Moses compares the 
bondage in Egypt to a furnace for smelt- 
ing iron, Deut. 4:20, and speaks of Canaan 
as containing iron ore, Deut. 8:9. It is 
now found abundant in Northern Palestine. 
Many different articles and tools were an- 
ciently made of iron, Deut. 3:11; 27:5; 
1 Sam. 17:7; 2 Sam. 12:31; war-chariots 
were plated with it, or armed with iron 
spikes and scythes, Josh. 17: 16. See Char- 
iots. Large quantities of iron were pro- 
vided for the temple, 1 Chr. 29:2, 7. From 
its hardness and heaviness iron aptly illus- 
trates drought, Lev. 26:19, slavery, Deut. 
28:48, strength, Job 40:18; Dan. 2:33; Rev. 
2:27, obstinacy, Isa. 48:4, fortitude, Jer. 
1 : 18, and by the process of its manufacture, 
affliction, Ezek. 22:18, 20. As the Philis- 
tines restricted the Hebrews in their use 
of iron to agricultural implements, 1 Sam. 
13:19-22, so Porsena dealt with the con- 
quered Romans. In Jer. 15:12 the "north- 
ern iron " is supposed to denote iron of 
a superior quality, such as the Chalybes, 
on the coast of the Euxine Sea, were early 
noted for. Iron mines still exist there. The 
ancient mode of smelting iron may have 
been similar to the rude and simple but 
effective method still in use among the na- 
tives of India. See Steel. 

I'RON. God-fearing, Josh. 19:38, a city 
in Naphtali, now probably Yarun. 

IR-SHE'MESH, Josh. 19:41. See Beth- 
shemp:sh and Heres. 

I'SAAC, laughter, Gen. 17:17; 18:12; 
21:6, one of the patriarchal ancestors of 



ISA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ISA 



the Hebrew nation and of Christ, son of 
Abraham and Sarah, B. C. 1896-1716. His 
history is related in Gen. 21 ; 24-28; 35:27- 
29. He is memorable for the circum- 
stances attending his birth, as a child of 
prophecy and promise, in the old age of his 
parents. Even in childhood he was the 
object of dislike to his brother Ishmael, son 
of the bondwoman ; and in this a type of 
all children of the promise, Gal. 4:28, 29. 
Trained in the fear of God to early man- 
hood, he showed a noble trust and obedi- 
ence in his conduct during that remarkable 
trial of faith which established Abraham as 
the "father of the faithful," and in his meek 
submission to all the will of God prefigured 
the only-begotten Son of the Father. At 
the age of 40 he married his cousin Rebek- 
ah of Mesopotamia. Most of his life was 
spent in the southern part of Canaan and 
its vicinity. At the burial of his father, he 
was joined by his outcast brother Ishmael. 
Two sons of Isaac are named in Scripture. 
The partiality of the mother for Jacob, and 
of the father for Esau, led to unhappy jeal- 
ousies, discord, sin, and long separations 
between the brothers, though all were over- 
ruled to accomplish the purposes of God. 
At the age of 137, Isaac blessed Jacob and 
sent him away into Mesopotamia. At the 
age of 180 he died, and was buried in the 
tomb of Abraham by his 2 sons. In his 
natural character Isaac was humble, tran- 
quil, and meditative ; in his piety, devout, 
full of faith, and eminently submissive to 
the will of God. 

ISA'IAH, Jehovah's salvation, the son of 
Amoz (not Amos), one of the most distin- 
guished of the Hebrew prophets. He be 
gan to prophesy at Jerusalem towards the 
close of the reign of Uzziah, about the year 
759 B. C, and exercised the prophetical 
office some 60 years, under the 3 following 
monarchs, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, Isa. 
1:1. Compare 2 Kin. 15-20; 2 Chr. 26-32. 
The first 12 chapters of his prophecies re- 
fer to the kingdom of Judah ; then follow 
chapters 13-23, directed against foreign 
nations, except chapter 22 against Jerusa- 
lem. In chapters 24-35, which would seem 
to belong to the time of Hezekiah, the 
prophet appears to look forward in pro- 
phetic vision to the times of the exile and 
of the Messiah. Chapters 36-39 give a his- 
torical account of Sennacherib's invasion, 
and of the advice given by Isaiah to Heze- 
kiah. This account is parallel to that in 
2 Kin. 18:13, to 20:19; an d indeed chapter 
2,7 of Isaiah is almost word for word the 



same with 2 Kin. 19. The remainder of 
the book of Isaiah, chapters 40-66, contains 
a series of oracles referring to the future 
times of temporal exile and deliverance, 
and expanding into glorious views of the 
spiritual deliverance to be wrought by the 
Messiah. 

Isaiah seems to have lived and prophe- 
sied wholly at Jerusalem, and disappears 
from history after the accounts contained 
in chapter 39. A tradition among the Tal- 
mudists and fathers relates that he was 
sawn asunder during the reign of Manas- 
seh, Heb. 11:37; and this tradition is em- 
bodied in an apocryphal book, called the 
" ascension of Isaiah ;" but it seems to rest 
on no certain grounds. The traditional 
site of his martyrdom in the Kidron valley 
is marked by a mulberry-tree. 

Some commentators have proposed to 
divide the book of Isaiah chronologically 
into 3 parts, as if composed under the 3 
kings, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. But 
this is of very doubtful propriety, since 
several of the chapters are evidently trans- 
posed and inserted out of their chronologi- 
cal order. But a very obvious and striking 
division of the book into 2 parts exists : the 
1st part including the first 39 chapters, and 
the 2d, the remainder of the book, or chap- 
ters 40-66. 

The 1st part is made up of those prophe- 
cies and historical accounts which Isaiah 
wrote during the period of his active exer- 
tions, when he mingled in the public con- 
cerns of the rulers and the people, and 
acted as the messenger of God to the na- 
tion in reference to their internal and exter- 
nal existing relations. These are single 
prophecies, published at different times 
and on different occasions ; afterwards, in- 
deed, brought together into one collection, 
but still marked as distinct and* single, 
either by the superscriptions, or in some 
other obvious and known method. 

The 2d part, on the contrary, is occu- 
pied wholly with thefuhire. It was appar- 
ently written in the later years of the 
prophet, when, having left all active exer- 
tions in the theocracy to his younger asso- 
ciates in the prophetical office, he trans- 
ferred his contemplations from the present 
to that which was to come. In this part, 
therefore, which was not, like the first, oc- 
casioned by external circumstances, it is 
not so easy to distinguish in like manner 
between the different single prophecies. 
The whole is more like a single gush of 
prophecy. The prophet first consoles his 

255 



ISH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ISH 



people by announcing their deliverance 
from the approaching Babylonish exile, 
which he had himself predicted, ch. 39:6, 
7; he names the monarch whom Jehovah 
will send to punish the insolence of their 
oppressors, and lead back the people to 
their home, ch. 44:28; 45:1-5, 13. But he 
does not stop at this inferior deliverance. 
With the prospect of freedom from the 
Babylonish exile he connects the prospect 
of deliverance from sin and error through 
the Messiah. Sometimes both objects seem 
closely interwoven with each other; some- 
times one of them appears alone with par- 
ticular clearness and prominence. Espe- 
cially is the view of the prophet sometimes 
so exclusively directed upon the latter ob- 
ject that, filled with the contemplation of 
the glory of the spiritual kingdom of God 
and of its exalted Founder, he loses sight 
for a time of the less distant future. In 
the description of this spiritual deliverance, 
also, the relations of time are not observed. 
Sometimes the prophet beholds the Author 
of this deliverance in his humiliation and 
sorrows ; and again, the remotest ages of 
the Messiah's kingdom present themselves 
to his enraptured vision — when man, so 
long estranged from God, will have again 
returned to him ; when everything opposed 
to God shall have been destroyed, and in- 
ternal and external peace universally pre- 
vail ; and when all the evil introduced by 
sin into the world will be for ever done 
away. Elevated above all space and time, 
the prophet contemplates from the height 
on which the Holy Spirit has thus placed 
him the whole development of the Messi- 
ah's kingdom, from its smallest beginnings 
to its glorious completion. 

Isaiah is appropriately named "the evan- 
gelical prophet," and the fathers called his 
book "the Gospel according to St. Isaiah." 
In it the wonderful person and birth of 
" Emmanuel — God with us," his beneficent 
life, his atoning death, and his triumphant 
and everlasting kingdom, are minutely 
foretold, Isa. 7:14-16; 9:6, 7; 11:1-10; 32; 
42 ; 49 ; 52 : 13-15 ; 53 ; 60 ; 61 : 1-3. The sim- 
plicity, purity, sweetness, and sublimity of 
Isaiah, and the fulness of his predictions 
respecting the Messiah, give him the pre- 
eminence among the Hebrew prophets and 
poets. 

ISH'BAK, leaving behind, a son of Abra- 
ham and Keturah, Gen. 25:2; 1 Chr. 1:32, 
progenitor of northern Arabians. 

ISH'BI-BE'NOB, dweller at Nob, a giant 
who was on the point of killing David in 
256 



battle, but was slain by Abishai, 2 Sam. 
21:16, 17. 

ISH'BOSHETH, man of shame, son and 
successor of Saul. Abner, Saul's kinsman 
and general, so managed that Ishbosheth 
was acknowledged king at Mahanaim by 
the greater part of Israel, while David 
reigned at Hebron over Judah. He was 
44 years of age when he began to reign, 
and he reigned 2 years peaceably; after 
which he was involved in a long and un- 
successful war against David. Being aban- 
doned by Abner, whom he had provoked, 
he became more and more feeble, and was 
at last assassinated, 2 Sam. 2:8-11; 3; 4. 
See Eshbaal. 

I'SHI, my husband, Hos. 2:16. the name 
which repentant and faithful Israel was 
encouraged to apply to Jehovah, in exclu- 
sion of Baali, my lord, which was sugges- 
tive of former Baal-worship, ver. 17. 

ISH'MAEL, I., Gen. 16-21, son of Abra- 
ham and Hagar, B. C. 191 1. His name 
signifies God hears, Gen. 16:11; 17:21; 
21:17. Though ill-treated by Sarah, he 
was at first regarded as " the son of prom- 
ise " by Abraham, notwithstanding the 
prediction, Gen. 16:12; but after the birth 
and weaning of Isaac he was driven from 
home, at the age of about 17, and took with 
his mother the way to Egypt, Hagar 's na- 
tive land. Overcome with heat and thirst, 
and then miraculously relieved, he re- 
mained in the wilderness of Paran, adopt- 
ed a hunter's life, took a wife from Egypt, 
and became the father of 12 sons, heads of 
Arab tribes, Gen. 25 : 13-16, and of a daugh- 
ter afterwards married to Esau, Gen. 28:9. 
He joined with Isaac in the burial of their 
father, Gen. 25:9, and himself died at the 
age of 137, ver. 17. 

The Ishmaelites,his descendants, "dwelt 
from Havilah unto Shur, that is before 
Egypt," Gen. 25:18, i. e., probably in the 
north-middle part of Arabia, between the 
Red Sea and the head of the Persian Gulf. 
See Havilah, IV. Subsequently they, 
with the descendants of Joktan, the 4th 
from Shem, of Jokshan a son of Abraham 
by Keturah, 25:3, and perhaps also of some 
of the brethren of Joktan and Jokshan, 
besides Cushite tribes in the south, 10:7, 
occupied the whole Arabian peninsula. 
See Arabia. The Ishmaelites became very 
numerous and powerful, according to God's 
promise, 17:20. The prediction that Ish- 
mael should be "a wild man," literally "a 
wild-ass man," 16: 12 (compare Job 39:5~ 8 )> 
has been verified in the history of his de- 



ISH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ISR 



scendants. " Dwelling in the midst of their 
brethren," maintaining a distinct life in the 
midst of kindred peoples, their "hand 
against every man and every man's hand 
against" them, in perpetual feud even 
among themselves, they have always led a 
roving, wild, and predatory life. The 
roaming Bedouin tribes, who claim Ish- 
mael as their chief progenitor, are to this 
day, though nominally subject to Ottoman 
rule, the untamed masters of the desert, 
against whose robbery and violence travel- 
lers have to protect themselves by secu- 
ring from them an escort and guard of 
their own blood. The term " Ishmaelites " 
was applied later to the Midianites, de- 
scendants of Abraham by Keturah, Gen. 
37:25, 28; Judg. 8:22, 24, the name of the 
greater tribe being extended, probably, as 
a general term, to neighboring nomads. 

II. A prince of Judah, who fled to the 
Ammonites when Jerusalem was destroyed 
by the Chaldaeans. Soon after, he returned 
and treacherously assassinated Gedaliah 
the governor and many others, Chaldaeans 
and Jews, including 70 pilgrims on their 
way to the temple with offerings ; he made 
off with prisoners and spoil towards Am- 
nion, but was overtaken by Johanan, de- 
prived of his prey, and obliged to flee for 
his life, Jer. 40; 41. The fast of the 7th 
month, instituted in memory of the calam- 
ities he brought upon Judah and Israel, 
Zech. 7:5; 8:19, is still observed by the 
Jews on the 3d of Tishri. 

ISH'-TOB, man of Tob, some small king- 
dom of Aram or Syria. See Tob. Men of 
Tob, 12,000 in number, joined the Ammon- 
ites in war with David, and were defeated, 
2 Sam. 10:6, 8. 

IS'LAND, ISLE. The Hebrew word 
means primarily habitable land, in oppo- 
sition to seas and rivers, Isa. 42:15: land 
bordering on the sea, whether mainland 
coast, Isa. 20:6; 23:2, 6, or island, Esth. 
10:1; land separated from Palestine by 
sea, Gen. 10:5; Psa. 72:10; Isa. 24:15; 
66:19; Jer. 25:22; Ezek. 27:3. "The isles 
of the Gentiles," Gen. 10:5, are supposed 
to denote the countries bordering on the 
Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas; 
Ezek. 27:15, to the shores of the Persian 
Gulf. See Caphtorim, Chittim, Elishah. 
Many Scripture promises concerning "the 
isles," read in the light of the conquests of 
the gospel in Great Britain, Madagascar, 
Hawaii, Japan, etc., encourage efforts to 
extend its triumphs to all habitable lands, 
Psa. 97:1 ; Isa. 42:4, 10, 12; Zeph. 2:11. 

17 



IS'RAEL, who prevails with God, a name 
given to Jacob after having wrestled with 
the Angel-Jehovah at Penuel, Gen. 32:1, 2, 
28, 30; Hos. 12:3. See Jacob. By the 
name Israel is sometimes understood all 
the posterity of Israel, the seed of Jacob, 
1 Cor. 10:18; sometimes all true believers, 
his spiritual seed, Rom. 9:6; and some- 
times the kingdom of Israel, or the 10 
tribes, as distinct from the kingdom of Ju- 
dah. 

IS'RAEL, Kingdom of, at first a desig- 
nation of the 12 tribes under one king, 
1 Sam. 15:28; 24:20, including David's 
reign at Hebron over a portion of the 
tribes, 2 Sam. 2:8-11; 1 Chr. 12; but usu- 
ally, after the division of the kingdom un- 
der Rehoboam, 1 Kin. 12:20-24, the title of 
the northern section, 10 tribes or portions 
of tribes, as opposed to the smaller king- 
dom of Judah. (See.) The division, a 
punishment for Solomon's idolatry, 1 Kin. 
11:9-13, resulted naturally from Rehobo- 
am's folly, and the ambition of Ephraim, 
the leading tribe among the 10 — prominent 
in the blessings of Jacob and Moses, by its 
great leader Joshua, its central and fruit- 
ful territory, and its long custody of the 
ark at Shiloh. Reduced to a secondary 
position by God's choice of Judah as the 
royal tribe and Jerusalem as the temple- 
city, Psa. 78:67, 68, Ephraim with the north- 
ern tribes threw off the civil sway of Ju- 
dah, chose Jeroboam as king, and rival 
idolatrous sanctuaries, feasts, and priests 
were established for the new kingdom, 
1 Kin. 12:25-33. See Kings. 

The area of the kingdom of Israel varied 
at different times, 2 Kin. 10:32; 13:25; 
14:25. At the outset it has been estimated 
at about 9,000 square miles, nearly that of 
New Hampshire, with a population of 
3,000,000. The duration of the kingdom 
was 254 years, B. C. 975-721, the Assyrians 
ending it 135 years before the Babylonians 
terminated the kingdom of Judah. The 
capitals were successively Shechem, 1 Kin. 
12:25, Tirzah, 14:17, and Samaria, 16:24. 
Jezreel was also a favorite royal residence, 
21:1. 

Without counting Tibni, Omri's rival, 19 
kings, of 9 different houses, reigned over 
Israel. Of these, 7 usurped the throne by 
bloodshed. All were ungodly, following 
the first king, Jeroboam, who instituted the 
worship of the golden calves. Baal-wor- 
ship was established by Ahab, the 7th king. 
The idolatry and corruption of Israel were 
rebuked by successive prophets, and chas- 

257 



ISR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ISS 



tised by sword, famine, anarchy, captivity, 
etc. Partial and temporary reformations 
were effected by Elijah, Elisha, and oth- 
ers ; but idolatry was never eradicated. — 
B. C. 975-929. Judah and Israel, whose re- 
lations were at first hostile, 1 Kin. 15:6, 16, 
became allies during the reign of the house 
of Omri over Israel, 1 Kin. 22:44, B. C. 
929-884, Ahab's daughter Athaliah becom- 
ing the wife of Jehoram king of Judah — a 
demoralizing alliance to Judah, 2 Kin. 8:18, 
26, 27.— B. C. 884-772. Under Jehu, the 
slayer of Ahab's house at the divine com- 
mand through Elisha, 2 Kin. 9: 1-10, and the 
exterminator of Baal-worshippers, 10: 18-28, 
and under Jehu's son Jehoahaz, Syria, Isra- 
el's enemy of old, greatly oppressed both 
Israel and Judah, 2 Kin. 10:32, 33; 13:3, 
but was repulsed by Jehu's grandson Je- 
hoash, ver. 25, who was also successful in a 
war against Judah, 14:8-14. Under Jeho- 
ash's son Jeroboam II., contemporary with 
the prophet Jonah, Israel — pitied by God 
and tested by his mercy — rose for a time to 
unparalleled prosperity, 14:23-28. From 
this height, however, it quickly sank under 
the last of Jehu's line Zachariah. — B. C. 
772-721. The unsuccessful usurper Shal- 
lum was himself deposed by the cruel 
Menahem, who gathered from his people 
the tribute exacted by the 1st Assyrian in- 
vader, Pul, 2 Kin. 15 : 13-20. Menahem's son 
Pekahiah was slain by the usurper Pekah. 
whose 20 years' reign was marked by the 
deportation of northern and trans-Jordanic 
Israel, and by the alliance of Pekah with 
the Syrian king Rezin against Judah, which 
was relieved by Tiglath-pileser, 2 Kin. 
15:23-29; 16:5-9. Hoshea, the next and 
last usurper of the throne of Israel, became 
tributary to Shalmaneser king of Assyria, 
conspired with Egypt against him, and was 
punished by imprisonment and the capture 
of his capital, Samaria, after a 3 } T ears' 
siege. Then, in the final deportation, by 
Sargon, B. C. 721, of the remnant of the 
people of Israel to Assyria, was fulfilled 
Ahijah's prediction, 1 Kin. 14:15, and the 
threats of preceding and subsequent proph- 
ets, Deut. 28:58, 63; Josh. 23: 15; Hos. 1 -.4.- 
6; 9:16, 17; Amos 5:27; 7:11 ; Mic. 1 :6. 

The land of Israel was next occupied by 
heathen from the Assyrian king's domin- 
ions, who joined a partial recognition of 
Jehovah with their own idolatries, 2 Kin. 
17:24-41 ; Ezra 4:1, 2, 9, 10, and who, with 
the Israelitish remnant, were the progeni- 
tors of the Samaritans of our Saviour's 
day. 

258 



Israel never returned as a nation from 
captivity, and has long been accounted 
"lost." Not only the tribe of Levi, but 
many godty members of other tribes, early 
associated themselves with Judah and Ben- 
jamin, 2 Chr. 11:13, x 4) I 6; and doubtless 
some descendants of Israelitish exiles re- 
turned with Judah from captivity by per- 
mission of the Persian monarchs, Jer. 50: 1- 
5, and at other times. The posterity of all 
these constituted "Israel" or "the Jews" 
of the post-exilian period and our Saviour's 
time, Ezra 3:1; 5:1; Luke 2 : 36 ; Acts 26 : 7 ; 
Jas. 1 :i. 

" Ephraim," because of the prominence of 
the tribe, is often a synonym for the king- 
dom of Israel, Isa. 11:13; Ezek. 37:16-22. 

There are prophecies pointing, many 
think, to the restoration of portions of both 
houses of Israel to Palestine — of Ephraim, 
preserved in their exile to be converted to 
Christ, increased to a "fulness of nations/' 
and at length summoned from the north 
and the west, Gen. 48 : 19 ; Jer. 31 : 6-8 ; Hos. 
11:9-11; Zech. 10:6-10; and of Judah, "the 
Jews," reunited to " Israel," Jer. 3:17, 18, 
and loyally serving their once rejected Mes- 
siah, Isa. 11:11-13; Ezek. 37:15-27; Hos. 
1: 10, 11 ; Rom. 11. 

IS'SACHAR, recompense, I., so named by 
Leah his mother, Gen. 30:18, the 9th son 
of Jacob, born B. C. 1749. The character 
of his posterity was foretold by Jacob and 
by Moses, Gen. 49:14, 15; Deut. 33:18, 19. 

The tribe of Issachar, of 4 families 
named Tola, Phuvah, Job, and Shimron, 
Gen. 46:13, numbered 54,000 men in the 
desert, and on entering Canaan was the 3d 
in population, 64,300, Num. 1:28; 26:25. 
Their portion, Josh. 19:17-23, having the 
Jordan on the east, Manasseh on the west, 
Zebulun north, and Ephraim south, inclu- 
ded a considerable part of the fine plain of 
Esdraelon, the most fertile in the country. 
They were industrious agriculturists, Gen. 
49:14, 15, and are mentioned with honor 
for their brave and wise patriotism, Judg. 
5:15; 1 Chr. 7:1-5; 12:32. They stood with 
Judah on Mount Gerizim, when the bless- 
ings and curses were announced, Deut. 
27:12. Tola the Judge was of this tribe, 
Judg. 10: 1, and 2 of the kings of Israel, the 
usurper Baasha and his son Elah, 1 Kin. 
15 : 27 ; 16:6. Members of this tribe attend- 
ed Hezekiah's great passover, 2 Chr. 30: 18. 
II. A Korhite Levite, son of Obed-edom, 
1 Chr. 26:5. 

IS'SUE OF BLOOD, Mark 5:25, a disease 
requiring special purifications under the 



ITA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JAA 



Mosaic law, Lev. 15:19, 28-30, and signifi- 
cant of spiritual uncleanness. 

ITALY is not mentioned in the Old Tes- 
tament, unless under general terms, as 
Chittim, Isles of the Sea. In the New Tes- 
tament, Acts 18:2; 27:1, 6; Heb. 13:24, it 
is chiefly of interest on account of Rome, 
which see. The Italian band, mentioned 
in Acts 10: 1, was probably a Roman cohort 
from Italy, stationed at Caesarea ; so called 
to distinguish it from the other troops, 
which were drawn from Syria and the ad- 
jacent regions. 

ITH'AMAR, palm-tree isle, the 4th and 
youngest son of Aaron, consecrated to the 
priesthood, Exod. 6:23; Num. 3:2, 3. His 
posterity took charge of the tabernacle in 
the wilderness, Exod. 38:21; Num. 4:28. 
After the death of Nadab and Abihu, Lev. 
10:1, 2, without children, Num. 3:4, Elea- 
zar and Ithamar were appointed to take 
their places in the priesthood, 1 Chr. 24:2; 
and for a time members of the family of 
Ithamar — namely, Eli, Ahitub, Ahimelech, 
and Abiathar — held the office of high-priest ; 
but under Solomon it reverted to the fam- 
ily of Eleazar, 1 Kin. 2:27. See Abiathar, 
Zadok. 

ITH'RA. See JETHRO. 

IT'TAI, near, I., a native of Gath, and so 
a "stranger" in Judah. A devoted friend 
of David, he could not be dissuaded from 
following him when fleeing from Absalom, 
2 Sam. 15:19-22; compare Ruth 1:15-18; 
and was put in command of one-third of 
the army, 2 Sam. 18:2, 5, 12. B. C. 1024. 

II. A Benjamite, one of 30 heroes of Da- 
vid's guard, 2 Sam. 23:29; called Ithai in 
1 Chr. 11 :3i. 

ITURiE'A, a region in the extreme north- 
east of Palestine, perpetuating the name of 
Jetur a son of Ishmael. Gen. 25:15, 16, and 
belonging to the half-tribe of Manasseh, 
1 Chr. 1:31; 5:19. The name Jedur still 
remains there. In the time of Christ, Itu- 
raea was in the tetrarchy of Philip, Luke 3:1. 
It lay between the Sea of Galilee and Da- 
mascus, having Hermon on the west, Tra- 
chonitis on the east, and Auranitis on the 
south. About B. C. 20 it came under Ro- 
man sway and was given to Herod. Its 
inhabitants are said to have been skilful 
archers and dexterous robbers. It is a 
rugged land, except the southern part, and 
contains about 30 poor and small villages. 

I'VAH, 2 Kin. 18:34; 19:13, supposed by 
Rawlinson to be Ava and Ahava, which 
see. 

I'VORY, Heb. tooth, i. e., tusk, is men- 



tioned in the reign of Solomon, and referred 
to in Psa. 45:8, as used in decorating pala- 




VORV: FROM EGYPTIAN RUINS. 



ces. Solomon, who traded to India, brought 
thence ivory to Judaea, 1 Kin. 10:22; 2 Chr. 
9:21. Solomon had a throne decorated 
with ivory and inlaid with gold, these beau- 
tiful materials relieving the splendor and 
heightening the lustre of each other, 1 Kin. 
10:18. 

" Ivory houses," 1 Kin. 22:39; Amos 3: 15, 
may have had ornaments of ivory in such 
abundance as to be named from the arti- 
cle of their decoration. We read also of 
"benches" of ivory, "beds," and all sorts 
of "vessels," Ezek. 27:6, 15; Amos 6:4; 
Rev. 18:12. 



JA'AKAN, wrester, in 1 Chr. 1:42, A. V., 
Jakan, ancestor of the tribe Bene-jaakan, 
whose name marks one of the stations of 
the Israelites' journey, Num. 33:31. There 
were wells there, Deut. 10:6, and it seems 
to have been twice visited. 

JA'ARE-O'REGIM, or Jair, father of El- 
hanan, who slew Lahmi the brother of 
Goliath, 1 Chr. 20:5. Compare 1 Sam. 
17:7; 2 Sam. 21:19. 

JAAZANI'AH, or Jezaniah, Jehovah 
hears, I., a captain associated with Geda- 
liah and Johanan, 2 Kin. 25:23, and active 
in the pursuit of Ishmael, afterwards going 
to Egypt, Jer. 40:7-10, 13; 41:11, 16; 42:1; 
43:5-7- 

II. A prominent Rechabite in Jeremiah's 
time, Jer. 35:3. 

III. One of the 70 elders of Israel who 
profaned the temple in Ezekiel's vision, 
Ezek. 8:11. Perhaps the son of Azur, 
against whom and his 24 companions woe 
was denounced, Ezek. 11 :i. 

JA'AZER and JA'ZER, helper, an Amor- 
ite city near Gilead, 1 Chr. 26:31, taken by 

259 



JAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JAC 



Israel, between Heshbon and Bashan, Num. 
21:32, occupied by Gad, Num. 32:1, 3, 35; 
Josh. 13:25; 2 Sam. 24:5, and assigned to 
the Merari Levites, Josh. 21:39. Later it 
was denounced as a Moabite city, Isa. 16:8, 
9; Jer. 48:32. See Sibmah. Its ruins are 
seen at Es-Szir, west of Ammon and 13 
miles north of Hesban, on a small stream 
flowing into the Jordan. 

JA'BAL, a stream, son of Lamech and 
Adah, and a descendant of Cain. He is 
supposed to have been the first to adopt 
the nomadic mode of life — Abel being a 
stationary shepherd — and to have invented 
portable tents, perhaps of skins, Gen. 4 : 2, 20. 

JABBOK, pouring out, now the Zerka, a 
perennial stream, flowing into the Jordan 
at a point about two-thirds of the distance 
from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, 
after a westerly course of some 60 miles. 
It traverses at first an elevated and desert 
region, and receives small streams from 
the north and from the south. A southern 
branch separated the Ammonites from Is- 
rael. The eastern part of the Jabbok is 
dry in summer. Towards the west it flows 
through a deep ravine. Penuel, where Ja- 
cob wrestled with the Angel, w T as a ford- 
ing-place of the Jabbok, Gen. 32:22, now 
pointed out at Kalaat Zerka, on the great 
Damascus road through Gilead. This 
stream divided the territory of Og from 
that of Sihon, Josh. 12:2, 5, and traversed 
the region afterwards assigned to the tribe 
of Gad. 

JA'BESH, dry, I., father of Shallum, 15th 
king of Israel, 2 Kin. 15:10, 13, 14. 

II. 1 Sam. 11; 31:11-13; 1 Chr. 10:12, 
elsewhere Jabesh-gilead, the chief city in 
the half-tribe of Manasseh east of the Jor- 
dan, situated within the territory commonly 
called Gilead. Eusebius places it 6 miles 
from Pella, towards Gerasa. It was sacked 
by the Israelites for refusing to aid in chas- 
tising the Benjamites, Judg. 21:8-14. At a 
later day it was besieged by the Ammon- 
ites, and relieved by Saul ; in gratitude for 
which service the men of Jabesh-gilead res- 
cued the dead bodies of Saul and his sons 
from the insults of the Philistines, 2 Sam. 
2:5. It ruins are on Wady Yabes, south- 
east of Pella. 

JA'BEZ, sorrowful, I., a descendant of 
Judah, whose high distinction among his 
brethren seems to have been owing to his 
prevalence in prayer. His prayer is a 
model, asking and obtaining such mercies 
as God knew to be blessings " indeed," 
spiritual as well as temporal, 1 Chr. 4:9, 10. 
260 



II. A town in Judah, 1 Chr. 2:55. 

JA'BIN, intelligent, I., a powerful king in 
the time of Joshua, at Hazor in the north 
of Canaan. The league which he organ- 
ized to crush Joshua only made his own 
ruin more complete, Josh. 11. B. C. 1450. 
Josephus reckons his army at 300,000 foot- 
men, 10,000 cavalry, and 20,000 chariots ; 
see ver. 4. The war continued " a long 
time," ver. 18, and Joshua "turned back" 
against Hazor and burned it, ver. 10, 13. 

II. Another king of Hazor a century and 
a half later, who sorely oppressed Israel 
for 20 years, till Deborah and Barak were 
raised up as deliverers, Judg. 4; Psa. 83:9. 

JAB'NEEL, building of God, I., a city on 
the border of Judah, not far from the Med- 
iterranean, Josh. 15:11, and much exposed 
to the Philistines. They were in posses- 
sion of it in Uzziah's time, and were ex- 
pelled by him and its fortifications destroy- 
ed, 2 Chr. 26:6 — where it is called Jabneh. 
Its Greek name was Jamnia. In our Sa- 
viour's day it was a large city ; now a vil- 
lage called Yebna, 12 miles south of Jaffa 
and 3 from the sea. 

II. A place in the boundary of Naphtali, 
Josh. 19:33; perhaps Jaauneh, southwest 
of Lake Merom. 

JA'CHIN,y?rw, I., the name of the right- 
hand, i. e., southern, bronze column in the 
porch or entrance of Solomon's temple, 
1 Kin. 7:21; 2 Kin. 25:17; 2 Chr. 3:15-17; 
4:12; Jer. 52:22. See Boaz, Temple. 

II. Simeon's 4th son, Gen. 46:10; Exod. 
6:15; called Jarib in 1 Chr. 4:24. His de- 
scendants are named in Num. 26:12. 

III. The head of a course of priests in 
David's reign. Some of the line returned 
from the Captivity, 1 Chr. 9:10; 24:17; 
Neh. 11:10. 

JA'CINTH, or Hy'acinth, a flower of 
deep purple or reddish blue color. Rev. 
9:17; also a precious stone of similar colors 
in the foundation of the New Jerusalem, 
Rev. 21:20. 

JA'COB, heel-holder, suppianter, I., son 
of Isaac and Rebekah, born after his twin 
brother Esau, probably at Lahai-roi. Gen. 
25:11, 26, when Isaac was 56 and Abraham 
159 years old, B. C. 1836. His character 
and life were foreshown both in the cir- 
cumstances of his birth and name and in 
the previous divine prediction to his mo- 
ther, the fulfilment of which they secured 
by unjustifiable means. Jacob, though far- 
sighted and energetic, was quiet and peace- 
able, living a shepherd life at home. Esau 
was more turbulent and fierce, and passion- 



JAC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JAD 



ately fond of hunting. Isaac was partial to 
Esau, Rebekah to Jacob. Jacob first took 
advantage of his brother's heedlessness as 
to things future and of lasting importance, 
to purchase the birthright from him for a 
good meal when he was faint with hunger, 
afterwards, with his mother's help, profit- 
ed by his brother's absence and his father's 
infirmity to obtain the blessing of the birth- 
right, and was compelled to fly into Meso- 
potamia to avoid the consequences of his 
brother's wrath, Gen. 27:28. He was then 
Tj years old. On his journey the Lord 
appeared to him in a dream, promised him 
His protection, and declared His purpose 
relative to his descendants' possessing the 
land of Canaan, and the descent of the 
Messiah through him, Gen. 28:10, etc. In 
consecrating himself afresh to God he says, 
ver. 21, 22, if Jehovah will thus continue a 
gracious God to me, then this spot shall be 
a temple to him. Compare Gen. 35:6, 7. 
His subsequent days, which he calls "few 
and evil," were clouded with many sor- 
rows, yet amid them all he was sustained 
by the care and favor of God. On his sol- 
itary journey of 600 miles into Mesopota- 
mia, and during the toils and injuries of 
his 20 years' service with Laban, God still 
prospered him, and on his return to the 
land of promise inclined the hostile spirits 
of Laban and of Esau to peace. He had 
then 2 wives, Leah and Rachel, 2 half- 
wives, Bilhah and Zilpah, 11 sons and a 
daughter, and large possessions, chiefly in 
flocks and herds. On the border of Ca- 
naan the angels of God met him, and the 
God of angels wrestled with him at Pen- 
uel, yielded him the blessing, and gave 
him the honored name of Israel. The bet- 
ter traits of his character had developed 
under the providence and grace of God, 
and the "supplanter" had become a 
"prince," having "power with God." Yet 
further trials awaited him : his mother was 
no more; his sister-wives imbictered his 
life with their jealousies; his children Di- 
nah, Simeon, Levi, and Reuben filled him 
with grief and shame ; his beloved Rachel 
and his father were removed by death; 
Joseph his favorite son he had given up as 
slain by wild beasts ; and the loss of Ben- 
jamin threatened to bring his gray hairs 
with sorrow to the grave. But the sunset 
of his life was majestically calm and bright. 
For 17 years he enjoyed in the land of Go- 
shen a serene happiness : he gave a dying 
blessing in Jehovah's name to his assem- 
bled sons ; visions of their future prosper- 



ity rose before his eyes, especially the long 
line of the royal race of Judah, culminating 
in the glorious kingdom of Shiloh. " He 
saw it, and was glad." Soon after, at the 
age of 147, he was gathered to his fathers, 
and his body was embalmed, and buried 
with all possible honors in the burial-place 
of Abraham near Hebron, B. C. 1689. In 
the history of Jacob we observe that in 
repeated instances he used unjustifiable 
means to secure promised advantages, in- 
stead of waiting, in faith and obedience, 
for the unfailing providence of God. We 
observe also the divine chastisement of his 
sins, and his steadfast growth in grace to 
the last. The record occupies a large por- 
tion of the 2d half of the book of Genesis, 
ch. 25-50. See also Bethel, Ladder, La- 
ban, Peniel, etc. His name is found in 
the New Testament, illustrating the sov- 
ereignty of God and the power of faith, 
Rom. 9:13; Heb. 11:9, 21. 

II. The father of Joseph the husband of 
Mary, Matt. 1 : 15, 16. 

Jacob's Well, excavated by the patri- 
arch when he set up his home-altar at 
Shechem, Gen. 33:18-20; John 4:5, 6, 12, to 
make sure of a water-supply near the field 
he there purchased, Josh. 24:32. Compare 
Gen. 21:25-30; 26:13-22. It is memorable 
as the authentic site of the interview of 
Christ with the Samaritan woman : in which 
he revealed his omniscience, and his power 
to convince, convict, convert, and save, an- 
nounced himself as the promised Messiah, 
and showed that the time had come for 
abolishing the formal temple-service with 
its types and sacrifices, and for a more 
spiritual and world-wide worship. The 
well is at the southeast extremity of She- 
chem, now Nablus, where it opens at the 
foot of Mount Gerizim into the large and 
fertile plain El Mukhna. It is a mile and 
a half from the present town, and is now 
75, formerly more than 100, feet deep, j% 
feet in diameter, lined with stone masonry, 
the mouth 4 feet in diameter in solid rock, 
surrounded by the ruins of a vaulted cham- 
ber that once covered it, and within the 
fragments and traces of a large inclosure, 
probably a church of the 4th century. The 
spot is recognized as the true "Jacob's 
well" by Jews, Mohammedans, and Chris- 
tians alike. See Shechem. 

JAD'DUA, knowing, I., one who sub- 
scribed Nehemiah's covenant, Neh. 10:21. 

II. Son of Johanan, and the last Old 
Testament high-priest named in Neh. 12:11, 
12. If he was the Jaddua of whom the leg- 

261 



JAE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JAM 



end of Josephus is that he went forth from 
Jerusalem at the head of the priests to meet 
Alexander the Great, and tender to him 
the submission of the city, his name must 
have been subsequently added to the list 
as made up by Ezra. 

JA'EL, a wild goat, wife of Heber the 
Kenite, slew Sisera, general of the Canaan- 
itish army, who had fled to her tent, which 
was then near Kedesh-naphtali. (See.) 
Jael took her opportunity, and while he 
was sleeping drove a large nail or tent-pin 
through his temples, Judg. 4:17-23, appar- 
ently a most treacherous violation of the 
rights of hospitality. But the life of Sisera 
was undoubtedly forfeited to the Israelites 
by the usages of war and the prescription 
of Jehovah, and probably to society by his 
crimes. Besides this, the life or honor of 
Jael may have been in danger, or her feel- 
ings of hospitality may have been over- 
powered by a sudden impulse to avenge 
the oppressed Israelites, with whom she 
was allied by blood. The song of Deborah 
celebrates the act as one which Jewish pa- 
triotism would honor, and as a divine judg- 
ment which, as well as the defeat of Sise- 
ra's host, was the more disgraceful to him 
for being wrought by a woman, Judg. 5:1, 
24-27,31. 

JAH or JAHU, ancient Hebrew for Jeho- 
vah, Psa. 68:4. It is often found in Hebrew 
compound words, as in Adonijah, Hallelu- 
jah, Isa-iah. It occurs usually in poetic 
passages, and is often translated Lord, 
like Jehovah, Psa. 104:35; 105:45; 111:1, 
and in the 2d clause of Psa. 89:8. In Isa. 
12:2 we read, "Jah-Jehovah is my strength 
and song," and in Isa. 26:4, " in Jah-Jeho- 
vah is the Rock of ages." 

JA'HAZ, JAHA'ZAH, JAH'ZAH, trodden 
down, a city on the southern border of Am- 
nion, on the north of the Arnon and Moab, 
where Moses defeated Sihon king of the 
Amorites — from the west of the Jordan — 
who was then in possession, Num. 21 : 23, 26. 
It seems to have lain on the western bor- 
der of Ammon, and was within the tribe of 
Reuben, and assigned to the Merarite Le- 
vites, Josh. 21:36; 1 Chr. 6:78. The chil- 
dren of Ammon asserted their claim to it 
in Jephthah's time, Judg. 1 1 : 13-20, but were 
defeated, ver. 32. In the period of Judah's 
decline we find it again in the hands of 
Moab, Isa. 15:4; Jer. 48:21, 34. 

JAHA'ZIEL, beheld by God, a Levite of 
the sons of Asaph, whose confident predic- 
tion of Jehoshaphat's victory over the Mo- 
abite hosts is recorded in 2 Chr. 20:14-17. 
262 



Others of this name are briefly mentioned 
in 1 Chr. 12:4; 16:6; 23:19; Ezra 8:5. 

JA'IR, he will enlighten. I. The son of 
Segub, of the tribe of Judah, but reckoned 
to Manasseh. See Adoption. He took 
part in the conquest of the trans-Jordanic 
region, Gilead and Bashan, captured 23 
towns in Argob which were called after his 
name, Num. 32 : 41 ; Deut. 3:14; 1 Kin. 4:13; 
1 Chr. 2:22. 

II. A Gileadite, of Manasseh, 8th judge 
of Israel, for 22 years. B. C. 1210-1188. 
He had 30 sons, rulers of 30 cities, Judg. 
Io: 3 _ 5) including probably the 23 con- 
quered by the former Jair, supposed to 
have been his ancestor. A descendant is 
mentioned in 2 Sam. 20:26. See Havoth- 
jair. 

III. Father of Mordecai, a Benjamite, 
Esth. 2:5. 

IV. (A different word in Hebrew) awake, 

1 Chr. 20:5. See Jaare-oregim. 
JAI'RUS, or Ja'ir, a ruler of the syna- 
gogue at Capernaum, memorable for his 
faith in Christ. His deceased daughter, 12 
years of age, was restored to life and 
health by the Saviour, Mark 5:22; Luke 
8:41. Compare Matt. 9:18. 

JA'KEH, pious, the father of Agur, Prov. 
30:1. 

JAM'BRES. See JANNES. 

JAMES, rather Jacob, supplanter, I., sur- 
named the greater, or elder, to distinguish 
him from James the younger, was one of 
the 12 apostles, elder brother of John the 
evangelist, and son of Zebedee and Salome, 
Matt. 4:21; 27:56. Compare Mark 15:40. 
James was of Bethsaida in Galilee. His 
mother Salome was one of those women 
who occasionally attended our Saviour in 
his journeys, and one day desired that her 

2 sons might be seated at his right and left 
hand in his kingdom, Matt. 20:20-23. See 
Salome. 

James and John were originally fisher- 
men, with Zebedee their father, Mark 1:19. 
Like Andrew and Peter, they had accept- 
ed Jesus as the Messiah before they were 
summoned to follow him as disciples, Matt. 
4: 18-22, with John 1 : 40-42. They seem to 
have been ardent and impetuous ; and when 
certain Samaritans refused to receive him, 
James and John wished for fire from heaven 
to consume them, Luke 9 : 54. For this rea- 
son, or because of their zeal and energy as 
ministers of Christ, the name of Boanerges. 
or sons of thunder, was afterwards given 
to them, Mark 3:17. Together with Peter 
they appear to have enjoyed special honors 



JAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JAP 



and privileges among the disciples : they 
alone were with Christ at his transfigura- 
tion, Matt. 17:1; Mark 9:2; Luke 9:28, at 
the raising of Jairus' daughter, Mark 5:37- 
42; Luke 8:51, and at the agony in the 
garden of Gethsemane, Matt. 26:37; Mark 
14:33. These 3, with Andrew, witnessed 
the restoration of the mother of Peter's 
wife, Mark 1:29-31, and interviewed him 
as to the destruction of the temple, Mark 
13:3. After the ascension of our Lord, at 
which James was present, he appears to 
have remained at Jerusalem, and was put 
to death by Herod, about A. D. 44, the first 
martyr among the apostles, Acts 12:1, 2. 
Compare Mark 10:39. Clement of Alexan- 
dria, A. D. 195, relates that one of the offi- 
cers at his execution was convinced and 
led to avow himself a Christian by his 
faithful testimony, and was beheaded with 
him. 

II. Another apostle, son of Alphaeus, or 
Clopas, Matt. 10:3; Mark3:i8; Luke 6:15. 
His mother's name was Mary (III.), and 
his brethren were Joses and Judas (III.), 
Matt. 27 : 56 ; Mark 15 : 40. He is here called 
the less, or the small, to distinguish him 
from James the son of Zebedee. He was 
9th in the list of the apostles, at the head 
of the 3d quaternion, and is not mentioned 
after Acts 1 : 13, unless he is the same as 
"James the Just." 

III. "The Lord's brother," Gal. 1:19; 
either a brother of Christ, being a son of 
Joseph and Mary, or, as many think, a 
cousin of Christ, and identical with the 
James above, II. He resided at Jerusalem, 
seems to have been married, 1 Cor. 9:5, 
and was early a recognized leader in the 
church, Acts 12:17; 21:18; Gal. 2:9, 12. He 
appears to have seen Christ shortly before 
his ascension, 1 Cor. 15:7, and to have pre- 
sided over the council held at Jerusalem, 
A. D. 49, Acts 15:13. In Gal. 1:19 he is 
apparently called or classed as an apostle, 
perhaps loosely, though this interpretation 
of the passage is not imperative. Compare 
John 17:12. He is called "the Just" by 
Josephus, and by Hegesippus of the 2d 
century, who says that he was celebrated 
for his integrity and zeal, and was slain by 
the Jewish rulers, A. D. 69. Josephus says 
he was stoned to death about A. D. 62. 
The Epistle of James is ascribed to him by 
those who distinguish him from James the 
Less. The question of his true relation- 
ship to Christ is involved in much doubt. 
The gospels repeatedly mention James, Jo- 
ses. Judas, and Simon as " brothers " of our 



Lord, and speak in the same connection 
of his "mother" and his "sisters," Matt. 
12:46; 13:56; Mark 3:31; 6:3; Luke 8:19; 
moreover, the inspired writers expressly 
distinguish the brothers of Christ from the 
apostles, while they include among the 
apostles both James the Less and Judas, 
John 2:12; 7:3-10; Acts 1:13, 14, thus fur- 
nishing strong reasons, as many believe, 
for the opinion that James the Just was 
literally a brother of our Lord. See Bro- 
ther. 

The Epistle of James is generally sup- 
posed to have been written at Jerusalem, 
about A. D. 61, by James the Just, shortly 
before his death. It is addressed particu- 
larly to converted or professedly Christian 
Jews, but was intended for the benefit of 
Christians generally. It is therefore one of 
"the Catholic Epistles," so called, i. e., gen- 
eral. It has often been regarded as teach- 
ing a different doctrine in respect to faith 
and works from what Paul teaches in his 
epistle to the Romans. But the doctrine of 
the 2 apostles is at bottom the same, only 
that Paul dwells more on faith, the sole ori- 
gin of good works ; and James dwells more 
on good works, which result from true faith. 
According to Paul, there can be no true 
faith which does not manifest itself in good 
works; and according to James, there can 
be no truly good works which do not spring 
from true faith. His style is bold, rapid, 
terse, and figurative, with much fine im- 
agery; and the epistle is one of the highest 
in value. 

JAN'NES and JAM'BRES were 2 of the 
principal Egyptian magicians, who with- 
stood Moses and Aaron by attempting to 
imitate the miracles which they exhibited. 
See Exod. 7:11, etc. These names are not 
found in the Old Testament, but are often 
mentioned in the rabbinical books, 2 Tim. 

3:8,9. 

JANO'AH, rest, a town of Naphtali, be- 
tween Abel and Kedesh, 2 Kin. 15:29. 

JANO'HAH, rest, Josh. 16:6, 7, a town in 
the northeast border of Ephraim, now Ya- 
nun, about 8 miles southeast of Nablus. 

JA'PHETH, enlargement, the eldest of 
Noah's 3 sons, Gen. 9:24; 10:21, born 100 
years before the flood, and preserved with 
his wife, 2 out of 8 persons, in the ark, 
Gen. 7:y; 1 Pet. 3:20. He was perhaps the 
Iapetos whom Greek legends represent as 
the progenitor of the Greek race. His 7 
sons, Gen. 10:2-5; 1 Chr. 1:5, occupied 
with their posterity the north of Asia and 
most of Europe. The probable location of 

263 



JAP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JEB 



each of the 7 is described in its place. In 
later years the Greeks and Romans sub- 
dued large portions of Southern and West- 
ern Asia, in accordance with the prediction 
of Noah, Gen. 9:27. The "enlargement" 
of Japheth now extends over America and 
Australia also. 

JAPHI'A, splendid, I., king of Lachish, 
one of the 5 Amorite princes who united 
under Adoni-zedek to attack Gibeon, but 
were defeated near Beth-horon by Joshua, 
with miraculous aid, and slain at the cave 
of Makkedah, Josh. 10:3. 

II. A son of David, born at Jerusalem, 
2 Sam. 5:15; otherwise unknown. 

III. A border town of Zebulun on the 
south, between Daberath and Gath-he- 
pher, Josh. 19:12; now Yafa, a hamlet of 
30 houses, a mile and a half southwest of 
Nazareth. 

JA'PHO, Josh. 19:46. SeeJoppA. 

JA'REB, avenger, Hos. 5:13; 10:6, not 
the name of a king, but " hostile " king, 
meaning Pul, whose aid Ephraim sought 
and found it a chastisement, 2 Kin. 15:19, 
20; compare 2 Kin. 16:7, 8. 

JA'RED, in 1 Chr. 1:2 Je'red, descent, 
the 4th in the line of patriarchs after Seth, 
between Mahalaleel and Enoch, Gen. 5: 15- 
20; Luke 3:37. 

JAR'HA, an Egyptian slave, made free 
by marrying Ahlai, the daughter of his 
master Sheshan, who had no sons, 1 Chr. 
2:31-41. 

JAR'MUTH, height, I., a town in the low 
hills of Judah, Josh. 15:35. Piram its king 
was confederate with Adoni-zedek. See 
Japhia. It was repeopled after the Cap- 
tivity, Neh. 11:29; now Yarmuk, 16 miles 
south of west from Jerusalem. 

II. A Levitical (Gershonite) city in Issa- 
char, Josh. 21:29, called Remeth and Ra- 
moth, Josh. 19:21; 1 Chr. 6:73; apparently 
on the eastern border of the plain of Jez- 
reel. 

JASH'ER, the book of, the book of the 
upright, excellent and noble-minded. This 
work is mentioned in Josh. 10: 13 and 2 Sam. 
1:18, and seems to have been a collection 
of national, historical, triumphal, and ele- 
giac songs, still extant in the time of David, 
but nothing is known respecting it. The 
book published under this name in 1751 is 
a gross forgery. 

JASHO'BEAM, to whom the people turn, 
a Korhite, descendant of Hachmon, who 
enlisted with his followers under David at 
Ziklag, 1 Chr. 12:6; 27:2, famous for his 
great exploit in slaying 300 or 800 foes, per- 
264 



haps with the help of his companions. He 
is conjectured to be identical with Adino, 
2 Sam. 23:8, and to have been one of the 3 
brave men who broke through the Philis- 
tine camp at Bethlehem to bring water for 
David, 1 Chr. 11: 11, 15-19. 

JA'SON, a healer, a. Jewish convert, a 
" kinsman " and host of Paul, at Thessa- 
lonica. His person and goods were inter- 
posed to shield the apostle from the rabble 
at his first visit there, A. D. 52, Acts 17:5-10. 
He seems also to have been with him at 
Corinth, 5 years afterwards, Rom. 16:21. 

JAS'PER, a precious stone of various col- 
ors, as green, purple, etc., often clouded 
with white, and beautifully striped with red 
or yellow, the 1st gem in the high-priest's 
breastplate, Exod. 28:20, and the 1st foun- 
dation-stone of the New Jerusalem, called 
" most precious " by John, Rev. 4:3 ; 21:11. 
See also Ezek. 28:13. 

JA'VAN, I., the 4th son of Japheth, Gen. 
10:2, 4. This name is the same as the 
Greek Ion, whence comes Ionia, and it is 
understood that Javan was the ancestor 
of the Greeks. His sons were Elishah, 
Tarshish, Kittim, and Dodanim. Greece 
is meant in " king of Javan " (Heb.) in Dan. 
8:21 ; and "sons of Javan" in Zech. 9:13. 

II. In Ezek. 27 : 19, a Greek city in South- 
ern Arabia. 

JA'ZER. See Jaazer. 

JEAL'OUSY. See Adultery. The idol 
of jealousy, Ezek. 8:3, 5, is the same with 
Tammuz in ver. 14. See Tammuz. 

JE'ARIM (forests), MOUNT, in the north- 
ern boundary of Judah, Josh. 15:10; ap- 
parently a ridge the northern shoulder of 
which was Chesalon, now Kesla, 7 miles 
west of Jerusalem. 

JEBERECHI'AH, whom the Lord will 
bless, Isa. 8 : 2, the father of a Zechariah in 
the reign of Ahaz, Isaiah's witness. 

JE'BUS, a trodden place, an old name of 
Jerusalem, Judg. 19:10, 11; 1 Chr. 11:4, 5; 
also called Jebusi, Josh. 15:8; 18:16, 28. 
" The Jebusite," always in the singular 
in Hebrew, the 3d son of Canaan, whose 
posterity dwelt in Canaan between the 
Hittites and the Amorites, Gen. 10:16; 
1 Chr. 1 : 14. See Canaanites. Traces of 
them are found 40 years before the con- 
quest, Num. 13:29, at the time of the con- 
quest, Josh. 10 : 1 , 5, 26 ; 11:3, and later, they 
not having been thoroughly expelled by 
Judah and Benjamin, Josh. 15:8,63; Judg. 
1:21; 19:11. See Araunah. Jerusalem, 
then even a stronger and higher fortress 
than afterwards, was captured by David, 



JEC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JEH 



2 Sam. 5:6-9; 1 Chr. 11:4-8. The Jebusites 
were bond-servants under Solomon, 1 Kin. 
9:20, 21; 2 Chr. 8:7, 8; and some of them, 
"Solomon's servants," returned from the 
Babylonish exile, Neh. 7:57. See also Ezra 
9:1, 2; Zech. 9:7. 

JECONI'AH. See Jehoiachin. 

JEDI'DAH, beloved, wife of king Amon, 
daughter of Adaiah of Boscath, and mo- 
ther of king Josiah, 2 Kin. 22:1, who did 
signal honor to her pious training. 

JEDIDI'AH, or Jedid'jah, beloved of the 
Lord, a name given to Solomon at his birth 
by Nathan the prophet — a special token of 
God's returning favor to his penitent ser- 
vant David after the death of Bathsheba's 
1st son, 2 Sam. 12:24, 25. 

JEDU'THUN, who gives praise, a Merar- 
ite Levite, a director of the music of the 
tabernacle in David's time, with Heman 
the Kohathite, and Asaph the Gershonite, 
1 Chr. 23:6; apparently the same as Ethan, 
1 Chr. 15: 17. See Ethan. His special ser- 
vice was " to sound with cymbals of brass," 
ver. 19. The "sons of Jeduthun" "prophe- 
sied with the harp," 1 Chr. 25:3, 9, etc., and 
officiated as musical leaders at the dedica- 
tion of the temple, 2 Chr. 5:12, at Hezeki- 
ah's purifying of the temple, 2 Chr. 29:14, 
at Josiah's passover, 2 Chr. 35: 15, and after 
the Captivity, Neh. 11:17. The name of 
one of them appears in the title of Psalms 
39, 62, y-j. See Asaph. 

JE'GAR-SAHADU'THA, heap of witness, 
a Chaldee name, equivalent to Galeed in 
Hebrew, both marking the scene of the 
covenant between Jacob and Laban, Gen. 
31:47. See Mizpeh. 

JEHO'AHAZ, fehovah sustains, I., a son 
and successor of Jehu king of Israel, B. C. 
856-840, reigned 17 years. In punishment 
for his sins and those of his people, Israel 
was invaded and reduced to great extrem- 
ities by the Syrians under Hazael and 
Ben-hadad. The king humbled himself 
before God, and deliverance came by the 
hand of Joash his son, 2 Kin. 13:1-9, 24, 25. 

II. Also called Shallum, 1 Chr. 3:15, the 
3d son and successor of Josiah king of 
Judah, B. C. 609, reigned about 3 months 
in Jerusalem, disappointing the popular 
hopes by his oppressive spirit, Ezek. 19:3. 
He was deposed by Pharaoh-necho, and 
died in Egypt, 2 Kin. 23:30-34; 2 Chr. 
36 : 1-4. See also Jer. 22 : 10-13. See Shal- 
lum. 

III. A name once given, 2 Chr. 21:17, to 
Ahaziah, which see. 

JEHO'ASH. SeeJOASH. 



JEHOH A' NAN, fehovah' s gift, often writ- 
ten Johanan, now John. I. A Korhite Le- 
vite, doorkeeper in the tabernacle in Da- 
vid's time, 1 Chr. 26:3. 

II. A chief captain under Jehoshaphat, 
2 Chr. 17:15, in command of 280,000 men 
around Jerusalem, ver. 13, 19. Probably 
an ally of Jehoiada in bringing David's 
descendant Joash to the throne, 2 Chr. 
23:1. 

Others are mentioned, Ezra 10:28; Neh. 
12 : 13, 42. See Johanan. 

JEHOI'ACHIN, appointed by fehovah, son 
and successor of Jehoiakim king of Judah, 
B. C. 509, reigned 3 months, and was then 
carried away to Babylon by Nebuchadnez- 
zar in person, to avenge the alliance of his 
father with Egypt against Babylon; with 
him went all his family, the flower of the 
people, and the sacred and royal treasures. 
In Babylon he was imprisoned for 36 years, 
and then released and favored by Evil- 
merodach, 2 Kin. 24:6-16; 25:27; 2 Chr. 
36:9, 10. In this last passage he is said to 
have been 8 years old at the commence- 
ment of his reign. If the text has not here 
been altered from 18 years, as it stands in 
the first passage, we may conclude that he 
reigned 10 years conjointly with his father. 
He is also called Coniah and Jeconiah, 
1 Chr. 3:16; Jer. 27:20; 37:1. The predic- 
tion in Jer. 22:30 signified that no son of 
his should occupy the throne, 1 Chr. 3:17, 
18; Matt. 1:12. He was the last of Solo- 
mon's line of kings, and was succeeded by 
Salathiel, a descendant of David by Solo- 
mon's brother Nathan. See also Jer. 29:2; 
Ezek. 17:12; 19:9. 

JEHOI' ADA, fehovah knows, I., the father 
of Benaiah, who was one of David's he- 
roes, 2 Sam. 8:18; 1 Kin. 1 ; 2. He seems 
to have joined David at Hebron, a chief 
priest at the head of 3,700 armed Aaronites, 
1 Chr. 12:27. In 1 Chr. 27:34 the names 
appear to have been transposed. 

II. A high-priest during Athaliah's usur- 
pation, who with his wife Jehosheba pre- 
vented the threatened extinction of the line 
of David by saving the infant prince Joash, 
and secluding him in the temple for 6 years. 
Jehoiada then quietly secured the aid of 
the friends of David and of God, collected 
the Levites at Jerusalem, armed them with 
David's captured weapons then stored in 
the temple, and in a full assembly of the 
people led forth the young prince, crowned 
and anointed him as king, and gave him 
the book of the law which was to be his 
guide, Deut. 17:18-20. He caused Atha- 

265 



JEH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JEH 



liah to be put to death without the temple 
gates. He then covenanted with the peo- 
ple for the abandonment of Baal-worship 
and the full reestablishment of the worship 
of God. He long continued to be the 
young king's adviser, and his wisdom and 
piety greatly conserved and blessed the 
nation till he died, B. C. 834, aged 130. 
He was buried with royal honors, but both 
king and people quickly fell away from 
his ways. See Joash, Zachariah. 

III. A sagan or 2d priest, an aid of the 
high-priest under the reign of Zedekiah, 
Jer. 29:25-29, deposed for adhering to Jer- 
emiah. 

IV. A helper in rebuilding the walls of 
Jerusalem after the Captivity, Neh. 3:6. 

JEHOI' AKIM, Jehovah will establish, first 
called Eli'akim; the 2d son of Josiah, bro- 
ther and successor of Jehoahaz or Shallum, 
king of Judah, for whom he with his new 
name was substituted by the king of Egypt. 
He was. king during 11 years of luxury, 
extortion, and idolatry. He murdered the 
faithful Urijah and insulted his corpse. In 
the 3d year, Nebuchadnezzar carried to 



Babylon a part of his princes and treasures. 
A year after, his allies the Egyptians were 
defeated on the Euphrates; yet he de- 
spised the warnings of Jeremiah, and cast 
his book into the fire. At length he re- 
belled against Nebuchadnezzar, but was 
defeated and ingloriously slain, and buried 
like an ass, B. C. 599, 2 Kin. 23:34, 36; 
24:6; 2 Chr. 36:4-8; Jer. 22; 26; 36. 

JEHOI' ARIB, God a defender, usually 
Joiarib, 1 Chr. 9:10. Head of the 1st of 
David's 24 courses of priests. Some of the 
sons of Joiarib returned after the Captiv- 
ity, Neh. 11:10. 

JEHON'ADAB, to whom God is liberal, 
often Jon'adab, a chief among the de- 
scendants of Rechab, who were under life- 
vows to abstain from wine and to dwell 
in tents, Jer. 35:6, 7. See Rechabites. 
He joined Jehu in the slaughter of the 
Baal-worshippers, 2 Kin. 10:15-23. It is 
the full name in Hebrew of Jonadab, 
which see. 

JEHO'RAM. SeeJo'RAM. 

JEHOSHA'BEATH, 2 Chr. 22:11. See 
Jehosheba. 




VALLEY OF JEHOSHAPHAT 



JEHOSH'APHAT, God judges, the 4th 
king of Judah after Solomon, the pious son 
and successor of Asa. He began to reign 
at the age of 35, about the year 914 B. C, 
and reigned 25 years. His history is found 
in 1 Kin. 15:24; 22; 2 Chr. 17-20. He was 
distinguished by his zeal for true religion 
and his firm trust in God. He thoroughly 
cleansed the land from idolatry, restored 
the divine ordinances, filled the high Dosts 
266 



TOMBS AND JEWISH BURIAL-GROUND. 

in church and state with the best men, and 
provided for the religious instruction of the 



people. His government was highly pros- 
pered at home and abroad. The great error 
of his life was an entangling alliance with 
the wicked Ahab, whose infamous daughter 
Athaliah early began to afflict the kingdom 
of Judah, of which she was afterwards the 
queen, through her marriage with Jehosh- 
aphat's eldest son Jehoram. Jehoshaphat 



JEH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JEH 



was beguiled by Ahab into an unsuccess- 
ful war with the Syrians, but soon resumed 
his labors in behalf of religion and justice. 
Having failed in a commercial enterprise 
with Ahaziah, he declined a second trial, 
i Kin. 22:48, 49, but united with Joram, his 
successor, in a war with Moab. This 
seems to have led to his being assailed by 
a vast host of Moabites, Ammonites, Edom- 
ites, and Syrians ; but again he was victo- 
rious through his faith in God, in which he 
cheered his people after a memorable fast 
and prayer in the temple. He died at the 
age of 60 years. 

Four others of this name are mentioned 
in 2 Sam. 8:16; 1 Kin. 4:3, 17; 2 Kin. 9:2, 
14. 

Jehoshaphat, valley of, or valley of 
the judgment of God, a metaphorical name 
of some place where God would judge the 
foes and oppressors of his people, Joel 
3:2, 12. There is no ground for applying 
it to any known locality, or for connecting 
it, except for illustration, with the great 
battle of Jehoshaphat described in 2 Chr. 
20. Since the 3d century, however, the 
name has been appropriated to the deep 
and narrow glen east of Jerusalem, run- 
ning north and south between the city and 
the Mount of Olives, called in the Bible the 
brook Kidron. See Jerusalem. 

JEHOSH'EBA, Jehovah's oath, the aunt 
of Joash, king of Judah, whose life in in- 
fancy and childhood she saved, in spite of 
the designs of Athaliah, 2 Kin. 11 : 1-3. Her 
husband was Jehoiada, the noble high- 
priest, the only one known to have mar- 
ried into the royal family. 

JEHOSH'UA,"Num. 13:16; 1 Chr. 7:27. 
See Joshua. 

JEHO'VAH, the ineffable name of God 
among the Hebrews. It never has the 
article before it, nor is it found in the plu- 
ral form. The Jews, out of reverence, 
never pronounced this name; and wher- 
ever it occurs in the Hebrew Scriptures, 
they substituted for it, in reading, the word 
Adonai, Lord, or Elohim, God. See God. 
In the Hebrew Bible it is always written 
with the vowels of one or the other of 
these words. Its ancient pronunciation is 
thought to have been Yahveh, he shall 
be, but this is not certain. The meaning of 
Jehovah is He is; the same as I am, the 
person only being changed. Thus it de- 
notes the self-existence, independence, im- 
mutability, and infinite fulness of the divine 
Being, which is a pledge that he will fulfil 
all his promises. Compare Exod. 3:14, "I 



am that I am," the meaning of which see 
under the article God. In Exod. 6:3 God 
says, " I appeared unto Abraham, unto 
Isaac, and unto Jacob, by the name of God 
Almighty — El Shaddai ; but by my name 
Jehovah was I not known to them;'' yet 
the appellation Jehovah appears to have 
been known from the beginning, Gen. 4:1; 
Exod. 3:16, and its derivation from a root 
havaJi, to be, found only in the oldest He- 
brew and obsolete in Moses' time, shows 
its high antiquity. We have reason to be- 
lieve that God himself, who named man 
Adam, named himself Jehovah ; but in 
his revelation to the patriarchs he had not 
appropriated to himself this name in a pe- 
culiar w r ay, as he now did, nor unfolded the 
deep meaning contained in it. He had said 
to them, " I am God Almighty," El Shad- 
dai, and under this name and that of Elo- 
him, God, he was in the thoughts and on 
the lips of his people as the Creator and 
Lord of the universe, the God of nature, of 
providence, and of mankind; but Jeho- 
vah — a "proper noun" — was a more defi- 
nite name of God, the personal covenant 
God of his redeemed people, the God of 
grace. In John 8:58 it is noteworthy that 
2 different Greek verbs are used, signify- 
ing that while Abraham " came into being," 
God always existed. 

It should be borne in mind that our Eng- 
lish A. V. translates Jehovah by the word 
Lord, in small capitals— retaining it un- 
translated only in 4 passages, Exod. 6:3; 
Psa. 83:18; Isa. 12:2; 26:4, except in com- 
pound words, as below. 

Jeho'vah-ji'reh, Jehovah will provide, 
the name given by Abraham to the place 
where he had been on the point of slaying 
his son Isaac, Gen. 22:14. ^ n it ne alludes 
to his answer to Isaac's question in ver. 8, 
that God would provide a victim for the 
sacrifice — an unconscious prophecy of the 
Lamb of God. His expression became a 
common Hebrew proverb : God will so pro- 
vide for his people in every extremity. 

Jeho'vah -nis'si, Jehovah my banner, 
Exod. 17:15, the name Moses gave to the 
altar in memory of Israel's victory over 
Amalek. God's people, rallying around 
this banner, go on to assured victory, Psa. 
60:4; Prov. 18:10; Isa. 11:10. 

Jeho'vah-sha'lom, Jehovah of peace, or 
prosperity, the name given by Gideon to 
an altar which he built in Ophrah, where 
the Angel-Jehovah had appeared to him, 
and saluted him by saying, " Peace be unto 
thee," Judg. 6:24. 

267 



JEH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JER 



Jeho'vah-sham'mah, Jehovah is there, 
the name given by Ezekiel, 48:35, margin, 
to a future holy city. 

Jeho'vah-tsidke'nu, Jehovah our right- 
eousness, the name given to the Saviour, 
and through him to his church, Jer. 23:6; 
33:16, margin. 

JEHOZ'ABAD, God- given, often Joz'- 
abad, I., 2d son of Obed-edom, a Levite, 
keeper of the storehouse of the tabernacle, 

1 Chr. 26:4, 15. See Asuppim. 

II. A Benjamite general of Jehoshaphat, 

2 Chr. 17:18. 

III. Son of Shomer, a Moabitess, one of 
2 servants of Joash who killed him in his 
bed, 2 Kin. 12:21 ; 2 Chr. 24:26. 

JEHOZ'ADAK, justified by God, often 
Joz'adak or Jos'edech, son of Seraiah, a 
high -priest under Zedekiah, 1 Chr. 6: 14, 15. 
He succeeded his father, who was slain at 
Riblah, 2 Kin. 25:18-21, but was immedi- 
ately carried captive and died in exile. 
See Jeshua, IV. 

JE'HU, Jehovah is he, or liviftg, I., a de- 
scendant of Sheshan, tribe of Judah, 1 Chr. 
2:38. 

II. A warlike Benjamite, of Anathoth, 
who joined David at Ziklag, 1 Chr. 12:1-3. 

III. The son of Hanani, a prophet, sent 
with messages from God to Baasha king of 
Israel, and 30 years afterwards to Jehosh- 
aphat king of Judah, 1 Kin. 16:1-7; 2 Chr. 
19:1-3, whose life he wrote, 2 Chr. 20:34. 

IV. The "son" of Jehoshaphat and 
grandson of Nimshi (compare 1 Kin. 19:16 
and 2 Kin. 9:2), a general of the army of 
Joram, slew his master, and usurped the 
throne of Israel, B. C. 884. He reigned 28 
years. See his history in 1 Kin. 19:16, 17; 
2 Kin. 9; 10. He slew Jezebel, and ful- 
filled the divine purpose in extirpating the 
family of the impious Ahab ; he also zeal- 
ously destroyed the priests of Baal and 
many other friends of Ahab. But his heart 
was not right with God ; his " zeal for the 
Lord" was really a zeal for himself; he 
continued the worship of the golden calves, 
and Jehovah began to cut Israel short. The 
Syrians possessed themselves of his east- 
ern frontier, and his dynasty, the 5th after 
Solomon, was extinguished in the 4th gen- 
eration, Hos. 1 :4. 

V. A prominent Simeonite in the reign 
of Hezekiah, 1 Chr. 4:35, 38-41. 

JE'HUD, a border town of Dan, Josh. 
19:45, now Yehudiyeh, 8 miles east from 
Jaffa. 

JEHU'DI, a Jew, who brought Baruch to 
read the prophet Jeremiah's roll to the 
268 



princes, and himself read it to king Jehoi- 
akim.Jer. 36:14, 21-23. 

JEHUDI'JAH, the Jewess, 2d wife (see 
Bithiah) of Mered, whose sons founded 
Gedor, Socoh, etc., 1 Chr. 4:17-19. 

JEMI'MA, dove, Job's daughter, the first 
of 3 born after his trials, Job 42:14. 

JEPH'THAH, opener, 9th judge of Israel, 
between Jair and Ibzan. Being the son of 
a concubine, Gilead's other sons excluded 
him from home, and he gathered a band 
in the region east of Gilead; when the 
time was ripe, called of God, he took the 
lead of the Gileadites in throwing off the 
yoke of Ammon, signally defeated the Am- 
monites, captured 20 of their cities, chas- 
tised the envious and invading Ephraim- 
ites, and judged Israel beyond Jordan for 
6 years, B. C. 1188-1182. His history is 
told in Judg. 11 ; 12. A most affecting in- 
cident in it is his devoting his daughter to 
God as a sacrifice, in consequence of a 
rash vow. 

The arguments on the question whether 
Jephthah's daughter was actually sacrificed 
or not cannot here be cited. That he in- 
tended a real sacrifice is clear, Judg. 11 -.31 ; 
and it seems certain that he " did with her 
according to his vow," ver. 39. Only the 
natural repugnance which more enlight- 
ened people feel to such a vow and its ful- 
filment has led many interpreters to adopt 
the less obvious theory that she was only 
condemned to live and die unmarried. 
There is no intimation in Scripture that 
God approved of his vow, whatever it was. 
Paul numbers Jephthah among the saints 
of the Old Testament distinguished for 
their faith, Heb. 11:32. 

JEPHUN'NEH, may he be seen, I., a Ke- 
nezite, the father of Caleb, Joshua's faith- 
ful comrade, Num. 13:6; 14:6,30,38; 32:12; 
1 Chr. 6:56. See Caleb and Kenaz. 
II. A son of Jether, tribe of Asher, 1 Chr. 

7:38- 

JE'RAH, new moon, 4th son of Joktan, 
founder of an Arab tribe, Gen. 10:26, 30; 
1 Chr. 1:20. Their abode is supposed to 
have been in Southeastern Arabia. 

JERAH'MEEL, mercy of God, I., Hez- 
ron's eldest son, father of Ram, living in 
Southern Judah on a plateau southwest of 
Arad, 1 Chr. 2:9-42. See 1 Sam. 27:10; 
30:29. 

II. A Merarite Levite, son of Kish, 1 Chr. 
24:29. 

III. Son of Hammelech, sent byjehoia- 
kim to arrest Jeremiah and Baruch, Jer. 
36:26. 



JER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JER 



JEREMI'AH, Jehovah throws down, I., 
son of Hilkiah; the second of the "greater 
prophets," and one of the chief Old Testa- 
ment seers. He prophesied under Josiah, 
Jehoiakim, and Zedekiah, and also after 
the captivity of the latter. He was born 
at Anathoth in Benjamin, of the race of the 
Abiathar priests, and was destined of God 
to be a prophet, and consecrated for that 
object before his birth, Jer. 1:1, 5. At an 
early age he was called to act as a prophet, 
B. C. 628, in the 13th year of king Josiah, 
first at Anathoth, where his townsmen and 
kindred persecuted him, Jer. 11:18-21; 
12:6, and afterwards at Jerusalem. He re- 
mained unmarried for prophetic reasons, 
Jer. 16:2. The pious king Josiah coopera- 
ted with him in abolishing idolatry and 
promoting a general reformation, 2 Kin. 
23:1-25, and his death, B. C. 609, was la- 
mented as a grievous loss, 2 Chr. 35:20-25; 
Jer. 22:10, 15, 16. After the brief reign of 
Jehoahaz the scene greatly changed ; idol- 
atry revived, and the subsequent life of the 
prophet was full of afflictions and persecu- 
tions. In the 4th year of Jehoiakim he 
wrote his first roll of warnings and predic- 
tions, which the king burned piecemeal, 
and sought the prophet's life, Jer. 35. He 
wrote his predictions a 2d time, foretelling 
among other things the speedy captivity of 
Judah in Babylon 70 years, Jer. 25:8-12, 
and the fall of Babylon, ver. 13-38. But 
his warnings were little heeded. Zedeki- 
ah was kindly instructed by him, and 
warned of the woes impending over his 
guilty people, but to no purpose. The 
fidelity of the prophet often endangered 
his life, and he was in prison when Jerusa- 
lem was taken by Nebuchadnezzar. That 
monarch released him, and offered him a 
home in Babylon; but he chose to remain 
with the remnant of the Jews, and was car- 
ried by them erelong into Egypt, B. C. 586, 
still faithfully advising and reproving them 
till he died. For 42 years he steadfastly 
maintained the cause of truth and of God 
against his rebellious' people. Though 
naturally mild, sensitive, and retiring, he 
shrank from no danger when duty called; 
threats could not silence him, nor ill-usage 
alienate him. Tenderly compassionate to 
his infatuated countrymen, he shared with 
them the woes which he could not induce 
them to avert from their own heads. 

The book of Jeremiah, in the chrono- 
logical order of its several predictions and 
divine messages, is somewhat difficult of 
arrangement; but may be divided, by a 



natural and sufficiently accurate method, 
into 4 general sections, containing sever- 
ally the prophecies uttered in the reigns of 
Josiah, Jehoiakim, Zedekiah, and Gedaliah. 
The last chapter of the book appears to 
have been added, perhaps by Ezra; it is 
taken almost verbatim from 2 Kin. 24:18- 
20, and ch. 25. See Jer. 51:64. Messianic 
predictions are found in Jer. 23: 1-8; 31 -.31- 
40; 33:14-26. New Testament recogni- 
tions of him are found in Matt. 2:17; 
16:14; Heb. 8:8-12. 

Jeremiah wrote also the book of Lamen- 
tations, in which he utters the most plain- 
tive and pathetic sentiments over the ca- 
lamities of his people. See Lamenta- 
tions. 

There is an apocryphal " Epistle of Jer- 
emiah," warning his captive countrymen 
against Babylonish idolatry. It was writ- 
ten in Greek, not in Hebrew, and was nev- 
er included in the Jewish canon, nor ac- 
cepted as genuine by the early Christian 
fathers. 

Seven others of this name are mentioned. 
II. 2 Kin. 24:18.-111. 1 Chr. 5:24.— IV., V., 
VI. 1 Chr. 12:4, 10, 13. — VII. Neh. 10:2; 
12:1, 34.— VIII. Jer. 35:3. 

JEREMI'AS, Matt. 16:14, and JER'EMY, 
Matt. 2:17, are put in A. V. for Jeremiah. 

JER'ICHO , p lace of fragrance, a rich and 
strong city in the Jordan valley, in the lim- 
its assigned to the tribe of Benjamin, 15 
miles east-northeast from Jerusalem and 5 
miles from the Jordan, Josh. 16:7; 18:21, 
opposite the crossing-place of the Israel- 
ites, Josh. 3:16. It is first mentioned in 
the story of the Hebrew spies and Rahab, 
Josh. 2:1-21. It was the first city in Ca- 
naan taken by Joshua, who being miracu- 
lously aided by the downfall of its walls, 
totally destroyed it, sparing only Rahab 
and her household, and pronounced a curse 
upon the person who should ever rebuild 
it — perhaps as a walled city — which was 
more than 500 years afterwards fulfilled on 
Hiel, Josh. 6:26; 1 Kin. 16:34. Meanwhile 
a new Jericho had been built on some 
neighboring site, Judg. 3:13; 2 Sam. 10:5. 
Jericho was also called the " city of palm- 
trees," Deut. 34:3; Judg. 1:16, and became 
afterwards flourishing and second in im- 
portance only to Jerusalem. It contained 
a school of the prophets, and was the resi- 
dence of Elisha, 2 Kin. 2:4, 5, 18. Oppo- 
site to it, beyond the Jordan, Elijah ascend- 
ed to heaven, ver. 1-22; and in its plain 
king Zedekiah was seized by the Chaldae- 
ans, 2 Kin. 25:5; Jer. 39:9. Men of Jericho 

269 



JER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JER 




THE PLAIN OF JERICHO, FROM THE HILLS ON THE WEST. 



returned from the Captivity, and helped to 
fortify Jerusalem, Ezra 2:34; Neh. 3:2; 
7:36. Here also Christ healed two blind 
men, Matt. 20:29-34, and forgave Zacchae- 
us, Luke 19:1-10. 

The site of Jericho has usually been fixed 
at er-Riha, a mean and foul Arab hamlet 
of some 200 inhabitants. Recent travel- 
lers, however, show that the probable loca- 
tion of Jericho was 2 miles west of er-Riha, 
at the mouth of Wady Kelt, and where the 
road from Jerusalem comes into the plain. 
The city destroyed by Joshua may have 
been near to the fountain of Elisha, sup- 
posed to be the present Ain es-Sultan, 2 
miles northwest of er-Riha. On the west 
and north of Jericho rise high limestone 
hills, one of which, the dreary Quarantana, 
1,200 or 1,500 feet high, derives its name 
from the modern tradition that it was the 
scene of our Lord's " forty, days' " fast and 
temptation. Between the hills and the 
Jordan lies "the plain of Jericho," Josh. 
4:13, over against "the plains of Moab " 
east of the river. It was anciently well 
watered and amazingly fruitful, and might 
easily be made so again, but now lies neg- 
lected, and the palm-trees, balsam, and 
honey, for which it was once famous, have 
disappeared. 

The road from Jericho to Jerusalem as- 
cends through narrow and rocky passes 
amid ravines and precipices. It is a diffi- 
cult and dangerous route, and is still in- 
270 



fested by robbers, as in the time of the good 
Samaritan, Luke 10:30-34. 

JEROBO'AM, zvhose people are many, I., 
the first king of Israel after its separation 
from Judah, an Ephraimite, the son of Ne- 
bat and Zeruah, 1 Kin. 11:26. During the 
latter part of Solomon's reign, and while 
an officer under him, ver. 28, he plotted 
against him, and was obliged to flee into 
Egypt to Shishak, after a memorable in- 
terview with Ahijah the prophet, foreshad- 
owing the future, ver. 29-40. On the death 
of Solomon he was summoned by the 10 
tribes to return and present their demands 
to Rehoboam; and when these were re- 
fused, he was chosen king of the revolted 
tribes, B. C. 975, 1 Kin. 12:1-3, 20. He thus 
executed the divine judgment on Judah 
and Solomon, though himself moved by an 
unprincipled ambition, and pursuing the 
same ungodly course that had brought 
chastisement on Judah. He reigned 22 
years. The only notable act of his reign 
marked him with infamy, as the man "who 
made Israel to sin." It was the idolatrous 
establishment of golden calves at Bethel 
and Dan, that the people might worship 
there and not at Jerusalem. He also su- 
perseded the sons of Aaron by priests cho- 
sen from " the lowest of the people." This 
God-defying but effective measure, in which 
he was followed by all the kings of Israel, 
was a confession of weakness as well as 
of depravity. Neithe'r miracles nor warn- 



JER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JER 



ings, nor the premature death of Abijah 
his son, could dissuade him. Great disas- 
ters befell him in his own lifetime ; he was 
at war with Judah all his days, i Kin. 
14:1-20, 30; 2 Chr. 13:1-20, and with the 
brief reign of Nadab his son the doomed 
family became extinct, 1 Kin. 15:25, 28. 

II. Jeroboam Second, the 13th king of 
Israel, son and successor of Joash, B. C. 
825. He was the 4th of the 5 kings of Je- 
hu's dynasty, which was the 4th in the 
northern kingdom, and his reign was the 
most prosperous of all, and continued 41 
years. He followed up his father's suc- 
cesses over the Syrians, took Hamath and 
Damascus, and all the region east of the 
Jordan down to the Dead Sea, and ad- 
vanced to its highest point the prosperity 



of that kingdom. Yet his long reign added 
heavily to the guilt of Israel, by increased 
luxury, oppression, and vice. After him, 
the kingdom rapidly declined, and his own 
dynasty perished within a year, fulfilling 
the prediction of Jonah, 2 Kin. 14:23-29; 
15:8-12. See also the contemporary proph- 
ets, particularly Amos and Hosea. 

JERUB'BAAL, contender with Baal, the 
name given by the men of Ophrah to Gid- 
eon, when he. destroyed Baal's altar, Judg. 
6:31, 32. See Gideon. 

JERUB'BESHETH, contender with the 
idol, another name of Jerubbaal, given to 
avoid mentioning Baal, 2 Sam. 11:21. 

JERU ' EL, founded by God, a small desert 
place between the Dead Sea and Jerusalem, 
2 Chr. 20:16, with a watch-tower, ver. 24. 




JERUSALEM FROM THE BETHANY ROAD, ON THE SOUTH PART OF MOUNT OLIVET. 



JERU'SALEM, foundation of peace, the 
chief city of the Holy Land, and to the 
Christian the most illustrious in the world. 
It is situated in 310 46' 35" N. lat., and 350 
18' 30" E. long., on elevated ground south 
of the centre of the country, about 33 miles 
from the Mediterranean, and about 19 from 
the Jordan. Its site was early hallowed by 
God's trial of Abraham's faith, Gen. 22; 
2 Chr. 3:1. It was on the border of the 
tribes of Benjamin and Judah, mostly with- 
in the limits of the former, but reckoned as 
belonging to the latter, because conquered 
by it, Josh. 15:8; 18:16, 28; Judg. 1:1-8. 
The most ancient name of the city was 
Salem, Gen. 14:18; Psa. 76:2; Heb. 7:2; 
and it afterwards was called Jebus, as be- 



longing to the Jebusites, Judg. 19:10, 11. 
Several other names were given it: Ariel, 
Isa. 29:1, 2, 7; the city of the Great King, 
Psa. 48:2; Matt. 5:35; the Holy City, Neh. 
11:1; Matt. 4:5; 27:53; Rev. 11:2. Being 
a very strong position, it resisted the at- 
tempts of the Israelites to become the sole 
masters of it, Josh. 15:63, the "lower city" 
being first captured, Judg. 1:3-8, 21, until 
at length its fortress was stormed by Da- 
vid, 2 Sam. 5:6-9; after which it received 
its present name, and was also called "the 
city of David." It now became the reli- 
gious and political centre of the kingdom 
by divine appointment, 1 Kin. 11:36, and 
was greatly enlarged, adorned, and forti- 
fied. But its chief glory was that in its 

27T 



JER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JER 



magnificent temple the one living and 
true God dwelt and revealed himself. 

After the division of the tribes, it con- 
tinued the capital of the kingdom of Judah, 
was several times taken and plundered, 
and at length was destroyed at the Baby- 
lonian captivity, 2 Kin. 14:13; 2 Chr. 12:9; 
21:16; 24:23; 25:23; 36:3, 10, 17-20. In all 
it has been 17 times captured and despoiled. 
After 70 years it was rebuilt by the Jews 
on their return from captivity about 536 B. 
C, who did much to restore it to its former 
splendor. About 332 B. C. the city yielded 
to Alexander of Macedon; and not long 
after his death, Ptolemy Soter of Egypt 
took it by an assault on the Sabbath, when 
it is said the Jews scrupled to fight, B. C. 
320. In 170 B. C, Jerusalem fell under the 
tyranny of Antiochus Epiphanes, who razed 
its walls, set up an image of Jupiter in the 
temple, and used every means to force the 
people into idolatry. Under the Macca- 
bees, however, the Jews, in 163 B. C, re- 
covered their independence. Just a cen- 
tury later it was conquered by the Romans 
under Pompey. It was plundered by Cras- 
sus, B. C. 54, but Herod the Great expend- 
ed vast sums in its embellishment, his 
greatest work being the rebuilding of the 
temple, commenced B. C. 19 or 20. To the 
city and temple thus renovated the ever- 
blessed Messiah came, in the fulness of 
time, and made the place of his feet glori- 
ous. By his rejection and crucifixion Jeru- 
salem filled up the cup of her guilt; the 
Jewish nation perished from off the land 
of their fathers, and the city and temple 
were taken by Titus and totally destroyed, 
A. D. 70-71. Of all the structures of Jeru- 
salem, only 3 towers and a part of the 
western wall were left standing. Still, as 
the Jews began to return thither, and mani- 
fested a rebellious spirit, the emperor Adri- 
an planted a Roman colony there in A. D. 
135, and banished the Jews, prohibiting 
their return on pain of death. He changed 
the name of the city to yElia Capitolina, 
consecrated it to heathen deities, in order 
to defile it as much as possible, and did 
what he could to obliterate all traces both 
of Judaism and Christianity. From this 
period the name JElia became so common 
that the name Jerusalem was preserved 
only among the Jews and better informed 
Christians. In the time of Constantine, 
however, it resumed its ancient name, 
which it has retained to the present day. 
Helena, the mother of Constantine, built 2 
churches in Bethlehem and on Mount Oli- 
272 



vet, about A. D. 326; and Julian, w-ho, after 
his father, succeeded to the empire of his 
uncle Constantine, endeavored to rebuild 
the temple; but his design and that of the 
Jews, whom he patronized, was frustrated, 
as contemporary historians relate, by an 
earthquake, and by balls of fire bursting 
forth among the workmen, A. D. 363. 

The subsequent history of Jerusalem may 
be told in a few words. In 614 it was ta- 
ken by Chosroes II. king of Persia, who 
slew, it is said, 90,000 men, and demolished, 
to the utmost of his power, whatever the 
Christians had venerated : in 627 Heraclius 
defeated Chosroes, and Jerusalem was re- 
covered by the Greeks. Soon after com- 
menced the long and wretched era of Mo- 
hammedanism. About 637 the city was 
taken from the Christians by the caliph 
Omar, after a siege of 4 months, and con- 
tinued under the caliphs of Bagdad till 868, 
when it was taken by Ahmed, a Turkish 
sovereign of Egypt. During the space of 
220 years it was subject to several masters, 
Turkish and Saracenic, and in 1099 it was 
taken by the Crusaders under Godfrey 
Bouillon, who was elected king. He was 
succeeded by his brother Baldwin, who 
died in 11 18. In 1187, Saladin, sultan of 
the East, captured the city, assisted by the 
treachery of Raymond, count of Tripoli, 
who was found dead in his bed on the 
morning of the day in which he Avas to 
have delivered up the city. It was re- 
stored, in 1242, to the Latin princes, by 
Saleh Ismael, emir of Damascus ; they lost 
it in 1 291 to the sultans of Egypt, who held 
it till 1382. Selim, the Turkish sultan, re- 
duced Egypt and Syria, including Jerusa- 
lem, in 1517, and his son Solyman built or 
reconstructed the present walls in 1542. 
Since then it has remained under the do- 
minion of Turkey, except when held for a 
short time, 1832-4, by Ibrahim Pasha, son 
of Mohammed Ali of Egypt. At present, 
this city is included in the pashalic of Da- 
mascus', though it has a resident Turkish 
governor. 

Jerusalem is situated on the central ta- 
ble-land of Judaea, in the line of the long 
ridge which forms the watershed between 
the Mediterranean and the Jordan, the body 
of the city being 2,593 feet above the Med- 
iterranean, and the Mount of Olives 2,683. 
The average temperature for 5 years was 
in January 49°, Feb. 540, Mar. 55°, A P ril 
610, May 730, June 75°, July 79P, Aug. 79°, 
Sept. 770, Oct. 74, Nov. 630, Dec. 54° • Tt 
lies on ground which slopes gently dowo 



JER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JER 



towards the east, the slope being termina- 
ted by an abrupt declivity, in some parts 
precipitous, and overhanging the valley of 
Jehoshaphat or of the Kidron. This slo- 
ping ground is also terminated on the 
south by the deep and narrow valley of 
Hinnom, which constituted the ancient 
southern boundary of the city, and which 
also ascends on its west side, and comes 
out upon the high ground on the north- 
west. See Gihon. But in the city itself 
there were also 2 ravines or smaller val- 
leys, dividing the land covered by build- 
ings into 3 principal parts or hills. Zion, 
the highest of these, was in the southwest 
quarter of the city, skirted on the south 
and west by the deep valley of Hinnom. 
On its north and east sides lay the smaller 
valley " of the cheesemongers," or Tyro- 
poeon, opening on the southeast into the 
valley of the Kidron. The Tyropceon also 
united, near the northeast foot of Zion, 
with a valley coming down from the north. 
Zion was also called The city of David ; 
and by Josephus, "the upper city." Sur- 
rounded anciently by walls as well as deep 
valleys, it was the strongest part of the 
city, and contained the citadel and the 
king's palace. The Tyropceon separated 
it from Acra on the north and Moriah on 
the northeast. Acra was less elevated 
than Zion, or than the ground to the north- 
west beyond the walls. It is called by Jo- 
sephus " the lower city." Moriah, the 
sacred hill, lay northeast of Zion, with 
which it was anciently connected at its 
nearest corner by a bridge over the Tyro- 
pceon, some of the huge stones in its east- 
ern arch having been identified by Dr. 
Robinson, projecting from the western wall 
of the sacred area 39 feet from its south- 
west corner, and the buttress or pier which 
supported the western end of the bridge 
having been more recently disinterred at 
the depth of 60 feet, together with stones of 
the pavement of this causeway, worn it 
may be by the feet of our Lord and his dis- 
ciples. The arch was 51% feet wide and 
over 300 feet long across the Tyropceon. 
Moriah was at first a small eminence, but 
its area was greatly enlarged to make room 
for the temple. It was but a part of the 
continuous ridge on the east side of the 
city, overlooking the deep valley of the 
Kidron ; rising on the north, after a slight 
depression, into the hill Bezetha, the "new 
city " of Josephus, and sinking away on 
the south into the hill Ophel. On the east 
of Jerusalem, and stretching from north to 

18 



south, lies the Mount of Olives, divided 
from the city by the valley of the Kidron, 
and commanding a noble prospect of the city 
and surrounding country. Over against 
Moriah, or a little farther north, lies the 
garden of Gethsemane, with its olive-trees, 
at the foot of the Mount of Olives. Just 
below the city, on the east side of the val- 
ley of the Kidron, lies the miserable village 
of Siloa; farther down, this valley unites 
with that of Hinnom, at a beautiful spot 
anciently "the king's garden," Neh. 3:15; 
still below, is the well of Nehemiah, an- 
ciently En-rogel ; and from this spot the 
united valley winds among mountains 
southward and eastward to the Dead Sea. 
In the mouth of the Tyropceon, between 
Ophel and Zion, is the pool of Siloam. In 
the valley west and northwest of Zion are 
the 2 pools of Gihon, the lower being now 
broken and dry. In the rocks around Je- 
rusalem, and chiefly in the sides of the val- 
leys of the Kidron and Hinnom opposite 
the city, are many excavated tombs and 
caves, and here was always the burial- 
place of the city. See Jehoshaphat. 

Of the walls of ancient Jerusalem, the 
most ancient, that of David and Solomon, 
encircled the whole of Mount Zion, and 
was also continued around Moriah and 
Ophel. The depth of the valleys south 
and east of Jerusalem rendered it com- 
paratively easy to fortify and defend it on 
these sides. This southern wall, in the 
period of the kings and . f Christ, traversed 
the outmost verge of those hills, inclosing 
the pool of Siloam, Ophel, and portions 
apparently of the valleys of Hinnom and 
Kidron, 2 Chr. 33:14; Neh. 2:14; 3:15. 

A 2d wall, built by Jotham, Hezekiah, 
and Manasseh, made some changes on the 
southern line, and inclosed a large addi- 
tional space on the north. It commenced 
somewhat east of the tower of Hippicus, 
on the northwest border of Zion, included 
Acra and part of Bezetha, and united with 
the old wall on the east. This wall was 
destroyed, as well as the first, at the Cap- 
tivity, but both were afterwards reerected, 
it is believed, on nearly the same lines, 
and were substantially the same at the 
time of Christ. The precise course of the 
2d wall may perhaps be ascertained by fu- 
ture excavations, but is now more dispu- 
ted than any other point of the topogra- 
phy of Jerusalem. To ascertain the exact 
location of " the gate Gennath," where this 
wall began, and trace its course " in a cir- 
cuit" to Antonia, would show whether the 

273 



JER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JER 




in tlie tiine^of Chris t. 



k 



rl^ Camp of r 
""" WM£ '%,/lbwervfi 
WSnf "'y!- JPsepJtbias. 

'lira""""' 



. Jereniia/i:'^ 



A 




C ~V Po7>lJ>C!/t 



traditional site of Calvary, now far within 
the city limits, lay within or without the 
ancient wall. The arguments from topog- 
raphy are strongly against the tradition; 
and it would seem that this whole region, 
if not actually within the wall, must have 
been at least occupied by the city suburbs 
at that time ; for 

The 3d wall, commenced by Herod 

Agrippa only 10 years after the crucifixion 

of Christ, ran from the tower Hippicus 

nearly half a mile northwest to the tower 

274 



of Psephinos, and sweeping round by the 
" tombs of the kings," passed down east 
of Bezetha, and joined the old eastern wall. 
The whole circumference of the city at that 
time was a little over 4 miles. Now it is 
only iy x at the most ; and the large space 
on the north, which the wall of Agrippa in- 
closed, is proved to have been built upon 
by the numerous cisterns which yet re- 
main and the marble fragments which the 
plough often turns up. 

The city had in its various walls many 



JER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JER 



gates, 18 or 20 names being found, some of 
them no doubt belonging to the same gate ; 
among them are the gate of Ephraim, 
2 Chr. 25:23, the fish-gate, 33:14, the sheep- 
gate, Neh. 3:1. 

The preceding plan of ancient Jerusa- 
lem exhibits the walls, gates, towers, and 
other prominent objects in and around the 
city, with as much accuracy as can be se- 
cured, now that it has borne the ravages 
of so many centuries, been nearly a score 
of times captured, and often razed to the 
ground. Fuller descriptions of many of 



the localities referred to may be found un- 
der their respective heads. 

Water seems to have always abounded 
in Jerusalem. In the various sieges it sus- 
tained, however tormented with hunger the 
besieged may have been, they had all the 
water they needed, while the besiegers 
were in distress for want of it. See Cis- 
terns and Pools. 

Modern Jerusalem, called by the Arabs 
El-Kuds, the holy, occupies unquestiona- 
bly the site of the Jerusalem of the Bible. 
It is still " beautiful for situation," and 




DOME OF THE ROCK, 

stands forth on its well-defined hills " as a 
city that is compact together," Psa. 48:2, 
12; 122:3,4; 125:1,2. The distant view of 
its stately walls and numerous domes and 
minarets is highly imposing. But its old 
glory has departed ; its thronging myriads 
are no more ; desolation covers the barren 



OR MOSQUE OF OMAR. 

mountains around it, and the tribes go up 
to the house of the Lord no longer. She 
that once sat as a queen among them, now 
sitteth solitary, "trodden down of the Gen- 
tiles," " 'reft of her sons, and 'mid her foes 
forlorn." " Zion is ploughed as a field," 
and the soil is mixed with the rubbish of 

275 



JER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JER 



ages to the depth in some places of 40 
feet. 

The modern wall, built in 1542, varies 
from 20 to 60 feet in height, and is about 
2^ miles in circuit. On the eastern and 
shortest side its course is nearly straight ; 
and it coincides, in the southern half on 
this side, with the wall of the sacred area 
now called El-Haram, the sacred, forming 
about one-eighth of the modern city. This 
area, 510 to 534 yards long from north to 
south, and 307 to 344 yards in breadth, is 
inclosed by high walls, the lower stones of 
which are in many parts very large, and 
much more ancient than the superstruc- 
ture. It is occupied by the great octago- 
nal mosque called Kubbet es-Sukhrah, or 
Dome of the Rock., and another mosque 
el-Aksa, at the southwest corner, 270 feet 
by 200, with their grounds. It covers the 
site of the ancient temple and of the great 
tower Antonia. See Temple. The Dome 
of the Rock, also called the Mosque of 
Omar, is only less revered among Moslems 
than that at Mecca, and probably covers 
the site of Solomon's temple. Its 8 sides 
are each 66 feet long, and its dome, rising 
to the height of 170 feet, is the most prom- 
inent object in every view of Jerusalem. 
The sacred rock under the dome, 57 feet 
by 43, is said to mark the spot where the 
ark of the covenant once stood. At the 
southeast corner of the Haram area, where 
the wall is 77 feet high, the ground at its 
base is 150 feet above the dry bed of the 
Kidron. From this corner the wall runs 
irregularly west by south, crosses Mount 
Zion, leaving the greater part of it unin- 
closed on the south, and at its western 
verge turns north to the Jaffa gate, where 
the lower part of a very old and strong 
tower still remains. The upper part of this 
tower is less ancient and massive. It is 
known as "the Tower of David," and is 
generally thought to have been the Hippi- 
cus of Josephus. Thence the wall sweeps 
irregularly round to the northeast corner. 
It is flanked at unequal distances by square 
towers, and has battlements running all 
around on its summit, with loop-holes in 
them for arrows or muskets. There are 
now in use only 4 gates : the Jaffa or Beth- 
lehem gate on the west, the Damascus gate 
on the north, St. Stephen's gate on the east, 
and Zion gate on the south. In the eastern 
wall of el-Haram is the Golden gate, long 
since blocked up, and in the city wall 2 
smaller gates, more recently closed, name- 
ly, Herod's gate on the northeast, and dung- 
276 



gate in the Tyropceon on the south. See 
Kidron. 

Within the city walls are seen narrow 
and often covered streets, with no level 
ground, ungraded, ill-paved, and in some 
parts filthy, though less so than in most 
Oriental cities. The houses are of hewn 
stone, often built on ruins many feet deep, 
Jer. 30:18, with few windows towards the 
streets. Their flat roofs are strengthened 
and ornamented by many small domes. 
The most beautiful part of the city is the 
area of the great mosque — from which un- 
til recently all Christians have been rigor- 
ously excluded for 6 centuries — with its 
lawns and cypress-trees, and the noble 
dome rising high above the wall. On Mount 
Zion much of the space within the wall is 
occupied by the huge Armenian convent, 
with the Syrian convent and the church of 
St. James. See Zion. Beyond the wall 
and far to the south is a Mohammedan 
mosque, professedly over the tomb of Da- 
vid. This is more jealously guarded against 
Christians than even the mosque of Omar. 
Near it is the small cemetery of the Amer- 
ican missionaries. At the northwest cor- 
ner of Zion rises the high square citadel 
above referred to, ancient and grand. Still 
farther north is the Latin (Franciscan) con- 
vent, in the most westerly part of Jerusa- 
lem ; and between it and the centre of the 
city stands the Church of the Holy Sepul- 
chre, over the traditional scenes of the cru- 
cifixion, burial, and resurrection of our 
Lord. See Calvary. In various parts of 
the city the minarets of 11 mosques arise, 
amid an assemblage of about 2,000 dwell- 
ings, not a few of which are much dilapi- 
dated. Under the city were large irregu- 
lar excavations, to which one descends from 
a narrow 20-inch opening near the Damas- 
cus gate ; they run southeast 600 feet, and 
are 200 feet wide, with many rock masses 
left untouched as supports. Here were 
quarried many of the stones used in build- 
ing the city, and vast cisterns were formed 
for storing water. 

The present population of Jerusalem 
may be some 20,000 souls, of whom about 
two-fifths are Jews, and the remainder Mos- 
lems and Christians in nearly equal num- 
bers. There is also a considerable garri- 
son, 800 to 1,000, stationed there; and in 
April of each year many thousands of pil- 
grims from foreign lands make a flying 
visit to the sacred places. The spoken 
language in Jerusalem is the Arabic. The 
Moslems reside in the centre of the city, 




MOSQUE OF OMAR. 



JER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JES 



and towards the north and east. The Jews' 
quarter is on the northeast side of Zion. 
The Greek, Latin, Armenian, Syrian, and 
Coptic Christians are located chiefly around 
their respective convents, and their burial- 
places are on Mount Zion, as well as that 
of the American Protestant mission. The 
Jews bury on Mount Olivet, and the Mo- 
hammedans in several places, though pre- 
ferring the eastern brow of Moriah. Jeru- 
salem is but the melancholy shadow of its 
former self. The nominal Christians resi- 
ding there are in a state of degraded and 
ignorant subjection to the Mohammedans, 
and their petty discords and superstitions 
are a reproach to the Christian name. The 
Jews, about 8,000 in number, are still more 
oppressed and abject. Most of them were 
born in other lands, and have come here 
to die, in a city no longer their own. Dis- 
couraged by endless exactions, they subsist 
on the charities of their brethren abroad. 
It is only as a purchased privilege that they 
are allowed to approach the foundations of 
the sacred hill where their fathers wor- 
shipped the only true God. Here, in a 
small area near some huge and ancient 
stones in the base of the western wall of 
Moriah at el-Aksa, they gather, on Fridays 
and other sacred days, to sit weeping and 
wailing on the ground, taking up the heart- 
breaking lamentations of Jeremiah — living 
witnesses of the truth of God's word ful- 
filled in them. See Wall. 

The New Jerusalem is a name given 
not to a place but to a community, the 
church of Christ, and signifying its firm 
foundations in the love, choice, and cove- 
nant of God in Christ, 1 Pet. 2:6; its strong 
bulwarks, living fountains, and beautiful 
palaces; its thronging thousands, its in- 
dwelling God, and its consummated glory 
in heaven, Gal. 4:26; Heb. 12:22; Rev. 
3:12, 21. 

JERU'SHA, possessed, w r ife of Uzziah and 
mother of Jotham, kings of Judah, 2 Kin. 
15:33; 2 Chr. 27:1. 

JESHA'NAH, old, a city taken from Jero- 
boam by Abijah, with Bethel and Ephraim, 
2 Chr. 13:19. 

JESH'IMON, desert, found in the Hebrew 
in Deut. 32:10; Psa. 78:40; 106:14; 107:4; 
Isa. 43:19, 20. With the article prefixed it 
denotes apparently the waste strip of land 
on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea, 
perhaps with the adjacent heights, Num. 
21:20; 23:28; 1 Sam. 23:19, 24; 26:1,3. 

JESH'UA, a later Hebrew form of Josh- 
ua, whose salvation Jehovah is, I., given in 



Neh. 8:17 to Joshua, son of Nun, which 
see. 

II. A priest in the 9th course in David's 
time, 1 Chr. 24:11; Ezra 2:36. 

III. ,A trusted Levite in the time of Hez- 
ekiah, 2 Chr. 31:15. 

IV. The son of Josedech or Jozadak, 
high-priest of the Jews at their return from 
the Captivity. He opposed the schemes of 
the Samaritans, and acted well his part in 
the restoration of the city, the temple, and 
the divine worship, Ezra 4:3; 5:2. His 
name occurs in the prophecies of the time, 
Hag. 1:1, 12; 2:2; Zech. 3; 6:11-15. 

V. Several others of this name are men- 
tioned in Ezra 2:6, 40; 8:33; Neh. 3:19; 
7:11, 43; 8:7; 9:4, 5; 10:9; 12:8, 24. 

VI. A town of Judah after the Captivity, 
Neh. 1 1 : 26, probably the modern Yeshu'a, 
near the spot between Beth-horon and So- 
coh, so memorable in Joshua's history, Josh. 
10:11-14, 6 miles east of Ekron. 

JESH'URUN, a poetical name of Israel, 
probably derived from a root meaning to 
be upright, and applied to the people of 
God as the objects of his justifying love, 
which does not "behold iniquity in Jacob," 
Deut. 32:15; 33:5, 26; Isa. 44:2. 

JES'SE, living or manly, a Bethlehemite, 
of the tribe of Judah, son of Obed and fa- 
ther of David. He was a grandson of Ruth 
the Moabitess, and in her native land he 
and his wife found an asylum while David 
was most in danger from the jealous pur- 
suit of Saul, Ruth 4:17; 1 Sam. 16; 17:12; 
22:3; Matt. 1:5. His wife, name unknown, 
we infer from Psa. 86:16; 116:16, was a 
pious woman, and trained David to wor- 
ship and obey the God of his fathers. He 
had 8 sons, a large flock which they tended 
in turn, and ample means. His promi- 
nence is implied in the frequency with 
which his name appears, David being often 
called "the son of Jesse," even as late as 
Isa. 11: 1, 10, where he is mentioned as an 
ancestor of our Lord. 

JE'SUS CHRIST, the Son of God, the 
Messiah, and Saviour of the world, the first 
and principal object of the prophecies ; who 
was prefigured and promised in the Old 
Testament; was expected and desired by 
the patriarchs; the hope and salvation of 
the Gentiles ; the glory, happiness, and con- 
solation of Christians. The name JESUS, 
in Hebrew Jehoshuah or Joshua, signifies 
Saviour, or Jehovah saves. No one ever 
bore this name with so much justice, nor 
so perfectly fulfilled the signification of it, 
as Jesus Christ, who saves from sin and 

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JES 



hell, and has merited heaven for us by the 
price of his blood. It was given to him 
by divine appointment, Matt. 1:21, as the 
proper name for the Saviour so long de- 
sired, and whom all the myriads of the 
redeemed in heaven will for ever adore as 
their only and all-glorious Redeemer. For 
Old Testament predictions of him see 
Prophets. 

Jesus was the common name of the Sa- 
viour ; while the name Christ, meaning 
The Anointed One, The Messiah, was his 
official name. Both names are used sep- 
arately, in the gospels and also in the epis- 
tles; but Jesus generally stands by itself 
in the gospels, which are narratives of his 
life; while in the epistles, which treat of 
his divine nature and of his redeeming 
work, he is called Christ, Christ Jesus, 
or The Lord Jesus Christ. See Christ 
and Titles of Christ. 

Here, under the Redeemer's human 
name, belong the facts relating to his hu- 
man nature and the history of his life 
upon earth, which forms, with the truths 
flowing from it, the theme of the whole 
New Testament. His true and complete 
humanity, having the soul as well as the 
body of man, is everywhere seen in the 
gospel history. He who is " God over all, 
blessed for ever," was an Israelite as " con- 
cerning the flesh," Rom. 9:5, and took upon 
him our whole nature, in order to be a per- 
fect Saviour. His favorite title, "Son of 
man," used 81 times in the gospels in speak- 
ing of himself, implies his thorough and 
hearty identification with the human family, 
as well as his headship of it for his purposes 
of redemption. As a man, Jesus was the 
King of men. No words can describe that 
character in which such firmness and gen- 
tleness, such dignity and humility, such 
enthusiasm and calmness, such wisdom 
and simplicity, such holiness and charity, 
such justice and mercy, such sympathy 
with heaven and with earth, such love to 
God and love to man, blended in perfect 
harmony. Nothing in it was redundant, 
and nothing was wanting. The world had 
never produced, nor even conceived of 
such a character, and its portraiture in the 
gospels is a proof of their divine origin 
which the infidel cannot gainsay. Could 
the whole human race, of all ages, kin- 
dreds, and tongues, be assembled to see 
the crucified Redeemer as he is, and com- 
pare earth's noblest benefactors with him, 
there would be but one voice among them. 
Every crown of glory and every meed of 
278 



praise would be given to Him who alone 
is worthy — for perfection of character, for 
love to mankind, for sacrifices endured, 
and for benefits bestowed. His glory will 
for ever be celebrated as the Friend of 
man, the Lamb sacrificed for us. 

But his absolute and perfect divinity is 
as clearly and fully asserted and proved 
as his humanity — by his own manifold 
declarations, his countless and stupendous 
miracles, the testimony of all nature that 
on the instant obeyed his commands given 
in his own name, of men and demons that 
felt his power, of angels who ministered 
unto him, and of the Father himself. 

The visit of Jesus Christ to the earth 
has made it for ever glorious above less 
favored worlds, and forms the most signal 
event in its annals. The time of his birth 
is commemorated by the Christian era, 
the first year of which corresponds to 
about the year 754 from the building of 
Rome. It is generally conceded, however, 
that the Saviour was born 4 years before 
A. D. 1, and 4,000 years after the creation 
of Adam. He was of the tribe of Judah,. 
on the part of both Joseph and Mary, and 
of the royal line of David. His birth pre- 
ceded the death of Herod only a few" 
months. Joseph seems to have been in 
moderate circumstances, a carpenter, and 
Jesus himself followed the same trade. His 
public ministry commenced when he was 
30 years of age, and continued, according 
to the received opinion, about 3K years. 
Respecting his ancestors and family, see 
Genealogy and Brother. 

Of his personal appearance he has wisety 
chosen to give no description, and no reli- 
able likeness has been preserved. From 
the gospel indications we infer that, like 
the sacrifices prescribed in the Mosaic rit- 
ual as types of him, the great Antitype 
was without bodily defects, as he was pure 
from all sin. He is believed to have been 
not marked in his exterior, of vigorous 
health through his freedom from the sins 
which occasion most diseases, and able to- 
endure the journeys and labors narrated 
of him ; and while veiling his divine glo- 
ries, except by partial disclosures from 
time to time, yet something divine must 
always have appeared in his aspect of no- 
bleness, wisdom, purity, and benignity. 

The life of the Redeemer must be stud- 
ied in the 4 gospels, where it was recorded 
under the guidance of supreme wisdom. 
Many efforts have been made, with valua- 
ble results, to arrange the narrations of 



JES 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JES 



the evangelists in the true order of time. 
But as neither of the gospels follows the 
exact course of events, many incidents are 
very indeterminate, and are variously ar- 
ranged by different harmonists. No one, 
however, has been more successful than 
Dr. Robinson; and we borrow from his 
valuable "Harmony of the Gospels" the 
following elaborate table, presenting in a 
condensed form the various events of our 
Saviour's life, with the supposed place and 
period of their occurrence. 

PART I. 

EVENTS CONNECTED WITH THE BIRTH AND 
CHILDHOOD OF OUR LORD. 

Time : About thirteen and a half years. 

An angel appears to Zacharias — Jerusalem. 

An angel appears to Mary — Nazareth. 

Mary visits Elisabeth — Juttah. 

Birth of John the Baptist— Juttah. 

An angel appears to Joseph — Nazareth. 

The birth of Jesus — Bethlehem. 

An angel appears to the shepherds — Near Beth- 
lehem. 

The circumcision of Jesus, and his presentation 
in the temple — Bethlehem ; Jerusalem. 

The Magi — Jerusalem ; Bethlehem. 

The flight into Egypt. Herod's cruelty. The 
return — Bethlehem; Egypt; Nazareth. 

At twelve years of age Jesus goes to the Pass- 
over — Jerusalem. 

Return to his home — Nazareth. 

PART II. 

ANNOUNCEMENT AND INTRODUCTION OF OUR 
LORD'S PUBLIC MINISTRY. 

Time : About one year. 
The ministry of John the Baptist — Tlie Desert; 

The Jordan. 
The baptism of Jesus— The Jordan. 
The fasting and temptation — Desert of Judcza. 
Preface to John's gospel. 
Testimony of John the Baptist to Jesus — Bethany 

beyond Jordan. 
Jesus gains disciples— The Jordan; Galilee. 
The marriage at Cana of Galilee. 

PART III. 

OUR LORD'S FIRST PASSOVER, AND THE SUBSE- 
QUENT TRANSACTIONS UNTIL THE SECOND. 

Time: One year. 

At the Passover Jesus drives the traders out of 
the temple — Jerusalem. 

Our Lord's discourse with Nicodemus — Jerusa- 
lem. 

Jesus remains in Judaea and baptizes. Further 
testimony of John the Baptist. 

Jesus departs towards Galilee after John's impris- 
onment. 

Our Lord's discourse with the Samaritan woman. 
Many of the Samaritans believe on him — She- 
chem. 

Jesus teaches publicly in Galilee. 

Jesus again at Cana, where he heals the son of a 
nobleman lying ill at Capernaum — Cana of Gal- 
ilee, 



Jesus at Nazareth ; he is there rejected, and fixes 

his abode at Capernaum. 
The call of Simon Peter and Andrew, and of 

James and John, with the miraculous draught 

of fishes — Near Capernaum. 
The healing of a demoniac in the synagogue — 

Capernaum. 
The healing of Peter's wife's mother and many 

others — Capernaum. 
Jesus with his disciples goes from Capernaum 

throughout Galilee. 
The healing of a leper— Galilee. 
The healing of a paralytic— Capernaum. 
The call of Matthew — Capernaum. 

PART IV. 

OUR LORD'S SECOND PASSOVER, AND THE SUBSE- 
QUENT TRANSACTIONS UNTIL THE THIRD. 

Time : One year. 

The pool of Bethesda ; the healing of the infirm 
man; and our Lord's subsequent discourse — 
Jerusalem. 

The disciples pluck ears of grain on the Sab- 
bath — On the way to Galilee. 

The healing of the withered hand on the Sab- 
bath — Galilee. 

Jesus arrives at the Sea of Tiberias, and is fol- 
lowed by multitudes — Lake of Galilee. 

Jesus withdraws to a mountain, and chooses the 
twelve; the multitudes follow him — Near Ca- 
pernaum. 

The sermon on the mount — Near Capernaum. 

The healing of the centurion's servant — Caper- 
naum. 

The raising of the widow's son — Nain. 

John the Baptist in prison sends disciples to Je- 
sus — Galilee ; Capernaum ? 

Reflections of Jesus on appealing to his mighty 
works — Capernaum ? 

While sitting at meat with a Pharisee, Jesus is 
anointed by a woman who had been a sinner — 
Capernaum ? 

Jesus, with the twelve, makes a second circuit in 
Galilee. 

The healing of a demoniac. The scribes and 
Pharisees blaspheme — Galilee. 

The scribes and Pharisees seek a sign. Our 
Lord's reflections — Galilee. 

The true disciples of Christ his nearest relatives — 
Galilee. 

At a Pharisee's table Jesus denounces woes 
against the Pharisees and others — Galilee. 

Jesus discourses to his disciples and the multi- 
tude — Galilee. 

The slaughter of certain Galileans. Parable of 
the barren fig-tree — Galilee. 

Parable of the sower — Lake of Galilee ; Near 
Capernaum ? 

Parable of the tares. Other parables — Near Ca- 
pernaum ? 

Jesus directs to cross the lake. Incidents. The 
tempest stilled — Lake of Galilee. 

The two demoniacs of Gadara — Southeast coast 
of the Lake of Galilee. 

Levi's feast — Capernaum. 

The raising of Jairus' daughter. The woman 
with a bloody flux — Capernaum. 

Two blind men healed, and a dumb spirit cast 
out — Capernaum f 

Jesus again at Nazareth, and again rejected. 

279 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JES 



A third circuit in Galilee. The twelve instructed 
and sent forth — Galilee. 

Herod holds Jesus to be John the Baptist, whom 
he had just before beheaded — Galilee? Percza. 

The twelve return, and Jesus retires with them 
across the lake. Five thousand are fed — Caper- 
naum ; Northeast coast of the Lake of Galilee. 

Jesus walks upon the water — Lake of Galilee ; 
Gennesaret. 

Our Lord's discourse to the multitude in the syn- 
agogue — Capernaum. 

PART V. 

FROM OUR LORD'S THIRD PASSOVER UNTIL HIS 
FINAL DEPARTURE FROM GALILEE AT THE FES- 
TIVAL OF TABERNACLES. 

Time : Six months. 

Our Lord justifies his disciples for eating with 
unwashed hands. Pharisaic traditions— Caper- 
naum. 

The daughter of a Syrophcenician woman is 
healed — Region of Tyre and Sidon. 

A deaf and dumb man healed ; also many others. 
Four thousand are fed — The Decapolis. 

The Pharisees and Sadducees again require a 
sign — Near Magdala, on the west side of the 
lake. 

The disciples cautioned against the leaven of the 
Pharisees, etc. — Northeast coast of the Lake of 
Galilee. 

A blind man healed — Bethsaida {yulias). 

Peter and the rest again profess their faith in 
Christ — Region of Cczsarea Philippi. 

Our Lord foretells his own death and resurrec- 
tion, and the trials of his followers — Region of 
Cczsarea Philippi. 

The transfiguration. Our Lord's subsequent dis- 
course with the three disciples — Region of Ccz- 
sarea Philippi. 

The healing of a demoniac whom the disciples 
could not heal — Region of Ccesarea Philippi. 

Jesus again foretells his own death and resurrec- 
tion — Galilee. 

The tribute-money miraculously provided — Ca- 
pernaum. 

The disciples contend who should be greatest. 
Jesus exhorts to humility, forbearance, and bro- 
therly love — Capernaum. 

The seventy instructed and sent out — Capernaum. 

Jesus goes up to the festival of Tabernacles. His 
final departure from Galilee. Incidents in Sa- 
maria. 

Ten lepers cleansed — Samaria. 

PART VI. 

THE FESTIVAL OF TABERNACLES, AND THE SUB- 
SEQUENT TRANSACTIONS UNTIL OUR LORD'S 
ARRIVAL AT BETHANY, SIX DAYS BEFORE THE 
FOURTH PASSOVER. 

Time: Six months, less one week. 

Jesus at the festival of Tabernacles. His public 
teaching — yerusalem. 

The woman taken in adultery — yerusalem. 

Further public teaching of our Lord. He re- 
proves the unbelieving Jews, and escapes from 
their hands — yerusalem. 

A lawyer instructed. Love to our neighbor de- 
fined. Parable of the good Samaritan — Near 
yerusalem. 
280 



Jesus in the house of Martha and Mary— Bethany. 

The disciples again taught how to pray— Near 
yerusalem. 

The seventy return — yerusalem f 

A man born blind is healed on the Sabbath. Our 
Lord's subsequent discourses — yerusalem. 

Jesus in Jerusalem at the festival of Dedication. 
He retires beyond Jordan— yerusalem; Betha- 
ny beyond yordan. 

The raising of Lazarus— Bethany. 

The counsel of Caiaphas against Jesus. He re- 
tires from Jerusalem— yerusalem; Ephraim. 

Jesus beyond Jordan is followed by multitudes. 
The healing of the infirm woman on the Sab- 
bath— Valley of Jordan ; Percza. 

Our Lord goes teaching and journeying towards 
Jerusalem. He is warned against Herod— Pe- 
rcza. 

Our Lord dines with a chief Pharisee on the Sab- 
bath. Incidents— Percza. 

What is required of true disciples — Percea. 

Parable of the lost sheep, etc. Parable of the 
prodigal son — Percza. 

Parable of the unjust steward— Percza. 

The Pharisees reproved. Parable of the rich man 
and Lazarus — Percza. 

Jesus inculcates forbearance, faith, humility — 
Percza. 

Christ's coming will be sudden— Percza. 

Parables: The importunate widow. The Phari- 
see and publican — Percza. 

Precepts respecting divorce — Percza. 

Jesus receives and blesses little children— Percza. 

The rich young man. Parable of the laborers in 
the vineyard — Percza. 

Jesus a third time foretells his death and resur- 
rection — Percza. 

James and John prefer their ambitious request— 
Percza. 

The healing of two blind men near yericho. 

The visit to Zacchaeus. Parable of the ten minae 

— yericho. 

Jesus arrives at Bethany six days before the Pass- 
over — Bethany. 

PART VII. 

OUR LORD'S PUBLIC ENTRY INTO JERUSALEM, 
AND THE SUBSEQUENT TRANSACTIONS BEFORE 
THE FOURTH PASSOVER. 

Time : Five days. 

Our Lord's public entry into Jerusalem — Beth- 
any ; yerusalem. 

The barren fig-tree. The cleansing of the tem- 
ple — Bethany ; yerusalem. 

The barren fig-tree withers away — Between Beth- 
any and yerusalem. 

Christ's authority questioned. Parable of the two 
sons — yerusalem. 

Parable of the wicked husbandmen — yerusalem. 

Parable of the marriage of the king's son — yeru- 
salem. 

Insidious question of the Pharisees : Tribute to 
Caesar— yerusalem. 

Insidious question of the Sadducees : The resur- 
rection — yerusalem. 

A lawyer questions Jesus. The two great com- 
mandments — yerusalem. 

How is Christ the son of David ?— yerusalem. 

Warnings against the evil example of the scribes 
and Pharisees — yerusalem. 



JES 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



JET 



Woes against the scribes and Pharisees. Lamen- 
tations over Jerusalem — Jerusalem. 

The widow's mite — Jerusalem. 

Certain Greeks desire to see Jesus — Jerusalem. 

Reflections upon the unbelief of the Jews — Jeru- 
salem. 

Jesus, on taking leave of the temple, foretells its 
destruction and the persecution of his disci- 
ples— Jerusalem ; Mount of Olives. 

The signs of Christ's coming to destroy Jerusalem 
and put an end to the Jewish state and dispen- 
sation — Mount of Olives. 

Transition to Christ's final coming at the day of 
judgment. Exhortation to watchfulness. Par- 
ables: The ten virgins. The five talents— 
Mount of Olives. 

Scenes of the judgment-day — Mount of Olives. 

The rulers conspire. The supper at Bethany. 
Treachery of Judas — Jerusalem ; Bethany. 

Preparation for the Passover— Bethany ; Jerusa- 
lem. 

PART VIII. 

THE FOURTH PASSOVER ; OUR LORD'S PASSION, 
AND THE ACCOMPANYING EVENTS UNTIL THE 
END OF THE JEWISH SABBATH. 

Time : Two days. 
The Passover meal. Contention among the 

twelve — Jerusalem. 
Jesus washes the feet of his disciples — Jerusalem. 
Jesus points out the traitor. Judas withdraws — 

Jerusalem. 
Jesus foretells the fall of Peter and the dispersion 

of the twelve — Jerusalem. 
The Lord's Supper — Jerusalem. 
Jesus comforts his disciples. The Holy Spirit 

promised — Jerusalem. 
Christ the true Vine. His disciples hated by the 

world — Jerusalem. 
Persecution foretold. Further promise of the 

Holy Spirit. Prayer in the name of Christ — 

Jerusalem. 
Christ's last prayer with his disciples — Jerusalem. 
The agony in Gethsemane — Moiint of Olives. 
Jesus betrayed and made prisoner — Mount of 

Olives. 
Jesus before Caiaphas. Peter thrice denies him — 

Jerusalem. 
Jesus before Caiaphas and the Sanhedrin. He 

declares himself to be the Christ ; is condemned 

and mocked — Jerusalem. 
The Sanhedrin lead Jesus away to Pilate — Jeru- 

salem. 
Jesus before Herod— Jerusalem. 
Pilate seeks to release Jesus. The Jews demand 

Barabbas— Jerusalem. 
Filate delivers up Jesus to death. He is scourged 

and mocked — Jerusalem. 
Pilate again seeks to release Jesus— Jerusalem. 
Judas repents and hangs himself— Jerusalem. 
Jesus is led away to be crucified — Jerusalem. 
The crucifixion— Jerusalem. 

The Jews mock at Jesus on the cross. He for- 
gives the penitent thief. He commends his 

mother to John — Jerusalem. 
Darkness prevails. Christ expires on the cross— 

Jerusalem. 
The veil of the temple rent and graves opened. 

Judgment of the centurion. The women at the 

cross — Jerusalem. 



The taking down from the cross. The burial — 

Jerusalem. 
The watch at the sepulchre — Jerusalem. 

PART IX. 

OUR LORD'S RESURRECTION, HIS SUBSEQUENT 
APPEARANCES, AND HIS ASCENSION. 

Time : Forty days. 

The morning of the resurrection — Jerusalem. 

Visit of the women to the sepulchre. Mary Mag- 
dalene returns — Jerusalem. 

Vision of angels in the sepulchre— Jerusalem. 

The women return to the city. Jesus meets them — 
Jerusalem. 

Peter and John run to the sepulchre — Jerusalem. 

Our Lord is seen by Mary Magdalene at the sep- 
ulchre— Jerusale?n. 

Report of the watch — Jerusalem. 

Our Lord is seen of Peter. Then by two disciples 
on the way to Emmaus — Jerusalem ; Emmaus. 

Jesus appears in the midst of the apostles, Thomas 
being absent — Jerusalem. 

Jesus appears in the midst of the apostles, Thomas 
being present — Jerusalem. 

The apostles go away into Galilee. Jesus shows 
himself to seven of them at the Sea of Tibe- 
rias — Galilee. 

Jesus meets the apostles and above five hundred 
brethren on a mountain in Galilee — Galilee. 

Our Lord is seen of James ; then of all the apos- 
tles — Jerusalem. 

The ascension — Near Bethany. 

Studying the gospels by the guidance of 
the above tables one may trace with a good 
degree of accuracy the radiant pathway of 
the Saviour from his birthplace to his tomb ; 
can follow him in thought through his jour- 
neys on foot, associating with each "spot the 
words of divine truth there spoken and the 
wonders of healing mercy there wrought. 
For further helps see Miracles and Par- 
ables. 

The divine wisdom is conspicuous not 
only in what is taught us respecting the 
life of Jesus, but in what is withheld. Cu- 
riosity, and the higher motives of warm 
affection, raise numerous questions to which 
the gospels give no reply; and in propor- 
tion as men resort to dubious traditions 
they lose the power of a pure and spiritual 
gospel. See further, concerning Christ, 
Messiah, Redeemer, etc. 

Jesus was not an uncommon name 
among the Jews. It was the name of the 
father of Elymas the sorcerer, Acts 13:6, 
and of Justus, a fellow-laborer and friend 
of Paul, Col. 4:11. It is the Greek form of 
the Hebrew name Joshua, or Jeshua, borne 
by the high-priest in Ezra's time, and by 
the well-known leader of the Jews into the 
promised land, Acts 7:45; Heb. 4:8. 

JE'THER, abundance, I., son of Jada, 
1 Chr. 2:32. 

281 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JEZ 



II. Son of Ezra, tribe of Judah, i Chr. 
4:17. 

III. Eldest son of Gideon, who shrank 
from executing the captured Midianite 
kings Zebah and Zalmunna, Judg. 8:20; 
afterwards slain by Abimelech with his 68 
brothers, Judg. 9:5. 

IV. Father of David's general Amasa, 
and husband of David's sister Abigail, 
1 Chr. 2: 17. He is here called an Ishmael- 
ite, perhaps from having lived in the land 
of Ishmael. In 2 Sam. 17:25 he is named 
" Ithra an Israelite." 

V. An Asherite, 1 Chr. 7 : 38 ; perhaps 
Ithran, ver 37. 

JETH'RO, excellence, a shepherd prince 
or priest of Midian, who hospitably wel- 
comed Moses when a fugitive, gave him 
his flocks to tend and his daughter Zippo- 
rah in marriage, Exod. 2:16-22; 3:1; 4:18. 
He was also named Raguel, and was the 
father of Hobab, which see. He became a 
worshipper of the true God, and offered 
sacrifices when he visited Moses in the 
wilderness of Sinai, restoring to him his 
wife and sons. He gave Moses judicious 
counsel as to the administration of jus- 
tice, and returned to his home in peace, 
Exod. 18. 

JE'TUR, an Enclosure, or camp, son of 
Ishmael, Gen. 25:15; 1 Chr. 1:31, father of 
the Ituraeans, 1 Chr. 5:19; Luke 3:1. 

JEU'EL, protected by God, 1 Chr. 9:6, 
son of Zerah. 

JEWELS in the A. V. is used for 4 He- 
brew words, denoting (1) rings: noserings, 
as in Prov. 11:22; Isa. 3:21; Ezek. 16:12; 
earrings, as in Gen. 24:22, 30, 47; 35:4 ; 
Exod. 32:2, 3, etc.; (2) necklaces or orna- 
mental trinkets, Song 7:1; (3) vessels of 
silver, etc., as in Gen. 24:53; Exod. 3:22; 
11:2; 1 Sam. 6:8, 15, or costly articles of 
dress, as in Isa. 61:10; Ezek. 16:7, 39; 
23:26; and (4) treasure, as in Exod. 19:5; 
Mai. 3:17. 
JEWRY, Dan. 5:13; John 7:1, Jud^a. 
JEWS, the people of Judah after the di- 
vision of the kingdom, 2 Kin. 16:6; 25:25; 
Jer. 32:12; 34:9; 38:19, etc. After the Cap- 
tivity applied to all the Hebrews, espe- 
cially those living in Palestine. It was a 
familiar name in Roman writings. In the 
New Testament the term is contrasted on 
the one hand with heathen and on the other 
with Christians, Rom. 1:16; 2:9; Col. 3:11. 
See Hebrews. 

JEZ'EBEL, untouched, daughter of Eth- 
baal king of Tyre and Zidon, and wife of 
Ahab king of Israel, 1 Kin. 16:31. She 
282 



spent herself in efforts, with her husband's 
connivance, and then his active coopera- 
tion, to establish idolatry in Samaria, and 
exterminate the worship of God and the 
lives of his servants. Obadiah saved 100 
of them at the risk of his own life. Jezebel 
herself maintained 400 priests of Astarte. 
When Ahab's 450 prophets of Baal per- 
ished at Carmel, at the word of Elijah, she 
sought to avenge herself on him. After- 
wards she secured the vineyard of Naboth 
for her husband by perjuries and murder; 
and her tragical death at the order of Jehu, 
the fitting close of a bloody life, took place, 
according to the prediction of Elijah, near 
the scene of this crime, 1 Kin. 18; 19; 21 ; 
2 Kin. 9. Her evil influence, through her 
daughter Athaliah, diffused the poison of 
idolatry in Judah ; and through her son Je- 
horam in Israel. She survived Ahab 14 
years. Her name has become a proverb, 
and is given by John, probably as a de- 
scriptive epithet, to a person or party at 
Thyatira in his day holding a like bad pre- 
eminence in station and profligacy, in mal- 
ice, and in ruin, Rev. 2:20. 

JEZ' REEL, sowing of God, I., a celebra- 
ted city of Issachar, 10 miles south of Naz- 
areth, Josh. 19:18, 11 miles northwest of 
Beth-shean, 2 Sam. 4:4. Ahab had here a 
palace, 1 Kin. 18:45; 22:39; and this city 
became famous on account of his seizure 
of Naboth's vineyard, 1 Kin. 21, and the 
vengeance executed on Ahab, 2 Kin. 9:1.0,. 
14-37 • 10:1-11. The palace seems to have 
formed part of the eastern wall overlook- 
ing the open plat called the "portion" of 
Jezreel, and the site of the watch-tower, 
2 Kin. 9:17, may be marked by a large 
tower now standing in Zerin. Jezreel was 
called Esdraela in the time of the Macca- 
bees, and is now replaced by a small and 
ruinous Arab village, called Zerin, at the 
northwest point of Mount Gilboa. Its ele- 
vated site gives one a fine view of the great 
plain of Esdraelon on the west, and the 
hills that border it; and towards the east 
it overhangs the wide and fertile " valley 
of Jezreel," Josh. 17:16; Judg. 6:33; Hos. 
1:5, which runs down east-southeast from 
the great plain to the Jordan, between Gil- 
boa and Little Hermon. The "fountain" 
of Jezreel is a fine perennial spring flow- 
ing from the rocky base of Gilboa 20 min- 
utes' walk east of Zerin, and forming a 
large pool. Here Saul encamped before 
the battle at Gilboa, 1 Sam. 29:1; 31:1-10, 
and Gideon before the battle with the Mid- 
ianites, Judg. 7:1,4- See Haroo. 



JEZ 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOA 




JEZREEL, NOW ZERIN, OVERLOOKING THE PLAIN OF ESDRAELON. 



II. The great plain lying between Jez- 
reel and Acre, called from 2 cities on its 
border in one part, "the valley of Megid- 
do," 2 Chr. 35:22, and in its western part 
or branch the " plain or valley of Jezreel/" 
afterwards Esdraelon, Judith 1:8; now 
Merj Ibn 'Amir. The body of this beauti- 
ful plain forms a triangle, rising gradually 
from the Mediterranean 400 feet, and being 
about 13 or 14 miles long on the north side, 
17 on the east, and 20 on the southwest. 
The western part is level ; on the east it is 
more undulating, and is at length broken 
by Mount Gilboa and " Little Hermon " into 
3 valleys, 2 or 3 miles wide, which sink 
down into the valley of the Jordan. Of 
these, the middle valley, described above, 
is the proper "valley of Jezreel." The 
river Kishon traverses this plain to the 
northwest. It was formerly well watered 
and astonishingly fertile, but is now under 
the blight of tyranny and insecurity, com- 
paratively uncultivated and deserted. The 
highways are unoccupied, the villages have 
ceased in Israel, Judg. 5:6. There are a 
few small hamlets, particularly on the 
higher grounds that border it; and the 
abundant crops which it yields, even with 
poor cultivation, show that it might again 
be made the granary of Syria. Across this 
plain, from Carmel to Jezreel, Elijah ran 
before the chariot of Ahab, 1 Kin. 18:46. 
It has been the chosen battle-ground of 
many armies, as of the Midianites and 
Amalekites, Judg. 6:33; 7:1, etc.; of the 



Philistines at Gilboa, 1 Sam. 29; 31 ; of the 
Syrians, 1 Kin. 20:26-30. Here the hosts 
of Sisera were swept away, Judg. 4; and 
here Josiah fell, fighting against Pharaoh- 
necho, 2 Kin. 23:29. Battles were fought 
here in the later periods of the Romans 
and of the Crusaders ; and in our own cen- 
tury, near Mount Tabor, 1,500 French un- 
der General Kleber sustained the assault 
of 25,000 Turks for half a day, and were 
succored by Napoleon. 

III. A town of Judah, southeast of He- 
bron, perhaps now Zurtut, the birthplace 
of Ahinoam, David's wife, Josh. 15:56; 
1 Sam. 25:43; 27:3. 

IV. A descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 4:3, 
probably the founder of III. above. 

V. A name given by Hosea to his infant 
son, symbolizing the great slaughter he 
was predicting, the "blood of Jezreel" 
recalling the former battles on that plain, 
Hos, 1:4, 5. The significance of his name 
is evident in the promised sowing and fruit- 
fulness of God's people in later days, 2:21- 
23. Compare Jer. 31:27; Ezek. 36:9, 10; 
Zech. 10:9. 

JIPH'THAH-EL, God opens , a valley on 
the north of Zebulun, separating it from 
Asher and Naphtali. The name appears 
in the modern Jefat, formerly Jotap'ata, 9 
miles north of Nazareth, the famous height 
overlooking the valley, fortified and long 
defended against the Romans by Josephus. 

JO' AB, Jehovah his father, I., son of Ze- 
ruiah, David's sister, and brother of Abishai 

283 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOB 



and Asahel, the commander of David's 
arm)' during almost the whole of his reign, 
2 Sam. 2: 13, 28; 10:7; 1 Kin. 11:15; 1 Chr. 
27:34. He was a valiant warrior, an able 
general, and a shrewd statesman, and his 
great influence on public affairs was often 
exerted for good, as in the rebellion of Ab- 
salom and the numbering of Israel, 2 Sam. 
18; 19; 24. But as a man he was imperi- 
ous, revengeful, and unscrupulous : wit- 
ness his treacherous assassination of his 
rival Abner, and of his cousin Amasa, 
2 Sam. 3:27; 20:9, 10; his bearing towards 
David, 2 Sam. 3:39; 19:5, and connivance 
with him in the matter of Uriah ; his sla)'- 
ing Absalom, and conspiring with Adoni- 
jah against the divinely-appointed heir to 
the throne ; for all which he was at length 
put to death by order of Solomon, at the 
side of the altar, 1 Kin. 2. B. C. 1013. 

II. Son of Seraiah, whose descendants 
were craftsmen, Heb. charashim, in a val- 
ley north of Jerusalem, 1 Chr. 4:14; Neh. 
11:34. 

III. Head of a famity returning after the 
Captivity, Ezra 2:6; 8:9; Neh. 7:11. 

JO' 'AH, Jehovah his brother ; I., Hezekiah's 
recorder, son of Asaph, one of 3 commis- 
sioners to Rabshakeh, 2 Kin. 18:18, 26, 37; 
Isa. 36:3, 11, 12. B. C. 712. 

II. Third son of Obed-edom, a Korhite 
porter, 1 Chr. 26:4. 

III. Also called Ethan, 1 Chr. 6:21, 42, a 
Gershonite Levite, B. C. 726. See also 
2 Chr. 29:12. 

IV. Son of Joahaz, recorder or chronicler 
for king Josiah, and a repairer of the tem- 
ple, 2 Chr. 34:8. B. C. 623. 

JO'AHAZ, Jehoahaz abridged, 2 Chr. 34:8. 

JOAN'NA, gracious gift of God, I., an 
ancestor of our Lord, probably Hananiah, 
1 Chr. 3:19; Luke 3:27, in R. V. Joanan. 

II. Wife of Chuza, probably a widow, one 
of the faithful women who ministered to 
Christ while living, and brought spices to 
his tomb. Her husband Chuza had been 
a steward of Herod Antipas, Luke 8:3; 
24: 1-10. 

JO'ASH, or Jeho'ash, Jehovah bestowed, 
I., the father of Gideon, of the family of 
Abiezer, in Manasseh. For a long time he 
was a worshipper of Baal; but when his 
son boldly attacked idolatry, he also came 
out on the Lord's side, Judg. 6:11, 25-32. 
B. C. 1249. 

II. A descendant of Shelah, 1 Chr. 4:22, 
an early ruler in Moab. 

III. A brave Benjamite who joined Da- 
vid at Ziklag, 1 Chr. 12:3. 

284 



IV. Son of Ahab, appointed as keeper 
of the prophet Micaiah during Ahab's dis- 
astrous war with Syria, 1 Kin. 22:26; 
2 Chr. 18. 

V. The 7th king of Judah, B. C. 878-838. 
He was the only son of Ahaziah who was 
not slain by the usurping Athaliah, his 
grandmother. Being rescued by Jehoshe- 
ba his aunt, and secluded 6 years in the 
temple, he was raised to the throne when 7 
years of age through the faithful care of 
Jehoiada; and while this venerable man 
survived, 23 years, Joash served God and 
prospered. Idols were banished and the 
temple was repaired. But aftewards he 
followed less wholesome counsels ; idolatry 
revived; and when Zechariah the high- 
priest rebuked the guilty people, the un- 
grateful king caused this servant of God, 
the son of his benefactor, to be stoned to 
death, Matt. 23:35. Misfortunes soon mul- 
tiplied on his head ; he was repeatedly 
humbled by the Syrians under Hazael, 
and gave them the temple treasures as a 
ransom; a loathsome disease imbittered 
his life, which was very soon cut short by 
a conspiracy of his servants, and he was 
not buried in the sepulchre of the kings, 
2 Kin. 11 :i2 ; 2 Chr. 23 ; 24, on Mount Zion 
at Jerusalem. 

VI. The son and successor of Jehoahaz, 
king of Israel, B. C. 840-825. There was 
much in his conduct to commend. He had 
a great regard for the prophet Elisha, and 
visited him on his death-bed, where by a 
divine oracle he was assured of 3 victories 
over the Syrians. He was also victorious 
when forced to give battle to Amaziah king 
of Judah, when he broke down the north 
wall of Jerusalem and despoiled the tem- 
ple. He died in the 15th year of Amazi- 
ah's reign, and was one of the best of the 
kings of Israel. The worship of the gold- 
en calf, however, still continued during his 
reign, 2 Kin. 13:9-25; 14:1-8; 2 Chr. 25. 

JO'ASH, a different word in Hebrew, to 
whom God hastens, I., a leader of a Benja- 
mite family in David's reign, 1 Chr. 7:8. 

II. An official of David, 1 Chr. 27:28. 

JOB, one afflicted, a patriarch distin- 
guished for his integrity and piety, his 
wealth, honors, and domestic happiness, 
whom God permitted, for the trial of his 
faith, to be deprived of friends, property, 
and health, and at once plunged into deep 
affliction. He lived in the land of Uz, 
lying, it is generally thought, in Eastern 
Edom, probably not far from Bozrah. 

The book of Job has originated much 



JOB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOB 



criticism, and on many points a considera- 
ble diversity of opinion still exists. Skep- 
tics have denied its inspiration, and called 
it a mere philosophical romance; but no 
one who respects revelation can entertain 
this notion, or doubt that Job was a real 
person. Inspired writers testify to both. 
See Ezek. 14:14, 16-20; Jas. 5:11; and 
compare 1 Cor. 3:19 with Job. 5:13. The 
book itself specifies persons, places, and 
circumstances in the manner of true his- 
tory. Moreover, the name and history of 
Job are spread throughout the East; Ara- 
bian writers mention him, and many Mo- 
hammedan families perpetuate his name. 
Five different places claim the possession 
of his tomb. 

The precise period of his life cannot be 
ascertained, yet no doubt can exist as to its 
patriarchal antiquity. The book seems to 
allude to the flood, Job 22:15-17, but not to 
the Israelites as a nation, to the destruction 
of Sodom, to the exodus from Egypt, or 
the giving of the law. No reference is 
made to any order of priesthood, Job him- 
self being the priest of his household, like 
Noah and Abraham. There is allusion to 
the most ancient form of idolatry, star- 
worship, 31 : 26-28, and to the earliest mode 
of writing, 19:24. The longevity of Job 
also places him among the patriarchs. He 
survived his trial 140 years, and was prob- 
ably 60 or 80 years old before his trial 
began, for his children were established 
each at the head of his own household, Job 
1:4; 42:16. He must have been 200 or 220 
years old at death, whereas Abraham died 
at the age of 175, "an old man and full of 
years." The period of long lives had not 
wholly passed away, 15:10. Hales places 
the trial of Job before the birth of Abra- 
ham, and Usher about 30 years before the 
exodus, B. C. 1521. 

As to the authorship of the book, many 
opinions have been held. It has all the 
freedom of an original composition, bear- 
ing no marks of its being a translation; 
and if so it would appear that its author 
must have been a Hebrew, since it is writ- 
ten in the purest Hebrew. It exhibits, 
moreover, the most intimate acquaintance 
with both Egyptian and Arabian scenery, 
and is in the loftiest style of Oriental po- 
etry. All these circumstances are consist- 
ent with the views of those who regard it 
as having been written by Moses, in Mid- 
ian. It has, however, been ascribed to 
Job himself and to various other persons. 
It presents a beautiful exhibition of patri- 



archal religion. It teaches the being and 
perfections of God, his creation of all 
things, and his universal control ; the apos- 
tasy and guilt of evil spirits and of man- 
kind ; the sovereignty of divine providence ; 
the mercy of God, on the basis of a sacri- 
fice, and on condition of repentance and 
faith, 33:27-30; 42:6, 8; the immortality of 
the soul, and the resurrection of the body, 
14:7-15; 19:25-27. 

The book is an elaborate poem on a true 
historical basis. Its theme is the severe 
test of Job's piety : is it only a refined self- 
ishness? and he is tried first by the loss of 
his vast property, his servants, and his 
sons ; then by the loss of his health, by the 
censures of his wife and friends, and the 
apparent withdrawal of the friendship of 
God. He bitterly implores a refuge in the 
grave, and a vindication after the resurrec- 
tion and judgment, ch. 14:13, 15; see espe- 
cially after the 2d aggravated charges of 
his 3 friends, ch. 16:18, 19; 17:8, 9; 19:25- 
27. The main problem discussed in the 
book is the justice of God in suffering the 
righteous to be afflicted, while the wicked 
prosper. It is settled by showing that, 
while the hand of a just God is manifest 
in his providential government of human 
affairs, it is his sovereign right to choose 
his own time and mode of retribution both 
to the evil and the good, and to subject the 
graces of his people to whatever trials he 
deems best. The solution of the problem 
by the retributions of the future life is but 
hinted at, immortality and the way of life 
being more clearly brought to light in the 
gospel. 

The conference of Job and his friends 
may be divided into 3 parts. In the first, 
Eliphaz addresses Job, and Job replies; 
then Bildad and Job, and Zophar and Job, 
speak in turn. In the second part, the 
same order is observed ; and in the third 
also, except that after Job's reply to Bil- 
dad, the 3 friends have no more to urge, 
and instead of Zophar, a 4th friend named 
Elihu takes up the word; and the whole is 
concluded by the decision of Jehovah him- 
self. The friends of Job argue that his re- 
markable afflictions must have been sent 
in punishment of highly aggravated trans- 
gressions, and urge him to confession and 
repentance. The pious patriarch, conscious 
of his own integrity and love to God, cast 
down and bewildered by his sore chastise- 
ments, and pained by the suspicions of his 
friends, warmly vindicates his innocence, 
and shows that the best of men are some- 

285 



JOC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOH 



times the most afflicted ; but forgets that 
his inward sins merit far heavier punish- 
ment, and though he repels Satan's as- 
sault, and still maintains faith in God, yet 
he charges Him foolishly. Afterwards he 
humbly confesses his wrong, and is cheered 
by the returning smile of God, while his 
uncharitable friends are reproved. The 
whole book is written in the highest style 
of Hebrew poetry, except the two introduc- 
tory chapters and part of the last, which 
are prose. As a poem, it is full of sublime 
sentiments and bold and striking images. 

The disease of Job is generally sup- 
posed to have been the elephantiasis, or 
black leprosy. The word rendered " boils " 
does not necessarily mean abscesses, but 
burning and inflammation ; and no known 
disease better answers to the description 
given, Job 2:7, 8; 7:5, 13, 14; 19:17; 30:17, 
than the leprosy referred to above. See 
Leper. 

JOCH'EBED, whose glory is Jehovah, wife 
of Amram, and mother of Moses, Aaron, 
and Miriam, Num. 26 : 59. She was a daugh- 
ter of Levi, and her husband's aunt, Exod. 
6:20, though such marriages were after- 
wards prohibited, Lev. 18:12. 

JO'EL, Jehovah is God, I., son of the 
prophet Samuel, made judge of Israel with 
his younger brother Abiah, by their father 
in his old age, but shamefully corrupt in 
office, 1 Sam. 8:2-5. Heman the singer 
was his son, 1 Chr. 6:33; 15:17. In 1 Chr. 
6:28 he appears in A. V. as Vashni, which 
means second, and belongs to Abiah, the 
name of Joel having dropped out. 

II. One of the 12 minor prophets, of 
whom nothing is known beyond the few 
hints furnished in his brief but valuable 
prophecy. He lived in the kingdom of 
Judah, and at a time when the temple and 
temple- worship still existed, Joel 1:14; 2:1 



15- 32; 3:i- 



Different authors assign to 



his prophecy different dates, but the pre- 
vailing opinion is that he was the first of 
the canonical prophets except Jonah, and 
prophesied in the reign of Uzziah, nearly 
800 B. C. 

The book of Joel opens with a most 
graphic and powerful description of the 
devastation caused by swarms of divers 
locusts, accompanied by a terrible drought. 
The plague of locusts, one of the most 
dreadful scourges of the East (see Lo- 
custs), is highly suggestive of an invasion 
of hostile legions such as have often rav- 
aged Judaea; and many have understood, 
by the locusts of Joel, the Assyrian and 
286 



other invaders from the north, ch. 1:6: 
2:17, 20. The prophet, however, adheres 
to his figure, if it be one ; depicts the land 
as stripped of its verdure and parched with 
drought, summons the stricken people to 
fasting and penitence, and encourages them 
by promising the removal of the divine 
judgments and the return of fertility. While 
describing this returning plenty and pros- 
perity, the prophet casts his view forward 
on a future still more remote, and predicts 
the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, and the 
signs and wonders and spiritual prosperity 
of the Messiah's reign, Joel 2:28. This 
passage is quoted by the apostle Peter, in 
Acts 2:16, where its fulfilment began, to be 
completed hereafter. The style of Joel is 
exceedingly poetical and elegant ; his de- 
scriptions are vivid and sublime, and his 
prophecy ranks among the gems of He- 
brew poetry. It is well fitted to cheer the 
church militant in all ages. 

Ten or 11 others of this name are men- 
tioned in 1 Chr. 4:35, 41-43; 5:4, 8, 11, 12; 
7:3, 4; 11:38; 15:7, 11; 23:8 and 26:22: 
27:20; 2 Chr. 29:12, 15; Ezra 10:19, 43; 
Neh. 11:3, 4, 9. 

JOG'BEHAH, lojty, a city of Gad, east of 
the Jordan, Num. 32:35, probably Jebaiha. 
4 miles north of Amman. The Jogbehah 
through which Gideon pursued the defeat- 
ed Midianites, Judg. 8:11, seems to have 
lain farther north, on the Damascus road, 
and in the territory of Manasseh, where a 
village called Tell Jabieh is now found. 

JOH A' NAN, or Jehoha'nan, God'sjai'or, 
I., son of Azariah, of Zadok's line, high- 
priest probably in Rehoboam's reign, 1 Kin. 
4:2; 1 Chr. 6:9, 10. 

II. Son of Kareah, a leading captain of 
the Jews, who took refuge beyond the Jor- 
dan after Jerusalem was destroyed by the 
Chaldaeans, B. C. 588, and returning after 
their withdrawal, recognized the authority 
of Gedaliah, warned him in vain of the plot 
of Ishmael, and avenged his murder ; but 
afterwards carried the remnant of the peo- 
ple to Egypt against the remonstrances of 
Jeremiah, who, unable to check his rebel- 
lious and idolatrous course, foretold divine 
judgments, which in due time were fulfilled, 
2 Kin. 25:23-26; Jer. 40-44- 

Others of this name are mentioned in 
1 Chr. 3:15, 24; 12:4, 12 ; 2 Chr. 28:12; Ezra 
8:12; Neh. 12:22, 23. 

JOHN, in Hebrew Jehohanan, in Greek 
■luavvrjQ, God's gracious gift, I., the Bap- 
tist, i. e., the bapti~o\ noble in character, 
and preeminent in his great office as the 



JOH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOH 



forerunner of our Lord Jesus Christ. He 
was the son of Zacharias and Elisabeth, 
both in the priestly line, Luke 1:5, emi- 
nently pious and devout, and was born 
about 6 months before Christ, as Reland 
and Robinson suppose at Juttah, Josh. 
21:16; Luke 1:39, a town some 5 miles 
south of Hebron, but according to tradi- 
tion at a place about 4 miles west of Jeru- 
salem. Several Old Testament predic- 
tions found their fulfilment in him. See 
Isa. 40:3, and Matt. 3:3; also Mai. 3:1; 4:5, 
and Matt. 11:14. His birth, name, and 
office were also foretold by the angel Ga- 
briel to his father Zacharias while minis- 
tering at the temple altar. Several other 
supernatural incidents attended the visit 
of Mary to Elisabeth, her "cousin," and 
the birth, circumcision, and naming of 
John, Luke 1. He passed his early life 
among the crags of Eastern Judaea, and 
when not far from 30 years of age appeared 
as a prophet of the Lord. Being also a 
priest by birth, and an austere Nazarite in 
appearance, dress, food, Matt. 3:4, and 
mode of life, he was like a reproduction of 
Elijah of old. Compare Lev. 11:22; 2 Kin. 
1:8; Psa. 81:16. Crowds flocked from all 
quarters to hear the word of God from his 
lips boldly denouncing their sins, and to 
receive the baptism of repentance prepar- 
atory to the full revelation of grace in 
Christ. Among others, the Saviour at 
length came, and was baptized as an ex- 
ample of obedience to all divine enjoin- 
ments. John was at once satisfied that 
Jesus was the Messiah, but " knew him 
not " by any divine intimation till he saw 
the appointed sign, the descending Spirit, 
John 1:31. He then stood forth as the rep- 
resentative of "all the law and the proph- 
ets," pointing the world to Christ, not as a 
wise teacher, nor as a perfect exemplar of 
holiness, but as an atoning Saviour, and 
thus introduced Him to His public minis- 
try: "Behold the Lamb of God, which ta- 
keth away the sin of the world," John 1 : 29 ; 
Gal. 3 : 24. 

Like his Old Testament counterpart, 
Elijah, John was fearless and faithful in 
summoning his countrymen to repentance, 
charging each one with the sins he was 
most addicted to, Luke 3:12-14, and up- 
braiding the leaders with especial sever- 
ity, Matt. 3:7. Yet he enjoyed at this time 
a high degree of popular veneration, Mark 
1:5; 11:32; Luke 3:15; the Sanhedrin sent 
a deputation to question him, John 1:19- 
28; king Herod "did many things, and 



heard him gladly." But his modesty was 
as notable as his fidelity. Though honored 
with the extraordinary mission of being 
the Messiah's herald, he was but a " voice ;" 
he laid all he had at the Saviour's feet, 
John 1 : 27 ; 3 : 28-33. We read several times 
of his "disciples," Matt. 9:14; Luke 5:33; 
John 3:23-25; 4:1; and meet with subse- 
quent traces of the wide extent of his influ- 
ence, Acts 18:25; 19:3. It was for good 
reasons, no doubt, that he continued for a 
time his separate ministry, instead of at- 
tending Christ. He persevered, however, 
in his faithful labors for reformation ; and 
these, in the second year afterwards, led to 
his imprisonment by Herod Antipas. See 
Herod IV. He was confined in the castle 
of Machaerus, east of the head of the Dead 
Sea. It was while he was in prison that he 
sent 2 of his disciples to Christ to inquire, 
" Art thou he that should come, or do we 
look for another?" Matt. 11:3. He may 
have been moved to send this message by 
some lingering Jewish views as to a tem- 
poral Messiah, who would right all their 
national wrongs; or by some temporary 
unbelieving haste to have Christ publicly 
announce his Messiahship ; or by a desire 
to transfer his disciples to Christ, and pre- 
vent their forming a sect by themselves. 
Compare Acts 19:1-7. It was on this oc- 
casion that Christ calls him greater than 
any other prophet; because, of all the 
prophets of the Messiah, he alone saw Him 
entering on his work whom all " desired to 
see;" yet he was less than the "least in 
the kingdom of God," inasmuch as he died 
without seeing that kingdom established 
in the death and resurrection of his Lord. 
But his earthly work was soon done. Her- 
od, according to Josephus, feared his great 
influence over the people, and the implaca- 
ble Herodias was enraged by his bold fidel- 
ity to her husband. The dancing of her 
daughter Salome, and the hasty vow of the 
besotted king, furnished a pretext. John 
was beheaded in prison ; his disciples bur- 
ied his remains with honor, and "went and 
told Jesus," Matt. 14:3-12. The miracle 
which followed soon after, ver. 13-21, re- 
corded also in John 6:5-14, seems to date 
his death as shortly before the Passover, 
ver. 4, one year before Christ's death. 

II. The Apostle and Evangelist, son 
of Zebedee and Salome, was a native of 
Bethsaida in Galilee. Compare Luke 5:10; 
John 1:44. Zebedee and his sons, James 
and John, were fishermen, and appear to 
have been in easy circumstances, Mark 

287 



JOH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOK 



1:20; 15:40; Luke 8:3; 24:1; John 18:15; 
19:27. In John's character there was an 
admirable mixture of gentleness and force. 
The picture which the Bible gives of him 
has a peculiar charm, so much peace, hu- 
mility, charity, and brotherly love glow in 
it. His affectionate, meditative, spiritual 
character had also the elements of vigor 
and decision, Luke 9:54. Though amia- 
ble, he was firm and fearless. He and 
Peter followed Christ, seized by the Jews, 
when the other disciples fled ; and he was 
present at the scene of the Saviour's cruci- 
fixion, which he describes as an eye-wit- 
ness, John 19:35. He was early at the 
tomb of the Redeemer, and after His as- 
cension boldly proclaimed the gospel at 
Jerusalem, Acts 4:13, though imprisoned, 
scourged, and threatened with death. He 
was remarkable for devotion to Christ; 
and it was this, perhaps, as much as ambi- 
tion, or false views of Christ's kingdom, 
that led him to request a place at His right 
hand, Matt. 20:20-24. He is supposed to 
have been the youngest of the apostles. 
He had been a disciple of John the Bap- 
tist; but on being directed to Christ, at 
once attached himself to him, John 1 : 35-39. 
For a time he returned to his employment 
by the Sea of Galilee, but was soon called 
to leave all and attend the Saviour, Luke 
5:5-10. Christ had a particular friendship 
for this lovely and zealous disciple, John 
13:23; 19:26; 20:2; 21:7. At the last sup- 
per, he reclined next to the Saviour, and 
to his care the dying Redeemer commit- 
ted his mother. Together with Peter and 
James he 'witnessed the raising of Jairus' 
daughter, the transfiguration, and the ago- 
ny in the garden. See James. In still 
other events he is associated with Peter, 
John 20:2-8; 21:7, 20; Acts 3:1 ; 4:13; 8:14. 
He, with Peter and James, welcomed Paul 
to the church, and gave him a commission, 
Acts 9:27-31. He took part in the first 
council at Jerusalem, Acts 15:6, and for 
many years continued to reside there, rec- 
ognized as one of the chief pillars of the 
church, Gal. 2:9. Yet he does not seem to 
have been there at Paul's last visit, A. D. 
60; nor do any of the epistles mention him 
at Ephesus, where most of his later life 
was spent. After Paul's death, however, 
he was at Ephesus, supervising the diffu- 
sion of the gospel in Asia Minor, where for 
many years his great personal and apos- 
tolic influence was widely exerted. About 
A. D. 95 he was banished, probably by 
Domitian, to the Isle of Patmos, where he 
288 



had the visions described in the Apoca- 
lypse. He afterwards returned to Ephe- 
sus, where he lived to a very great age, so 
that he could not go to the assembly of the 
church without being carried by his disci- 
ples. Being now unable to make long dis- 
courses, his custom was to say in all assem- 
blies, " Little children, love one another;" 
and when they wondered at his frequent 
repetition of this concise exhortation, his 
answer was, " This is what the Lord com- 
mands you ; and this, if you do it, is suffi- 
cient." Chrysostom, Clement, and Euse- 
bius relate that, having found that a young 
man of promise committed by him to the 
charge of a neighboring pastor had been 
misled, and had organized a band of rob- 
bers, the aged apostle sought him out in 
his mountain haunts, and by the blessing 
of God on his fearless and faithful love, 
reclaimed his soul from death. He died 
at Ephesus in the 3d year of the reign of 
Trajan, A. D. 100, being then, according to 
Epiphanius, 94 years of age. He was bur- 
ied near that city, and several of the fa- 
thers mention his sepulchre as being there. 
Besides the invaluable Gospel and the 
Apocalypse, which bear his name (see 
Gospel and Apocalypse), we have three 
Epistles of John. The first is a catholic 
or general letter, designed apparently to 
go with his gospel, and refute certain 
Gnostic errors as to the person of Christ ; 
but also and chiefly to build up the church 
universal in truth and grace, and especial- 
ly in holy love. The second epistle is 
addressed "to the elect lady," or the ex- 
cellent Kuria, who was probably some 
Christian woman eminent for piety and 
usefulness. The third is directed to Gai- 
us, the Latin Caius, whom John praises for 
his fidelity and hospitality, and exhorts to 
persevere in every good work. The Rev- 
elation and epistles of John, it is generally 
believed, were written at Ephesus about 
96-98 A. D. They are the latest books of 
the New Testament canon, which, as the 
last surviving apostle, he must have greatly 
aided in settling. 

III. Surnamed Mark. See Mark. 

IV. A kinsman of Annas the high-priest, 
Acts 4:6. 

JOK'MEAM, assembled by the people, a 
city of Kohathite Levites in Ephraim, 1 Chr. 
6:68, called Kibzaim in Josh. 21:22, and 
Jokneam in A. V., 1 Kin. 4:12. 

JOK'NEAM, possessed by the people, a city 
of Zebulun, assigned to the Merarite Le- 
vites, Josh. 19:11; 21:34. See also Josh. 



JOK 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JON 



12:22. It is now Tell Kaimon, a height 
near the east end of Mount Carmel. 

JOK'SHAN, fowler, the 2d son of Abra- 
ham and Keturah, ancestor of the Sabeans 
and Dedanites of Southern Arabia, Gen. 

25=1-3- 

JOK'TAN, diminished, son of Eber, and 
by him connected with the Hebrews and 
other Shemite families, Gen. 10:25-30; 
1 Chr. 1:19-23. He had 13 sons, and is 
believed to be the Kahtan, or Yektan, to 
whom Arabian writers trace their purest 
and most ancient genealogies, in Arabia 
Felix. 

JOK'THEEL, subdued by God, I., a city 
in the Shephelah or low land of Judah, now 
Keitulaneh, not far from Lachish, Josh. 

15:38. 

II. A name given to Sela by Amaziah, 
who subjugated Edom for 80 years, 2 Kin. 
14:7; 16:6; 2 Chr. 28:17. See Sela. 

JO'NA, in R. V. Jo'nah, the father of 
Simon Peter, Matt. 16: 17, Bar meaning son. 
In John 1 : 42 he is called John in R. V. 

JON'ADAB, God is liberal, I., a son of 
Shimeah, the cunning and unprincipled 
nephew of David, and the false friend of 
Amnon, 2 Sam. 13:3-5. He seems to have 
been long aware of the purpose of Absa- 
lom to avenge his sister's dishonor upon 
Amnon, and very coolly excused the assas- 
sination of his friend, ver. 32-35. 

II. A son of Rechab, a Kenite, descend- 
ed from Hobabthe brother-in-law of Moses. 
He was at the head of the Rechabites in 
the time of Jehu, and seems to have given 
them a command to abstain from wine, 
1 Chr. 2:55; Jer. 35:6-19. See Recha- 
bites. Jehu invited him, as a man of in- 
fluence, to witness his " zeal for the Lord " 
in the slaughter of Baal-worshippers, 2 Kin. 
10:15-23. 

JO'NAH, a dove, the son of Amittai, and 
5th of the minor prophets, was a native of 
Gath-hepher, in Zebulun, 2 Kin. 14:25. Be- 
ing ordered of God to prophesy against 
Nineveh, probably in or before the reign 
of Jeroboam II., which began 825 B. C, 
he endeavored to evade the command by 
embarking at Joppa for Tarshish, in order 
to fly as far as possible in the opposite di- 
rection. Compare Gen. 3:8-10; Psa. 139:7- 
12; Jer. 23:24. But being overtaken by a 
storm, he was thrown overboard at his own 
request, and miraculously preserved by be- 
ing swallowed by a large fish. See Whale. 
Several Greek and Roman legends seem 
to have been borrowed from this source. 
After 3 days, typical of our Saviour's stay 

19 



in the tomb, Luke 11:29-32; 1 Cor. 15:4, 
the fish cast Jonah out upon the shore, per- 
haps near Zidon ; the word of the Lord a 
2d time directed him to go to Nineveh, and 
he obeyed. The allusions of the narrative 
to the vast extent and population of this 
city are confirmed by other ancient ac- 
counts and by modern investigations. See 
Nineveh. Jonah's miraculous deliverance 
seems to have been known, and to have 
prepared the way for his mission, Luke 
11 :3o; at the warning word of the prophet 
the king proclaimed a rigid fast, the Nine- 
vites repented, and the destruction threat- 
ened was postponed; but the feelings of 
Jonah at seeing his predictions unfulfilled 
and the enemies of God's people spared 
for the time, rendered necessary a further 
exercise of the forbearance of God to him. 
See Gourd. The general opinion of com- 
mentators is that in point of time Jonah 
was the 1st of the canonical prophets, and 
had prophesied in Israel many years be- 
fore he was sent to Nineveh. 

The literal truth of the narrative is es- 
tablished by our Saviour's repeated quota- 
tions, Matt. 12:39-41; 16:4; Luke 11:29-32. 
It is highly instructive, as showing that the 
providential government of God extends to 
all heathen nations, and that his grace has 
never been confined to his covenant peo- 
ple. 

JO'NAN, in R. V. Jo'nam, God-given, an 
ancestor of Christ, Luke 3:30. 

JO'NAS, Greek form of Jona or Jonah, 
given, I., to the prophet Jonah, Matt. 12:39- 
41; 16:4; Luke 11:29-32. 

II. The father of Peter and Andrew, John 
21:15-17, called John in R. V. He was 
probably a fisherman on the Sea of Galilee. 

JO'NATH-ELEM-RECHO'KIM, the dove 
dumb among strangers, title of Psalm 56, 
perhaps written at Gath to a plaintive mel- 
ody expressive of the feelings of an exile 
from home and the temple. 

JON'ATHAN, the gift of fehovah, I., a 
Levite, son of Gershom, who after the death 
of Joshua impiously served as a priest, first 
to Micah, and then to the Danites in Laish 
or Dan, where his posterity succeeded him 
for a long period, Judg. 17 ; 18. 

II. The eldest of the 4 sons of Saul, 1 Chr. 
8:33, and one of the loveliest characters in 
Old Testament history. The narrative of 
his brilliant exploit in Michmash, 1 Sam. 
13 and 14, illustrates his pious faith, his 
bravery (see also 1 Sam. 13:3, when he was 
about 30 years old), and the favor borne 
him by the people, who would not suffer 

289 



JOP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOP 



him to be put to death in consequence of 
Saul's foolish vow. This valiant and gen- 
erous prince, " strong like a lion and swift 
like an eagle," 2 Sam. 1 123, loved David as 
his own soul, 1 Sam. 18:1-4; 19:2; 20; and 
though convinced that his friend was cho- 
sen of God for the throne, nobly yielded his 
own pretensions, and reconciled fidelity to 
his father with the most pure and disinter- 
ested friendship for David, 1 Sam. 23: 16-18. 
He was a type of the faithful and cove- 
nant-keeping friends of God, while Saul 
was a type of false and apostate Israel. 
He perished with his father, in battle with 
the Philistines at Mount Gilboa ; and noth- 
ing can surpass the beauty and pathos of 



the elegy in which David laments his friend,. 
2 Sam. 1, whose only son Mephibosheth 
he afterwards sought out and befriended, 
2 Sam. 9. 

III. David's nephew, son of Shimeah, 
2 Sam. 21:21; 1 Chr. 20:7. Perhaps Da- 
vid's "uncle," i. e., relative, in 1 Chr. 27:32. 

IV. Son of Abiathar the high-priest, a 
swift and faithful messenger, 2 Sam. 15:27,. 
36; 17:15-21; 1 Kin. 1:41-49. 

V. Son and successor of Joiada the high- 
priest, Neh. 12:11. 

Eight others are named in 2 Sam. 23:32 
with 1 Chr. 11:34; i" Chr. 2:32,33; Ezra 
8:6; 10:15; Neh. 12:14, 35 1 Jer. 37 : 15, 20 ; 
40:8. Compare 2 Kin. 25:23. 




:SmBM3m 





YAFA, THE MODERN JOPPA, FROM THE NORTH. 



JOP'PA, Hebrew Japho, beauty, is one of 
the most ancient seaports in the world. It 
was a border town of the tribe of Dan, 
Josh. 19:46; Judg. 5:17, on the coast of the 
Mediterranean, 30 miles south of Caesarea, 
and about 35 northwest of Jerusalem. Its 
harbor is shoal and unprotected from the 
winds; but on account of its convenience 
to Jerusalem, it became the principal port 
of Judaea, and is still the great landing- 
place of pilgrims. Here the materials for 
building both the 1st and the 2d temple, 
sent from Lebanon and Tyre, were landed, 
2 Chr. 2:16; Ezra 3:7. Here Jonah em- 
barked for Tarshish. Here, too, Peter 
raised Dorcas from the dead, and in the 
house of Simon the tanner, by the seaside, 
was taught by a heavenly vision that salva- 
290 



tion was for Gentiles as well as Jews, Acts 
9-1 1. Joppa was twice destroyed by the 
Romans, under Cestius and Vespasian, 
having become a den of pirates. It was 
the seat of a Christian church for some 
centuries after Constantine. During the 
Crusades it several times changed hands ; 
and in modern times, 1799, it was stormed 
and sacked by the French, and 1,200 Turk- 
ish prisoners, said to have broken their 
parole, were put to death. 

The present town of Jaffa, or Yafa, is sit- 
uated on a promontory jutting out into the 
sea, rising to the height of about 150 feet, 
crowned with a fortress, and offering on 
all sides picturesque and varied prospects. 
Towards the west is extended the open 
sea ; towards the south are spread the fer- 



JOR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY, 



JOR 



tile plains of Philistia, reaching as far as 
Gaza ; towards the north, as far as Carmel, 
the flowery meads of Sharon present them- 
selves ; and to the east the hills of Ephraim 
and Judah raise their towering heads. The 
town is walled round on the south and 
east, towards the land, and partially so on 
the north and west, towards the sea. Its 
environs, away from the sand-hills of the 
shore, are full of gardens and orchards. 
From the sea the town looks like a heap of 
buildings crowded as closely as possible 
into a given space ; and from the steepness 
of its site they appear in some places to 
stand one on the other. The streets are 
very narrow, uneven, and dirty, and might 
rather be called alleys. The inhabitants 
are estimated at about 15,000, of whom 
more than half are Turks and Arabs. 
There are several mosques ; and the Lat- 
ins, Greeks, and Armenians have each a 
church, and a small convent for the recep- 
tion of pilgrims. 

JO'RAM, or Jeho'ram, exalted by Jeho- 
vah, I., son of Ahab king of Israel and 
Jezebel, succeeded his older brother Aha- 
ziah in the throne, B. C. 896, and reigned 12 
years. He discontinued the worship of 
Baal, but followed the " sin of Jeroboam," 
2 Kin. 3:2, 3. During his reign the Moab- 
ites revolted. Joram secured the aid of 
Jehoshaphat king of Judah, and after re- 
ceiving for his allies' sake a miraculous 
deliverance from drought, defeated the Mo- 
abites with great slaughter, 2 Kin. 3:4-27, 
though he retired without a permanent 
conquest. Not long after he was involved 
in war with Ben-hadad king of Syria, and 
Hazael his successor; and in this time oc- 
curred the miraculous deliverance of Sama- 
ria from siege and famine, and also vari- 
ous miracles of Elisha, including the heal- 
ing of Naaman, 2 Kin. 4-8. Joram was 
wounded in a battle with Hazael, 2 Kin. 
8:28, 29, and met his death, in the suburbs 
of Ramoth-gilead, by the hand of Jehu his 
general. His body was thrown into the 
field of Naboth at Jezreel, and with him 
perished the race of Ahab, 2 Kin. 9:14-26. 
Compare 1 Kin. 21:18-29. 

II. The son and successor of Jehosha- 
phat king of Judah. He reigned with his 
father, from B. C. 889, 4 years, and 4 years 
alone ; in all 8 years. Unhappily he was 
married to Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and 
Jezebel, whose evil influence did much to 
render his reign a curse to the land. He 
slew his own brothers, 5 in number, and 
seized their possessions. He also intro- 



duced Phoenician idols and their worship 
into Judah. The divine wrath, threatened 
by Elijah, was shown in leaving him un- 
aided under a successful revolt of the 
Edomites, and repeated invasions of the 
Philistines and Arabians. His country, 
the city, and his own household were rav- 
aged, his body was afflicted with a fright- 
ful dysenteric illness, and after death a 
burial in the royal sepulchres was denied 
him, 2 Kin. 8:16-24; 2 Chr. 21. 

JOR'DAN, descender, always "the Jor- 
dan " in Hebrew, except in Job 42 : 23 ; Psa. 
42:6, the chief river of Palestine, running 
from north to south, and dividing the Holy 
Land into 2 parts, of which the larger and 
more important lay on the west. There 
are 2 small streams, each of which claims 
to be its source. One of these, near Bani- 
as, anciently Caesarea Philippi, issues from 
a large cave in a rocky mountain side, and 
flows several miles towards the southwest, 
where it is joined by the second and larger 
stream, which originates in a fountain at 
Tell-el-Kady, 3 miles west of Banias. But 
besides these, there are several mountain 
brooks on the west, and especially a third 
and longer stream, the Hasbany, which 
rises beyond the northern limit of Pales- 
tine, near Hasbeiya on the west side of 
Mount Hermon, 1,700 feet above the Med- 
iterranean, flows 24 miles to the south, and 
unites with the other streams before they 
enter the "waters of Merom," now Lake 
Huleh. This marshy lake, when full, is 
about 7 miles long, and receives several 
other but smaller streams, chiefly from the 
west. See Merom. Issuing from Lake 
Huleh, the Jordan flows about '9 miles 
southward, falling 690 feet, to the Sea of 
Tiberias, through which its course may be 
traced 12 miles to the lower end. Hence 
it pursues its sinuous way to the south, 65 
miles in a straight line, till its pure waters 
are lost in the bitter Sea of Sodom : a won- 
derful transit within 140 miles in a straight 
line from the snows of Hermon to the val- 
ley of Jericho, one of the hottest places on 
the globe, a descent of nearly 3,000 feet. 

Between these 2 seas, that of Tiberias 
and the Dead Sea, lies the great valley or 
plain of the Jordan, 2 Kin. 25:4; 2 Chr. 
4:17, called by the Arabs el-Ghor, the hol- 
low. Its average width is about 5 miles, 
but near Jericho it is 12 miles. It is termi- 
nated on both sides, through almost its 
whole length, by hills, which rise abruptly 
on the western border 1,000 or 1,200 feet 
high, and more gradually on the east, but 

291 



JOR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOR 



twice as high. This valley is excessively 
hot, and except where watered by fountains 
or rivulets, is sandy and destitute of foli- 
age. It is covered in many parts with in- 
numerable cone-like mounds, and some- 
times contains a lower and narrow terrace 
of similar character, perhaps an eighth of 
a mile wide. Through this lower valley 
the river takes its serpentine course in a 
channel from 15 to 50 feet below the gen- 
eral level. Its immediate banks are thick- 
ly covered with trees and shrubs, such as 



the willow, tamarisk, and oleander; and 
often recede, and leave a larger space for 
vegetation. In its upper part it is fertile 
and cultivated, while the lower Jordan is 
bordered by numerous canebrakes. The 
thickets adjoining the river were formerly 
the retreat of wild beasts, which of course 
would be driven out by a freshet; hence 
the figure, " He shall come up like a lion 
from the swelling of Jordan," Jer. 49:19; 
50:44. The channel of the river may be 
deeper sunk than of old, but even now not 




only the intervales within the banks are 
overflowed in spring, but in many places 
the banks themselves, 1 Chr. 12:15. Lieut. 
Lynch of the United States Navy, who 
traversed the Jordan in 1848, ascertained 
that, although the distance from the Sea of 
Galilee to the Dead Sea is but 65 miles in 
a straight line, it is 200 miles by the course 
of the river, which has innumerable curves. 
Its width varies at different points from 75 
to 200 feet, and its depth from 3 to 12 feet. 
Its volume of water differs exceedingly at 
different seasons and from year to year. 
The current is usually swift and strong; 
and there are numerous rapids and falls, 
of which no less than 27 are specified by 
Lieut. Lynch as dangerous even to his 
metallic boats. The Sea of Tiberias lies 
682 feet below the level of the Mediterra- 
nean, and the Dead Sea 1,292 feet;- hence 
the fall of the Jordan between the 2 seas 
is 610 feet. The waters of the Jordan are 
cool and soft, though turbid, and like the 
292 



Sea of Galilee, it abounds in fish. It is 
crossed by an ancient stone bridge below 
Lake Huleh, and the fragments of another, 
just south of the Sea of Tiberias, still re- 
main. Several fords, available in ordinary 
seasons, are mentioned in Scripture, Judg. 
3:28; 12:5; 2 Sam. 17:22-24: one was over 
against Jericho, another just above the 
mouth of the Jabbok, and another between 
Succoth andjerash. Ferry-boats were also 
used, 2 Sam. 19:17, 18, 39. See Sea, IV. 

It was during the annual "swelling of 
the Jordan " that Joshua and the Israelites 
crossed it, Josh. 3:15. Yet the swift and 
swollen current was arrested in its course 
opposite to Jericho; and while the waters 
below the city rolled on to the sea, those 
above it were miraculously stayed, and left 
in the river bed a wide passage for the 
hosts of Israel. Twice afterwards the Jor- 
dan was miraculously crossed, by Elijah 
and Elisha, 2 Kin. 2:8, 14. In its waters 
the leprosy of Naaman was healed, and the 



JOR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOS 



lost axe-head floated at the word of Elisha, 
2 Kin. 5:14; 6:6. Here, too, our Saviour 
was baptized, Matt. 3:13; and this event 
is commemorated, in the middle of April 
of each year, by thousands of pilgrims of 
various sects of nominal Christians, who 
on a given day, and under the protection 
of a strong Turkish escort, visit the sacred 
river, drink and bathe in its waters, and 
after an hour or two return to Jerusalem. 
See Arabah. 

The principal branches of the Jordan are 
the Yermak, anciently Hieromax, a large 
stream, and the Jabbok, both on the east. 
There are several small rivulets and many 
mountain brooks, which dry up more or 
less early in the summer. The phrase, 
" beyond Jordan," usually indicates the 
east side of the river, but before the con- 
quest of Joshua it meant the west side. 

At the present day the Jordan is lost in 
the Dead Sea; but many have supposed 
that in very ancient times, before the de- 
struction of the cities in the vale of Sodom, 
the Jordan passed through the Dead Sea 
and the vale of Siddim, and continued its 
course southward to the Elanitic Gulf of 
the Red Sea. The southern end of the 
Dead Sea is found to be connected with 
the Elanitic Gulf, or the Gulf of Akaba, by 
the great valley called el-Arabah, forming 
a prolongation of el-Ghor, the valley of 
the Jordan. See map in Exodus. The 
course of this valley is between south and 
south-southwest. Its length, from the Dead 
Sea to Akaba, is about 100 miles in a direct 
line. From the extremity of the Dead Sea 
a sandy plain extends southward between 
hills, and on a level with the sea, for the 
distance of 8 or 10 miles, where it is inter- 
rupted by a chalky cliff, from 60 to 80 feet 
high, which runs nearly across the valley, 
but leaves at its western end the opening 
of a valley nearly half a mile wide, which 
runs up for many miles to the south within 
the broad and desert valley el-Arabah, upon 
which it at length emerges, and the water 
of which it conveys to the Dead Sea. The 
cliff above referred to, perhaps the Akrab- 
bim of the Bible, marks the termination of 
el-Ghor and the commencement of el-Ara- 
bah, which is thence prolonged without 
interruption to Akaba. It is skirted on 
each side by a chain of mountains ; but the 
streams which descend from these are in 
summer lost in their gravelly beds before 
they reach the valley below; so that this 
lower plain is in summer entirely without 
water, which alone can produce verdure 



in the Arabian deserts and render them 
habitable. There is not the slightest ap- 
pearance of a road, or of any other work 
of human art, in any part of the valley. 
The opinion that the Jordan formerly trav- 
ersed this great valley is rendered untena- 
ble by the fact that the Dead Sea lies nearly 
1,300 feet lower than the Gulf of Akaba, 
and that most of the intervening region 
now pours its streams north into the Dead 
Sea. Of course the Jordan must also have 
stopped there of old, as it does now, un- 
less, according to the somewhat startling 
theory of Lieut. Lynch and others, the 
Dead Sea — and with it, though less deeply, 
the whole valley to the north and south — 
sank down from a higher level into its pres- 
ent deep chasm, perhaps long before that 
appalling catastrophe from which Lot found 
refuge in "the mountain," Gen. 19:17-28, 
30. See Sea, III. 

JOS'APHAT, Matt. 1:8, Jehoshaphat. 

JO'SE, Luke 3:29, Joses; in R. V. Jesus, 
an ancestor of our Lord. 

JOS'EDECH, a high-priest, father of Jesh- 
ua, Hag. 1:1. See Jehozadak. 

JO'SEPH, removal and increase, both 
meanings being implied in Gen. 30:23, 24 — 
the taking away of reproach, and the hope 
of another son, Gen. 35:17. He was the 
elder of Jacob's 2 sons by his beloved Ra- 
chel, a son of his old age, 37:3, and for these 
reasons, as well as for his admirable dis- 
position, especially beloved by his father — 
who perhaps intended, with the gift of the 
new robe, to endue him with the rights of 
primogeniture, as the son of his first wife, 
in lieu of Reuben who had forfeited them, 
Gen. 35:22; 1 Chr. 5:1. He was born in 
Mesopotamia, Gen. 30:22-24, B. C. 1747. 
He is memorable for the wonderful provi- 
dence of God which raised him from a 
prison to be the grand- vizier of Egypt, and 
made him the honored means of saving 
countless human lives. The story of his 
father's fondness, of his protest against sin 
among his brothers, of their jealous hostil- 
ity and his prophetic dreams, of his sale by 
his brethren to Midianites and by them to 
Potiphar in Egypt, of the divine favor on 
his pure and prudent life, his imprison- 
ment for 3 to 12 years for virtue's sake, 
his wonderful exaltation to power and his 
wise use of it for the good of the nation, of 
his tender and reverent care of his father, 
his magnanimity to his brethren, and his 
faith in the future of God's chosen people, 
is one of the most pleasing and instructive 
in the Bible, and is related in language 

293 



JOS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOS 



inimitably natural, simple, and touching. 
It is too beautiful for abridgment, and too 
familiar to need full rehearsal. It throws 



much light on the superintending provi- 
dence of God, as embracing all things, great 
and small, in the perpetual unfolding of his 




STORING GRAIN IN GRANARIES. 



universal plan. No narrative in the Bible 
more strikingly illustrates the protective 
and elevating power of the fear of God, and 
its especial value for the young. To be- 
hold this lovely image of filial piety and 
unwavering faith, of self-control in youth 
and patience in adversity, of discretion and 
fidelity in all stations of life, serenely walk- 
ing with God through all, and at death in- 
trusting soul and body alike into his hands, 
Heb. 11:12, may well lead the young read- 
er to cry, Oh, that the God of Joseph were 
my God! Gen. t>7', 39~5°- There are sev- 
eral points of striking resemblance in Jo- 
seph's history to that of Christ : Joseph was 
specially beloved of his father, rejected 
by his brethren, and a servant for their 
good ; he was obedient to the law, endowed 
with heavenly wisdom, tempted of the 
world, the flesh, and the devil, but victori- 
ous ; he was imprisoned for a time, as 
Christ was in the tomb, and yet exalted to 
bring the bread of life and salvation to his 
people. He was about 17 years old when 
sold, 30 when he became the lord of Egypt, 
39 when his father and brethren came to 
dwell in Goshen. He died, aged no, B. C. 
1637; and when the Israelites, a century 
and a half later, went up from Egypt, they 
took his bones, and at length buried them 
in Shechem, Exod. 13:19; Josh. 24:32. A 
Mohammedan sacred tomb covers the spot 
regarded generally, and it may be correctly, 
as the place of his burial. It is a low stone 
inclosure, and stands in quiet seclusion 
among high trees, at the eastern entrance 
of the valley of Shechem, at the right of 
294 



the traveller's path and nearer Mount Ebal 
than Mount Gerizim. 

The history of Joseph is strikingly con- 
firmed by the Egyptian monuments, which 
have preserved for us very many traits of 
the national life in that early age just as 
they are incidentally mentioned in the Bi- 
ble. Joseph married the princess Asenath, 
daughter of Potipherah, priest of On ; and 
his 2 sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, Gen. 
41:50, whom Jacob adopted, 48:5, became 
the heads of two of the 12 tribes of Israel. 

II. The son of Heli ; the husband of Mary, 
Christ's mother. His genealogy is traced 
in Matt. 1 : 1-15, to David, Judah, and Abra- 
ham, and he was recognized as of the line- 
age of David, Matt. 1:20; Luke 2:4; John 
1:45. See Genealogy. His residence 
was at Nazareth in Galilee, where he fol- 
lowed the occupation of a carpenter, to 
which Christ also was trained, Mark 6:3. 
He was a pious and honorable man, as ap- 
pears from his whole course towards Mary 
and her son, Matt. 1 : 18-25. He received 4 
distinct intimations of God's will concern- 
ing him. Matt. 1:20; 2:13, 19, 22, and 
promptly obeyed them all. Both he and 
Mary attended the Passover at Jerusalem, 
when Christ was 12 years old, Luke 2:41-51 ; 
and as no more is said of him in the sacred 
narrative, and as Christ committed Mary 
to the care of one of the disciples, he is 
generally supposed to have died before 
Christ began his public ministry. He 
seems to have been well known among the 
Jews, Mark 6:3; John 6:42. 

III. A native of Arimathaea, but at the 



JOS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOS 



time of Christ's crucifixion a resident at 
Jerusalem. He was doubtless a believer in 
the Messiah, and "waited for the kingdom 
of God." He was a member of the Jew- 
ish Sanhedrin, and opposed in vain their 
action in condemning the Saviour, Luke 
23:51. When all was over, he "went in 
boldly unto Pilate, and craved the body of 
Jesus." It was now night, and the Jewish 
Sabbath was at hand. He therefore, with 
Nicodemus, wrapped the body in spices for 
the time, and laid it in his own tomb, Matt. 
27:58-60; Luke 23:50-53; Mark 15:43-46; 
John 19:38-42. Compare Isa. 53:9. 

IV. Justus, a disciple of Christ, also 
named Barsabas. See Barsabas. 

Six others are mentioned in Num. 13:7; 
Ezra 10:42; Neh. 12:14; Luke 3:24, 26, 30. 

Joseph is also substituted for Joses in 
the R. V. in Matt. 13:55 and Acts 4:36. 

JO'SES, Jehovah saves, I., in the R. V. 
Joseph, one of the brethren of our Lord, 
Matt. 13:35; Mark 6:3. Christ's brethren 
did not at first believe on him, but after 
his resurrection they are found among his 
disciples, John 2:12; 7:5; Acts 1:14. 

II. A son of Clopas and Mary, identified 
by some with the above, Matt. 27:56. See 
James, II. and III. 

III. In Acts 4:36, R. V., Joseph. See 
Barnabas. 

JOSH'UA. I., the son of Nun, a distin- 
guished leader of the Hebrews, and the 
successor of Moses. His name at first was 
Oshea or Hoshea, he saves, Num. 13:8, 
and afterwards, ver. 16, Jehoshua, Jehovah 
saves; in the New Testament, A. V., he is 
called, as in Gr., Jesus, Acts 7:45; Heb.4:8. 
See Jesus. Joshua was about 44 years old 
at the exodus, and was early welcomed as 
the special friend and attendant of Moses, 
and his destined successor. He first ap- 
pears as the leader of the host in battle 
with the Amalekites at Rephidim, Exod. 
17:8-16. He accompanied Moses into the 
fiery mount, was faithful in attendance on 
the tabernacle when Moses removed it, and 
was uncontaminated by the idolatry of the 
golden calf, Exod. 24:9, 13-15; 32:17; 33:11. 
By faithful service he learned how to com- 
mand. He and Caleb alone of the 12 ex- 
ploring princes urged the Hebrews to enter 
the promised land at once, Num. 14:6-10, 
3°. 3 8 >' 3 2:I i, 12. Compare Josh. 14:6-9. 
Chosen of God for the service which Mo- 
ses forfeited at Meribah, Num. 20:11, 12; 
2 7 :1 5~ 2 3> ne w as solemnly inaugurated and 
charged by Moses, Deut. 34:9, 10, and also 
by Jehovah, Josh. 1 : 1-9. 



Joshua led the people over the Jordan, 
and in 6 years subjugated Canaan, from 
Kadesh-barnea and Gaza on the south to 
Zidon and Mount Lebanon on the north, 
though many sections here and there were 
still in the hands of the Canaanites. Yet 
having gone over the country as a con- 
queror, he and Eleazar next apportioned it 
among the 12 tribes, giving to the Levites 
48 cities, and designating 6 cities of refuge. 
At the passage over Jordan he was 84 years 
of age ; and after about 26 years employed 
in his appointed work, and then judging 
Israel at his possession at Timnath-serah, 
he died, B. C. 1426. During his life the He- 
brews were preeminently the people of God, 
Josh. 11:15; 24:31. His last grand convo- 
cation of all Israel, at Shechem, and his sol- 
emn address to them, warning them against 
idols in the heart, and summoning them to 
a fresh covenant with God, form the wor- 
thy close of a life on which in the sacred 
records no blot rests. He seems to have 
served the Lord with singular fidelity. No 
man witnessed more or greater miracles 
than he ; and in his life may be found many 
points of resemblance to that of the greater 
" Captain of the Lord's host," who estab- 
lishes his people in the true promised land, 
Heb. 4:8. Moses, the lawgiver, led Israel 
to the border; Joshua, the prototype of 
Jesus, brought them over. 

The book of Joshua contains the narra- 
tive of all these transactions, and was writ- 
ten by Joshua himself, or under his direc- 
tion, B. C. 1427. The first 12 chapters nar- 
rate the conquest of Canaan; the next 10 
describe the apportionment of the land; 
the last 2 give Joshua's farewell appeals. 
From ch. 24:27 on, was of course added by 
a later hand ; but all was done under the 
inspiration of the Holy Spirit, 2 Tim. 3:16. 
Frequent allusions to its events are found, 
both in the Old Testament Scriptures, Psa. 
44:2-4; 68:13-15; 78:54, 55; 114:1-8; Hab. 
3:8, 13,, and in the New, Acts 7:45; Heb. 
4:8; 11:30-32; Jas. 2:25. 

II. Son of Josedech. See Jeshua, IV. 

Two others of this name are mentioned 
in 1 Sam. 6:14; 2 Kin. 23:8. 

JOSI'AH, whom Jehovah heals, I., son of 
the short-lived Amon and the pious Jedi- 
dah, and great-grandson of Hezekiah ; the 
I ^th king of Judah after Solomon, and one of 
the noblest of the line. He began to reign 
B. C. 641, at the age of 8 years, and reigned 
31 years, during which he accomplished 
great reforms in the temple worship and 
in the religious character of the nation in 

295 



JOS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOU 



general. No king set himself more ear- 
nestly to destroy every vestige of idolatry 
out cf the land. He began this work when 
he was only 16 years old, 2 Chr. 34:3, and 
at 20 took the most resolute measures, ex- 
tending his iconoclastic zeal even into the 
kingdom of Israel as far north as Naphtali, 
2 Kin. 23:15-20; 2 Chr. 34:6, defiling the 
altars of the idols at Bethel by burning 
upon them the bones from the tombs of 
their deceased priests; as had been fore- 
told more than 3 centuries before, 1 Kin. 
13:2. From this epoch Jeremiah dates 
some of his predictions, Jer. 25:3. In the 
18th year of his reign, while they were 
cleansing and repairing the temple at his 
command, Hilkiah the high-priest found 
the temple copy of the 5 books of the law, 
perhaps the original copy from Moses' own 
hand, 2 Chr. 34:14. The sacred book was 
too much neglected in those days of de- 
clension; and even the pious Josiah seems 
to have been impressed by the closing 
chapters of Deuteronomy as though he had 
never read them before. To avert the 
judgments there threatened, he humbled 
himself before God, and sought to bring 
the people to repentance. He assembled 
the people, read to them portions of the 
book of the law, caused them to renew 
their covenant with Jehovah, and celebra- 
ted the Passover with a solemnity like that 
of its first institution. But the repentance 
of the people was superficial, and did not 
avert the divine judgments. Josiah, how- 
ever, was taken away from the evil to 
come, according to the prediction of Hul- 
dah, 2 Chr. 34:22-28. He met death in 
battle with Pharaoh-necho king of Egypt, 
whose passage across his territory to at- 
tack the king of Assyria, Josiah felt obliged 
to resist, not consulting Jehovah, nor even 
the prudent counsel of Solomon, Prov. 
17:14; 26:17. Pharaoh-necho came by sea 
to Accho, and warned him " from the 
mouth of God;" yet Josiah met him on the 
great battle-field of Esdraelon, received a 
mortal wound near Megiddo, and died 
soon after on the way to Jerusalem. The 
death of this wise and pious king was 
deeply lamented by the prophet Jeremiah 
and all the people. Jeremiah composed 
an elegy for their use, 2 Chr. 35:25, and 
their mourning is mentioned in Zech. 12 : 10, 
11, as a type of the mourning of penitent 
Israel for the Messiah. His history is nar- 
rated in 2 Kin. 22; 23; 2 Chr. 34; 35, and 
probably Jer. 1-12. Its unhappy close may 
warn us against presumption and the pur- 
296 



suit of even good ends by carnal means. 
During his reign a horde of Scythians 
overran Western Asia, leaving their traces 
in the city Beth-shan, thence called Scyth- 
opolis. In the middle of his reign also. 
Nineveh was destroyed and Assyria divi- 
ded by the Babylonians and Medes. 

II. Son of Zephaniah, Zech. 6:9-15. In 
his house at Jerusalem Joshua the high- 
priest was crowned as a type of the Mes- 
siah. 

JOT, a word which comes from the name 
of the Greek letter vura (t) and the Hebrew 
yod ( ■) ). It is the smallest letter of these 
alphabets, and is therefore put for the 
smallest thing or particle, Matt. 5:18. See 
Tittle. 

JOT'BAH, goodness, 2 Kin. 21 : 19, the 
home of king Amon's mother, probably et- 
Taiyibeh, in Benjamin, 4 miles east-north- 
east of Bethel. 

JOT'BATHAH, goodness, "a land of win- 
ter-brooks," Deut. 10:7, the 34th and 41st 
station of the Hebrews in the desert, Num. 
33 : 33y 34- Probably the broad Wady el- 
Adhbeh, northwest of Elath. 

JO'THAM, Jehovah is upright, I., the 
youngest son of Gideon, who escaped the 
massacre of his 69 brethren by Abimelech, 
and afterwards boldly and prophetically 
denounced the Shechemites from Mount 
Gerizim in the beautiful parable of the 
bramble and the other trees. He escaped 
to Beer, and probably lived to see his 
threatenings fulfilled, Judg. 9. See Abim- 
elech, III. 

II. The son and successor of Uzziah, or 
Azariah, and the 10th king of Judah, B. C. 
758. He appears to have been for some 
years regent before the death of Uzziah his 
leprous father, but ascended the throne at 
the age of 25 years, and reigned 16 years 
in the fear of God. The history of his 
wise and prosperous reign, his resubjuga- 
tion of the Ammonites, and his useful pub- 
lic works, is found in 2 Kin. 15:5, 7, 3 2 ~3^y 
2 Chr. 26:21-23; 27:1-9. 

III. Son of Jahdai, tribe of Judah, 1 Chr. 
2:47. 

JOUR'NEY. A " sabbath-day's journey,"" 
among the Jews, seems to have been reck- 
oned at about 7 furlongs, or nearly 1 mile, 
Matt. 24:20; Acts 1 : 12. An ordinary day's 
journev is 15 to 20 miles, with a rest in 
the middle of the day. Persons starting on 
a journey in the East usually make their 
first stage a short one, that they may the 
more easily send back for any forgotten 
article or supplies. This may perhaps ap- 



JOY 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JUD 



ply to the " day's journey " of the parents 
of Jesus, mentioned in Luke 2:44. 

For the journeyings of the Israelites, see 
Exodus and Wanderings. 

JOY, a passing emotion or a permanent 
affection, more marked than peace, con- 
tent, cheerfulness, or gladness, and differ- 
ent from mirth or exultation. It may spring 
from natural or from religious sources, and 
may be right or wrong in its moral charac- 
ter. True spiritual joy is a "fruit of the 
Spirit," Gal. 5:22, and is a delight in God 
and all his works and ways — his word, his 
worship, and his service, Psa. 5:11; 43:4; 
Isa. 61:10, in Christ, Phil. 3:3; 1 Pet. 1:8, 
and in all the graces, duties, promises, and 
hopes of the gospel ; so that the believer, 
pardoned and in union with Christ, ought 
always to possess and show it, Psa. 32:11; 
Isa. 35:10; Phil. 3:1; 4:4, even in tribula- 
tion, Hab. 3:17, 18; Rom. 5:1-3. All other 
joy is superficial and short-lived, Job 20:5 ; 
Eccl. 7:6. Hence the chief thing on earth 
that gives joy to heaven is the turning of a 
soul from sin unto God, Luke 15:7, 10. 

JOZ'ABAD, God-given, contracted from 
Jehozabad. Eight of this name are men- 
tioned: 1 Chr. 12:4; 12:20, two; 2 Chr. 
31:13; 35:9; Ezra 8:33; 10:22; 10:23 with 
Neh. 8:7. 

JOZ'ACHAR, remembered of God, a Mo- 
abite, one of the murderers of Joash, who 
was slain by foreign hands, as he had wor- 
shipped foreign gods, 2 Kin. 12:21. 

JOZ'ADAK, Ezra 3: 2, 8; 5:2; 10:18; Neh. 
12:26. See Jehozadak. 

JU'BAL, music, son of Lamech and Adah, 
and a descendant of Cain. He invented 
the lyre and the shepherd's-pipe, stringed 
and wind instruments, Gen. 4:21. 

JU'BILEE, a Hebrew festival, celebrated 
in every 50th year, which apparently oc- 
curred the year after 7 weeks of years, or 7 
times 7 years, Lev. 25:10. Its name Jubi- 
lee, an impetuous sound or clangor, was 
significant of the joyful trumpet-peals that 
announced its arrival. During this year 
(1) no Hebrew sowed or reaped, but all 
were satisfied with what the earth and the 
trees produced spontaneously, Lev. 25:11, 
12. (2) Each resumed possession of his 
inheritance, whether it were sold, mort- 
gaged, or otherwise alienated, 25:13-34; 
27:16-24. Houses in walled cities— not in 
open villages— were excepted: the seller 
might buy them back within a year from 
the sale, and if he did not they became the 
purchaser's own. Levites also could buy 
back their houses at any time, and claimed 



them without price at the year of Jubilee. 
If a man sanctified his land to Jehovah, he 
could redeem it before the year of Jubilee 
on fixed terms, otherwise it remained sanc- 
tified for ever. And (3) Hebrew servants 
of every description were set free, with 
their wives and children, Lev. 25:39-54. 
This law seems to apply to Hebrew bond- 
men who had not served out their regular 
period of 6 years, Exod. 21:1, 2, and had 
not declined manumission, ver. 5, 6. The 
first 9 days of the Jubilee year were spent 
in festivities, during which no one worked, 
and every one wore a crown on his head. 
On the 10th day, which was the day of sol- 
emn expiation, the Sanhedrin ordered the 
trumpets to sound, and instantly the slaves 
were declared free, and the lands returned 
to their hereditary owners. This law was 
mercifully designed to prevent the rich 
from oppressing the poor, and getting pos- 
session of all the lands by purchase, mort- 
gage, or usurpation; to cause that debts 
should not be multiplied too much, and that 
slaves should not continue, with their wives 
and children, in perpetual bondage. It 
served to maintain a degree of equality 
among the Hebrew families; to perpetuate 
the division of lands and households ac- 
cording to the original tribes, Num. 36, and 
secure a careful registry of the genealogy 
of every family. It gave an opportunity 
for the land to rest, and to the people a 
special time for instructing the young, and 
for the reading of the law. They were also 
thus reminded that Jehovah was the great 
Proprietor and Disposer of all things, and 
they but his tenants. " The land is mine; 
for ye are strangers and sojourners with 
me," Lev. 25:23. And this memento met 
them constantlv and pointedly; for every 
transfer of land was valuable in propor- 
tion to the number of years remaining be- 
fore the Jubilee. Though the Bible con- 
tains no record of any regular observance 
of this Jubilee year, yet it was doubtless 
duly kept, 1 Kin. 21:3; Ezek. 46:i7,.(where 
it is called "the year of liberty"). See 
also allusions to it in 2 Chr. 36:21; Neh. 
5 : 3~ x 3; J er - 32:6-12; Ezek. 7:12, 13. The 
Jews affirm that it was kept until "the Cap- 
tivity." Isaiah clearly refers to this pecu- 
liar and important festival as foreshadow- 
ing the glorious dispensation of gospel 
grace, Isa. 61:1, 2; Luke 4:17-21. 

See also the notice of a similar institu- 
tion under Sabbatical Year. 

JU'DA, I., Luke 3:26, in R. V. Joda, an 
ancestor of Christ, perhaps the same as 

297 



JUD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JUD 



Abiud, Matt, i : 13, and Obadiah, 1 Chr. 
3:21. — II. Luke 3:30, in R. V. Judas, prob- 
ably Adaiah, 2 Chr. 23:1. — III. Luke 1:39, 
in R. V. Judah, the tribe. 

JUDJE'A, or Jude'a, the land of the Jews, 
a name sometimes given to the southern 
part of the Holy Land, and sometimes, 
especially by foreigners, to the whole coun- 
try. In the general division of Canaan 
among the tribes, the southern part fell to 
the lot of the tribe of Judah. The original 
territory of the tribe was an elevated plain, 
much broken by frequent hills, ravines, and 
valleys, and sinking into fine plains and 
pasture-grounds on the west and south, 
Zech. 7:7. It was a healthy, pleasant, and 
fruitful land. The valleys yielded large 
crops of grain ; and the hills were terraced, 
watered, covered with vines, Gen. 49:11, 
12, and rich in olives, figs, and many other 
fruits. See Canaan. Its bounds are fully 
specified in Josh. 15:21-63, extending at 
first from the mouth of the Jordan, by the 
road ascending from Jericho, traversing 
Jerusalem south of Mount Moriah, and by- 
way of Kirjath-jearim and Bethshemesh to 
Jabneh on the Mediterranean; and from 
the foot of the Dead Sea westward to el- 
Arish, "the river of Egypt." This lower 
portion, " the south country," was soon 
after assigned to the tribe of Simeon, Josh. 
19:1-9. The larger and more important 
part of Judah, known as " the hill-country 
of Judah," Luke 1:39, 65, lay south of Jeru- 
salem, from the heights overlooking the 
Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean, 
including Hebron, Bethlehem, and 36 other 
cities, Josh. 15:48-60. Indeed almost every 
hill-top now shows the remains of an an- 
cient town. Towards the west this region 
fell off by a range of lower hills into the 
lowland or Shephelah, called in Josh. 15:33 
"the valley" — extending to the Mediterra- 
nean. It was the prolongation southerly 
of the fertile plain of Sharon, and was the 
granary of Judah. The 42 cities, with their 
villages, named in Josh. 15:33-47, included 
Philistia, which see. "The wilderness of 
Judcea" in which John began to preach, 
and where Christ was tempted, seems to 
have been in the eastern part of Judah, the 
slope adjacent to the Dead Sea, and stretch- 
ing towards Jericho, 2 Sam. 15:28. It had 
only 6 towns, Josh. 15:61, 62, and is still one 
of the most dreary and desolate regions of 
the whole country, Matt. 3:1; 4:1. "The 
plain " refers usually to the low ground 
near the Jordan, 2 Sam. 2:29: 2 Kin. 25:4, 
5. The territory of the tribe may have 
298 



averaged 45 miles from east to west and 25 
from north to south. With the increasing 
ascendancy of that tribe the name of Ju- 
dah covered a more extended territory, 
2 Sam. 5:5; and after the secession of the 
10 tribes, the kingdom of Judah included 
the territory of the tribes of Judah and 
Benjamin, with a part of that of Simeon 
and Dan. Judah thus occupied all the 
southern portion of Palestine, while the 
northern part was called Galilee, and the 
middle Samaria. The population of the 
kingdom of Judah in its palmy days must 
have been vast, judging from the size of 
its armies, 1 Chr. 21:5; 2 Chr. 13:3; 14:8; 
17:14-19; and its wealth great, if we may 
judge from the amount expended upon the 
temple, and the spoils exacted by succes- 
sive conquerors. Its area was some 4,000 
square miles. The kingdom endured from 
the accession of Rehoboam, B. C. 975, to 
the Captivity, B. C. 588, 387 years. See 
Kings. After the Captivity, as most of 
those who returned were of the kingdom 
of Judah, the name Judah, or Judaea, was 
applied generally to the whole of Pales- 
tine, Hag. 1:1, 14; 2:2; and this use of 
the word has never wholly ceased. When 
the whole country fell into the power of 
the Romans, the former division into Gali- 
lee, Samaria, and Judaea seems to have 
again become current, Luke 2:4; John 4:3, 
4. Josephus describes Judaea in his day as 
bounded north by Samaria, east by the 
Jordan, west by the Mediterranean, and 
south by the territory of the Arabs. These 
boundaries seem to include a part of Idu- 
maea. Judaea in this extent constituted part 
of the kingdom of Herod the Great, and 
afterwards belonged to his son Archelaus. 
When the latter was banished for his cruel- 
ties, Judaea was reduced to the form of a 
Roman province, annexed to the procon- 
sulate of Syria, and governed by procura- 
tors, until it was at length given as part of 
his kingdom to Herod Agrippa II. During 
all this time the boundaries of the province 
were often varied by the addition or ab- 
straction of different towns and cities. 

JU'DAH, celebrated, the same as Jude, 
Juda, or Judas, which see. I. The 4th son 
of Jacob and Leah, Reuben, Simeon, and 
Levi being older than he, Issachar and 
Zebulun younger, Gen. 35:23, born in Mes- 
opotamia, B. C. 1755, Gen. 29:35. His name 
appears honorably in the history of Jo- 
seph, Gen. 37:26, 27; 43:3-10; 44:16-34; 
46:28; but disgracefully in that of Tamar 
his daughter-in-law, Gen. 38. The dying 



JUD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JUD 



benediction of Jacob foretells the superior 
power and prosperity of the family of Ju- 
dah, and their continuance as chief of the 
Jewish race until the time of Christ, Gen. 
49:8-12. Five sons of Judah are men- 
tioned, of whom Pharez and Zerah were 
most prominent. Reuben having forfeited 
his birthright, Judah soon came to be con- 
sidered as the chief of Jacob's children, 
and his tribe was the most powerful and 
numerous, numbering 74,000 adult males 
at the exodus from Egypt, nearly 12,000 
more than any other tribe. They took the 
lead in the conquest of Canaan, Judg. 1 : 1, 
2, 8-10, 17, 18. The southern part of Pal- 
estine fell to their lot. See Judaea. On 
the northern border of their territory was 
Jerusalem, the seat of the Jewish worship; 
and from Judah sprang David and his 
royal race, from which descended the Sa- 
viour of the world. 

After the return from the Captivity, this 
tribe in some sort united in itself the whole 
Hebrew nation, who from that time were 
known only as Judaei, Jews, descendants 
of Judah. Judah — when named in contra- 
distinction to Israel, Ephraim, the kingdom 
of the 10 tribes, or Samaria— denotes the 
kingdom of Judah and of David's descend- 
ants. See Hebrews and Kings. One of 
the principal distinctions of this tribe is 
that it preserved the true religion, and the 
public exercise of the priesthood, with the 
legal ceremonies in the temple at Jerusa- 
lem ; while the 10 tribes gave themselves 
up to idolatry and the worship of the gold- 
en calves. 

II. Several other men named Judah are 
mentioned in Ezra 3:9; Neh. 11:9; 12:8, 
34, 36. 

III. 2 Chr. 25:28, supposed to be the city 
of David, in Jerusalem. See Jerusalem. 

IV. A town in Naphtali, near Banias, 
Josh. 19:34. 

JU'DAS, I., Iscariot, or "son of Simon 
Iscariot," R. V., John 6:71, that is, man of 
Kerioth, a city of Judah, Josh. 15:25. Be- 
ing one of the 12 apostles of our Lord, 
called by Him as a professed disciple, 
though with a knowledge of his real char- 
acter, John 6:64, 70, Judas seems to have 
possessed the full confidence of his fellow- 
apostles, and was intrusted by them with 
all the presents which were made them 
and all their means of subsistence and 
charity; and when the 12 were sent out to 
preach and to work miracles, Judas ap- 
pears to have been among them, and to 
have received the same powers. He was 



accustomed, however, even at this time, to 
appropriate part of their common stock to 
his own use, John 12:6; and at length 
sealed his infamy by betraying his Lord to 
the Jews for money. For the paltry sum 
of about $15 he engaged with the Jewish 
Sanhedrin to guide them to a place where 
they could seize him by night without dan- 
ger of a tumult. But when he learned the 
result, a terrible remorse took possession 
of him; not succeeding in undoing his fa- 
tal work with the priests, he cast down 
before them the price of blood, crossed the 
gloomy valley of Hinnom, and hung him- 
self, Matt. 27:3-10. Luke, in Acts 1:18, 
adds that he fell headlong and burst asun- 
der, probably by the breaking of the rope 
or branch. The steep hill-side south of the 
valley of Hinnom might well be the scene 
of such a twofold death. See Aceldama. 
The gospel narratives seem to place his 
leaving the upper room before the Lord's 
Supper; and otherwise the time for con- 
summating his treachery would have been 
short. 

The prophecy as to the 30 pieces of sil- 
ver, quoted, Matt. 27:9, as from Jeremiah, 
is found in Zech. 11:12, 13; perhaps Jere- 
miah was named as including all the proph- 
ets, being placed at their head by the Jews ; 
or the passage in Zechariah is regarded as 
included in the earlier predictions by Jer- 
emiah of the same general tenor. The 
remorseful confession of Judas was a sig- 
nal testimony to the spotless innocence of 
Christ, Matt. 27:4; and his awful end is a 
solemn warning against avarice, hypocrisy, 
and all unfaithfulness, Matt. 26:24; John 
17:12; Acts 1:25. 

II. Matt. 1:2, 3, the patriarch Judah, as 
in R. V. 

III. One of the apostles, called also Jude, 
Lebbaeus, and Thaddaeus, Matt. 10:3 ; Mark 
3 : 18 ; Jude 1, the son of Alphaeus and Mary, 
and brother of James the Less. See James, 
II. and III. He was the author of the epis- 
tle which bears his name, Mark 6:3, R. V. ; 
Luke 6: 16; John 14:22; Acts 1:13. 

IV. The brother of our Lord, Matt. 27 : 56. 
Supposed by many to have been only a 
cousin, and the same as Judas III., the 
apostle. But his "brethren" did not be- 
lieve in him until near the close of his min- 
istry. See James, III. Hegesippus relates 
that 2 grandsons of Jude "the Lord's bro- 
ther" were brought before the emperor 
Domitian and examined. They confessed 
themselves to be of David's posterity, but 
said that they lived plainly by working 

299 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JUD 



their 30 acres of land, and that Christ was 
not an earthly but a spiritual king, and the 
final Judge. They were dismissed in peace. 

V. A Christian teacher, or "prophet," 
called also Barsabas, sent from Jerusalem 
with Paul, Barnabas, and Silas, to convey 
the decision of the council to Antioch, 
where he faithfully performed his mission 
and then returned to Jerusalem, Acts 15:22, 

27, 32, 34- 

VI. Surnamed " the Galilean," called 
also by Josephus the Gaulonite. He was 
born at Gamala, a city of Gaulonitis near 
the southeastern shore of the Lake of Ti- 
berias. In company with one Sadoc, A. D. 
6, he attempted to excite a revolt among 
the Jews, but was destroyed by Quirinus, 
or Cyrenius, at that time proconsul of Syria 
and Judaea, Acts 5.37. 

VII. A Jew at Damascus, with whom 
Paul lodged, Acts 9:11. See Damascus. 

JUDE. See Judas, III. 

The epistle of Jude, assigned conjec- 
turally to the year 66 A. D., is a fervid and 
vehement voice of warning against follow- 
ing certain false teachers in their errors 
and corruptions, and so sharing their aw- 
ful doom. It resembles the 2d Epistle of 
Peter. As to the quotation in ver. 14, 15, 
see Enoch, II. 

JUDE'A. See Jud^e'a. 

JUDG'ES, in Hebrew Sho'phetim, were 
rulers, chiefs, or leaders of Israel during 
the Theocracy, from Joshua to Saul. They 
were very different from the ordinary ad- 
ministrators of justice among the Hebrews, 
respecting whom see Justice. Their au- 
thority resembled that of the Roman Dic- 
tators, and was often military more than 
judicial, though Eli and Samuel were only 
civil rulers. The Carthaginians, a colony 
of the Tyrians, had likewise governors, 
whom they called Suffetes, or Sophetim, 
with authority almost equal to that of kings. 

The dignity of judge was for life ; but 
the succession was not constant. There 
were anarchies, or intervals, during which 
the commonwealth was without rulers. 
There were likewise long intervals of for- 
eign servitude and oppression, under which 
the Hebrews groaned without deliverers. 
Although God called forth several of the 
judges, yet the people usually chose, under 
divine guidance, that individual who ap- 
peared to them most proper to deliver them 
from oppression. There was in fact no 
central government : too generally " every 
man did what was right in his own eyes ;" 
and as it often happened that the oppres- 
300 



sions which occasioned recourse to the elec- 
tion of a judge were not felt over all Israel, 
the power of such judge extended only 
over that province which he had delivered. 
Thus it was the land east of the Jordan 
that Ehud, Jephthah, Elon, and Jair deliv- 
ered and governed ; Barak and Tola gov- 
erned the northern tribes, Abdon the cen- 
tral, and Ibzan and Samson the southern. 
The authority of judges was little inferior 
to that of kings : it extended to peace and 
war ; they decided causes with absolute 
authority ; were protectors of the laws, de- 
fenders of religion, and avengers of crimes, 
particularly of idolatry. They were with- 
out salary, pomp, or splendor ; and without 
guards, train, or equipage, other than that 
their own wealth afforded. 

The command of Jehovah to expel or 
destroy all the Canaanites was but imper- 
fectly executed ; and those who were spared 
infected the Hebrews with the poison of 
their idolatry and vice. The affair of Mi- 
cah and the Levite, and the crime at Gib- 
eah which led to the ruinous war against 
the Benjamites, though recorded at the 
close of the book of Judges, ch. 17-21, oc- 
curred not long after the death of Joshua, 
and show how soon Israel began to depart 
from God. To chastise them, he suffered 
the people of Mesopotamia and of Moab, 
the Canaanites, Midianites, Ammonites, and 
Philistines in turn to oppress by their ex- 
actions a part of the tribes, and sometimes 
the whole nation. But erelong, in pity 
for their sufferings, he would raise up one 
of the military and civil dictators above 
described. Fifteen judges are named in 
the Bible, beginning with Othniel, some 20 
years after Joshua, and continuing till the 
coronation of Saul. The recorded succes- 
sion of the judges, and of the intervening 
periods of oppression, is the following : 

YEARS. 

Othniel, about B. C. 1405 40 

Under Eglon - 18 

Ehud, etc. — - " 80 

Under the Philistines unknown 

Shamgar-- ■— ' unknown 

Under Jabin - 20 

Deborah and Barak 4° 

Under Midian 7 

Gideon - 4» 

Abimelech - - - - - - - - 3 

Tola--- - 2 3 

Jair-- "--- 22 

Under the Ammonites 18 

Jephthah - - " 6 

Ibzan 7 

Elon — - IO 

Abdon-- -- 8 

Under the Philistines 40 



JUD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JUD 



YEARS. 

Samson \ - - 20 

Eli J 40 

Under the Philistines - - - - • 20 

Samuel , about --- -- --- 12 

Saul, the first king, B. C. 1095. 

The time from Othniel to Saul, according 
to the above table, would be some 490 
3 r ears, compare Acts 13:20; according to 
the received chronology it is about 310 
years, of which only in were years of for- 
eign oppression. It is supposed that some 
of the above periods overlap each other; 
but chronologists are not agreed as to the 
mode of reconciling the accounts in Judges 
with other known dates, and with 1 Kin. 
6:1 and Acts 13:20, though several practi- 
cable methods are proposed, the examina- 
tion of which would exceed the limits of 
this work. 

The book of Judges, the 7th in order of 
the Old Testament books, contains the an- 
nals of the times in which Israel was ruled 
by judges, and is often referred to in the 
New Testament and other parts of the Bi- 
ble. It has 3 parts: Ch. 1 to 3:6 introduc- 
tory; ch. 3:7 to 16 the main narrative, the 
story of 6 of the judges being full and the 
others brief; ch. 17-21 the appendix, con- 
taining two separate narratives. The book 
shows the steps by which the people came 
to reject God as their ruler, and appears 
to have been written before David captured 
Zion, 1:21, and yet after a regal govern- 
ment was introduced, 17:6; 18:1; 21:25. 
Who was its author is unknown ; the ma- 
jority of critics ascribe it to Samuel, B. C. 
1403. It illustrates God's care over his 
people, mingling his longsuffering with 
timely chastisements. On 4 memorable 
occasions the Angel-Jehovah appeared for 
their deliverance, Josh. 2:1-5; 6:11-21; 
10:10-16; 13:3-23. The period of the 
judges was, on the whole, one of prosper- 
ity; and while the providence of God con- 
firmed his word, "If ye refuse and rebel, 
ye shall be devoured by the sword," it no 
less faithfully assured them, " If ye be will- 
ing and obedient, ye shall eat of the good 
of the land." 

JUDG'MENT is an act of the mind in dis- 
cerning and forming an opinion as to the 
real nature of anything, or the true charac- 
ter of any person or act, Psa. 119:66; Prov. 
13:23; Isa. 56:1. In this familiar use of 
the word we should remember that the 
judgment God forms of us is unerringly 
true to the facts ; all disguises melt away 
beneath his eye, and each soul appears as 



it is, Gen. 18:25; Rom. 2:2, and we are 
warned to see ourselves as he sees us, lest 
we be condemned at the last, 1 Cor. 11:31. 

Judgment is often used in Scripture for 
God's vindication of his people, Psa. 37:6; 
76:9, and punishment of his foes, Rom. 
1:32; 2:3, 5. His "judgments" are his 
laws, the declarations of his will, Deut» 
7:12; Neh. 9:13; Psa. 119, or signal chas- 
tisement of transgressors, Exod. 6:6; Prov. 
19:29; Ezek. 25:11; Rev. 16:7. 

The word judgment is put in Matt. 5:21, 
22, for a court of judgment, a tribunal, 
namely, the tribunal of 7 judges, which 
Josephus mentions as existing in every 
city, and which decided causes of minor 
importance. See under Synagogue. 

For the expression, "judgment-hall," see 
Pr^etorium. 

The day of judgment, for which the 
word "judgment" alone is sometimes used, 
is that great day, at the end of the world 
and of time, when Christ shall sit as judge 
over all the universe, Acts 17:31, and when 
every individual of the human race will be 
judged and recompensed according to his 
works, whether they be good or evil. It is 
a truth of revelation, powerfully confirmed 
by the forebodings of conscience and by a 
contemplation of the inequalities of retri- 
bution in this life. Various books will be 
opened : the book of conscience, Rom. 2 : 15, 
of God's providence, Rom. 2:4, 5, of the 
Law and of the Gospel, John 12:48; Rom. 
2:12, 16, and the book of life, Luke 10:20; 
Rev. 3:5; 20:12, 15. The time of its com- 
ing and its duration are known only to 
God. It will break upon the world sud- 
denly, and with a glorious but awful maj- 
esty. It will witness the perfect vindica- 
tion of all the ways of God. The revela- 
tion of his justice, appalling but unstained, 
will fill the universe with approving won- 
der; but the revelation of his yet more 
amazing goodness will crown him with un- 
utterable glory. The Redeemer especially 
will then receive his reward, and be glori- 
fied in his saints, who shall be raised from 
the dead in his likeness. He will divide 
all mankind into two classes : all the right- 
eous will be in one, and all the wicked in 
the other ; all that love God in the one, and 
all that hate him in the other ; all that pen- 
itently believed in Christ while they lived 
in the one, and all that died impenitent 
and unbelieving in the other. And this 
judgment and separation will be eternal ; 
the former will rise in holiness and joy, 
and the latter sink in sin and woe for ever, 

301 



JUD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JUS 



Eccl. ii 9; Dan. 12:2; Matt. 10:15; 12:36; 
25:31-46; 26:64; John 5:22; Rom. 14:10- 
12; 2 Thess. 1:7-10; 2 Pet. 2:9; 3:7; 1 John 
4:17; Rev. 20:12-15. 

JU'DITH, the praised one, Gen. 26:34, 
wife of Esau. See Aholibamah. 

JU'LIA, a Christian woman at Rome, to 
.whom Paul sent salutations, Rom. 16:15. 

JU'LIUS, a centurion of the cohort of 
Augustus, to whom Festus, governor of 
Judaea, committed Paul to be conveyed 
from Caesarea to Rome. Julius had great 
regard for Paul. He suffered him to land 
at Sidon and visit his friends ; and at Mal- 
ta opposed the violence of the soldiers, 
directed against the prisoners generally, 
in order to save the apostle, Acts 27. 

JU'NIAS, Rom. 16:7, A. V. Junia, one of 
Paul's " kinsmen "—perhaps only country- 
men, Rom. 9:3— at Rome, an earlier disci- 
ple of Christ than he. 




GENISTA MONOSPERMA, OR R,ET,EM. 

JU'NIPER is found in the English Bible, 
1 Kin. 19:4, 5; Job 30:4; Psa. 120:4. The 
Hebrew word, however, signifies the plant 
Genista, or Spanish broom, which is com- 
mon in the desert regions of Arabia, and 
has show-white blossoms, streaked with 
purple, and a bitter root. The Arabs call 
it the retem. It grows to the height of 8 or 
10 feet, and is highly prized in the desert 
as food for sheep and goats, fuel, and shel- 
ter from sun and wind. See Rithmah. 

JU'PITER, the supreme god of the heath- 
en Greeks and Romans. He was called 
the son of Saturn and Ops, and was said 
302 



to have been born in Crete. The charac- 
ter attributed to him in pagan mythology 
was a compound of all that is wicked, ob- 
scene, and beastly in the catalogue of hu- 
man crime, though he was ever described 
as of noble and dignified appearance and 
bearing. Hence, after the miraculous cure 
of the impotent man at Lystra, the super- 
stitious populace recognizing a superhu- 
man power, called Barnabas Jupiter, and 
Paul Mercury, and sought to worship them, 
Acts 14:11-13. The Ephesians imagined 
that their wooden image of Diana was sent 
down to them by Jupiter, Acts 19:35. An- 
tiochus Epiphanes polluted the temple at 
Jerusalem by sacrificing swine on the altar, 
and changed it to a temple of Olympian 
Jupiter. This idol-altar and image were 
supposed by the Jews to be the "Abomi- 
nation of Desolation" of Daniel. See 
Abomination. 

JUS'TICE, a principle of righteousness 
and equity, controlling our conduct, and 
securing a due regard to all the rights of 
others — their persons, property, character, 
and interests. It has to do, not with pecu- 
niary transactions alone, but with all our 
intercourse with society. It is one of the 
4 cardinal virtues, and requires not only 
that we abstain from doing others any 
wrong, even in thought, but that we recog- 
nize the brotherhood of all men, and their 
consequent claim upon our good-will and 
kind offices. It is unjust not to love our 
neighbor as truly as ourselves. Justice 
forms a chief element of the character ap- 
proved in God's Word; and a truly just 
man has but to " love mercy, and walk 
humbly with God," to fulfil all righteous- 
ness, Luke 2:25. Justice in magistrates, 
rulers, and judges must be fearless and 
impartial, and all its decisions such as will 
bear revision before the court of heaven, 
Deut. 1:16, 17; 2 Sam. 23:3; 2 Chr. 19:6-10. 
Judgment is peculiarly the prerogative of 
God, and every earthly tribunal lies under 
the shadow of the "great white throne." 
A just judgment is the voice of God ; and 
hence an unjust one is doubly hateful in 
his sight, Psa. 82. 

The word "just" is often used to denote, 
not the natural disposition, but the charac- 
ter and condition acquired by grace, Heb. 
12:23. " The just shall live by faith," Rom. 
1:17; Gal. 3:11. See Justification. 

The justice of God is that essential 
and infinite attribute which makes his na- 
ture and his ways the perfect embodiment 
of equity, and constitutes him the model 



JUS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JUS 



and the guardian of equity throughout the 
universe, Deut. 32:4; Psa.89:i4; 97:2. The 
justice of God could not leave the world 
without laws, and cannot fail to vindicate 
them by executing their penalties; and as 
all mankind perpetually break them, every 
human soul is under condemnation, and 
must perish, unless spared through the 
accepted ransom, the blood of Christ. 

The administration of justice among 
the Hebrews was characterized by simplic- 
ity and promptitude. In early times the 
patriarch of each family was its judge, Gen. 
38:24. Afterwards, in the absence of more 
formal courts, the elders of a household, 
tribe, or city were its judges by natural 
right. In the wilderness, Moses organized 
for the Jews a regular system of judges, 
some having jurisdiction over 10 families, 
others over 50, 100, or 1,000. These must 
be chosen "out of all the people," and 
must be " able men, such as fear God, men 
of truth, hating covetousness," Exod. 18:21. 
Compare 2 Sam. 23:3; Prov. 21:15. The 
difficult cases were referred to Moses, and 
he often sought divine direction concern- 
ing them, Exod. 18:13-26; Lev. 24:12. 
These judges were perhaps the "princes 
of the congregation," and the chiefs of the 
families and tribes of whom we afterwards 
read, Num. 27:3; 1 Chr. 4:38. They had 
their successors in Joshua's day, Josh. 24 : 1 . 
In the land of Canaan, local magistrates 
were appointed for every city and village ; 
and these were instructed by and coopera- 
ted with the priests, as being all together 
under the theocracy, the actual govern- 
ment of Jehovah, the supreme Judge of 
Israel, Deut. 16:18; 17:8-10; 19:17; 21:1-6. 
Their informal courts were held in the gate 
of the city, as the most public and conve- 
nient place, Deut. 21:9; 22:15; 25:7; and 
in the same place contracts were ratified, 
Ruth 4:1, 9; Jer. 32:7-15. Deborah the 
prophetess judged Israel beneath a palm- 
tree, Judg. 4:5. Samuel established virtu- 
ally a circuit court, 1 Sam. 7:16; 8:1 ; and 
among the kings, Jehoshaphat made spe- 
cial provision for the faithful administra- 
tion of justice, 2 Chr. 19. The kings them- 
selves were supreme judges, with almost 
unlimited powers, 1 Sam. 22:16; 2 Sam. 
4:9, 10; 1 Kin. 22:26. They were expect- 
ed, however, to see that justice was every- 
where done, and to be accessible to all who 
were wronged. Frequent complaints are 
found of the maladministration of judges, 
of bribery and perjury, 1 Sam. 8:3; 1 Kin. 
21 :8-i4; Isa. 1 :23; 10:1 ; Mic. 3:11 ; y:^- 



There was no class among the Jews ex- 
actly corresponding to our lawyers. The 
accuser and the accused stood side by side 
before the judge, with their witnesses, and 
pleaded their own cause. The accuser is 
named in several places Satan, that is, the 
adversary, Psa. 109:6; Zech. 3:1-3. No 
one could be condemned without the con- 
curring testimony of at least 2 witnesses, 
Num. 35:30; and these failing, he was 
obliged to make oath of his innocence, 
Exod. 22:11; Heb. 6:16. The sentence of 
the judge was instantly executed; and in 
certain cases the witnesses cast the first 
stone, Deut. 17:5, 7; 25:2; Josh. 7:24; 
1 Sam. 22:18; 1 Kin. 2:24; Prov. 16:14. 
The same frightful celerity still marks the 
administration of justice in the East. The 
application of torture to extract evidence 
is only once mentioned, and that under 
the authority of Rome, Acts 22:24. See 
Sanhedrin and Synagogue. 

JUSTIFICA'TION, the being regarded and 
treated as if innocent; or acquittal from 
the consequences of guilt before the tribu- 
nal of God. It is the opposite of condem- 
nation, and means acquittal and vindica- 
tion-, Deut. 25:1; Psa. 143:2; Prov. 17:15. 
The term is so used 40 times in the Old 
Testament, and often in the New, as in 
Luke 18 : 14. " Justification by faith " means 
that a person, on account of true and liv- 
ing faith in Christ as manifested by good 
works, will be delivered from condemna- 
tion on account of his sins ; that is, his sins 
will be forgiven, and he be regarded and 
treated as if innocent and holy. Thus, be- 
sides the remission of sins and their pen- 
alty, it includes the restoration and ever- 
lasting enjoyment of the favor of God. 

We obtain justification by faith in Christ. 
Yet neither this nor any other act of ours, 
as a work, is any ground of our justifica- 
tion. In acquitting us before his bar, God 
regards not our works, in whole or in part, 
but the atoning work and merits of Christ, 
Eph. 1:7; Col. 1:14; Rev. 5:9. He was 
treated as a sinner that we might be treated 
as righteous. " There is therefore now no 
condemnation to them which are in Christ 
Jesus," Rom. 8:1-4; the moment we be- 
lieve, our justification is as perfect as the 
infinite worthiness of our Redeemer. Its 
validity does not depend on the measure 
of our assurance of hope, nor on spotless 
holiness of life. Sanctification, indeed, or 
progressive growth in holiness, commences 
simultaneously with justification, and must 
in the end reach the same perfectness. Yet 

303 



JUS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



KAN 



it is important to distinguish between the 
two, and to observe that, could the believ- 
er's holiness become as perfect as an an- 
gel's, it could not share with the atoning 
merits of Christ in entitling him to admis- 
sion to heaven. 

" The best obedience of my hands 

Dares not appear before thy throne ; 
But faith can answer thy demands, 
By pleading what my Lord hath done." 

True justification, by the gratuitous gift 
of the Saviour, furnishes the most power- 
ful motive to a holy life. It is followed by 
adoption, peace of conscience, and the 
fruits of the Spirit in this life; and by final 
sanctification, acquittal in the day of judg- 
ment, and admittance to heaven, Rom. 
3:20-31; 5; 10:4-10; Gal. 2:16-21; Eph. 
2:4-10. 

]US'TUS, just, I., a name of Joseph sur- 
named Barsabas, Acts 1:23. See Barsa- 
bas. 

II. A Corinthian convert, in whose house 
Paul preached, Acts 18:7. In the R. V. 
Titus Justus. 

III. A Jewish convert, also Called Jesus, 
a fellow-laborer at Rome with Paul and 
Mark, Col. 4:11. 

JUT'TAH, inclined, a. Levitical city in the 
mountains of Judah, Josh. 15:55; 21:16, the 
modern Yutta, 5 miles south of Hebron. 
This is conjectured to be the " city of Ju- 
dah," Luke 1:39, where Mary visited Elis- 
abeth, and John the Baptist was born. 



K. 

KAB'ZEEL, gathered by God, a town of 
Simeon, towards Edom and the Dead Sea, 
Josh. 15:21, where Benaiah was born, 2 Sam. 
23:20; after the Captivity, Jekabzeel, Neh. 
11:25. Robinson found a site for it at a 
fountain in Wady el Kuseib, which runs 
north into the Arabah several miles south 
of the Dead Sea. 

KA'DESH, holy, or Ka'desh-bar'nea, 
called also En-mishpat, Gen. 14:7, and Mer- 
ibah-Kadesh, Ezek. 47:19, the name of a 
fountain, a city, and the desert around, 
Psa. 29:8, in the southern border of the 
promised land, Josh. 15:3, 23. It is said, 
in Num. 20 : 16, to lie in the " uttermost bor- 
der of Edom," and is generally believed 
to have been situated near the great val- 
ley el-Arabah, south of the Dead Sea. Dr. 
Robinson found a watering place, 'Ain el 
Weibeh, which he thought answers well to 
the indications in Scripture, on the western 
304 



border of el-Arabah, about 27 miles from 
the Dead Sea. Some later travellers, how- 
ever, extend Edom westward, as including 
"the mount of the Amorites," Deut. 1:19, 
and find Kadesh at 'Ain el Kadeis, some 60 
miles southwest of the Dead Sea and south- 
east of the Mediterranean. It was on the 
border of the wilderness of Paran and that 
of Zin, Num. 13:26; 32:8; Josh. 15:1-3. 
Scripture mentions two periods when Ka- 
desh was visited by the Israelites in their 
wanderings; once in the year soon after 
they left Mount Sinai, and again yj years 
after. At the first visit the mission and 
return of the 12 spies took place, the rebel- 
lion of the people, and their presumptuous 
effort to enter Canaan by the pass Zephath, 
immediately north of Kadesh, Num. 13, 14. 
It may have been their headquarters dur- 
ing the 37 years in the desert. At their 2d 
visit occurred the death of Miriam, the 
murmuring of the people for water, the 
miraculous supply, the sin of Aaron and 
Moses in smiting the rock, and the fruitless 
request for a passage through Edom, Num. 
20:1-22. The southern border of Judah 
reached to Kadesh-barnea, Josh. 12:22; 

15:3- 

KAD'MIEL, before God, a Levite who re- 
turned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel, and 
took part in the rebuilding, confession, and 
covenant, Ezra 2:40; 3:9; Neh. 7:43; 9:4, 
5; 10:9; 12:8. 

KAD'MONITES, eastern, or ancient, Gen. 
15: 19, a tribe of Canaanites who inhabited 
the promised land east of the Jordan, about 
Mount Hermon. Some have fancied that 
Cadmus, the supposed inventor of the Greek 
alphabet, and who came from the East, was 
a Kadmonite, and the Greek letters are 
obviously derived from the Phoenician or 
ancient Hebrew letters. Among the Nusai- 
riyeh north of Tripoli Thomson found this 
name preserved, and a tradition that their 
ancestors were expelled from Canaan by 
Joshua. He also found other fragments of 
this aboriginal people around Mount Her- 
mon. 

KA'NAH, reedy, I., Josh. 16:8; 17:9, a 
brook which separated Ephraim on the 
south from Manasseh on the north. The 
modern Wady Kanah, a branch of the Nahr- 
el-Aujeh, seems too far south. Wady Fa- 
laik, or Khassal, reedy, is very small, and 
west of Shechem. North of this are Nahr 
Iskanderuneh and Nahr Mefjir, a branch 
of either of which, for part of its course, 
might suit the case. 

II. A town in the northwest boundary of 



KAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



KEN 



Asher, Josh. 19:24, 28. A village called 
Kana is still found 7 or 8 miles southeast 
of Tyre, with ancient ruins a mile north. 

KARE'AH, A. V. Careah in 2 Kin. 25:23, 
the father of Johanan and Jonathan, adhe- 
rents of Gedaliah for a time, Jer. 40-43. 

KAR'KAA, or Kar'ka, a floor, a town 
centrally on the southernmost border of 
Judah, afterwards Simeon's, Josh. 15:3. 

KAR'KOR, foundation, a place beyond 
Jordan, where Zebah and Zalmunna took 
refuge from Gideon, but were again de- 
feated and taken, Judg. 8 : 10. Apparently 
south of the Jabbok, and northeast of Rab- 
bath-ammon. 

KAR'TAH, a city, and KAT'TATH, small, 
Josh. 19:15; 21:34, a city of Merarite Le- 
vites in Zebulun; possibly el-Harteh, on 
the Kishon. 

KAR'TAN, double city, a Levitical city of 
refuge in Naphtali, Josh. 21:32; also called 
Kirjathaim, 1 Chr. 6:76; perhaps el Kata- 
nah, north of Lake Tiberias. 

KAT'TATH, small. See Kartah. 

KE'DAR, dark, the 2d son of Ishmael, 
Gen. 25:13, the father of the Kedarenians, 
or Cedrei, mentioned by Pliny, who dwelt 
in the neighborhood of the Nabatheans, in 
Arabia Deserta, east of the Red Sea. They 
were a numerous and powerful tribe, not 
of the best reputation, Psa. 120:5, and their 
name Kedar is sometimes put for the whole 
of Arabia Deserta and its wandering in- 
habitants, Isa. 21:16, 17; 42:11; Jer. 2:10. 
They were rich in flocks and camels, in 
which they traded with Tyre, Isa. 60:7; 
Ezek. 27:21. They were despoiled by 
Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 49 : 28, 29. Their 
black camel's-hair tents are a picturesque 
feature in a landscape, Song 1:5. 

KED'EMAH, eastward, youngest son of 
Ishmael, Gen. 25:15; 1 Chr. 1:31. 

KEDE'MOTH, beginnings, a Levitical 
city and pasture-ground, Deut. 2:26, in 
Reuben, Josh. 13:18; 21:37; 1 Chr. 6:79. 
It lay on the north of the Arnon, in the 
border of Sihon king of Heshbon, to whom 
Moses sent an embassage of peace. 

KE'DESH, sanctuary, I., a city in the 
extreme south of Judah, or Simeon, Josh. 
J 5 : 23; 19:9, probably Kadesh-barnea. 

II. A Levitical city in Issachar, 1 Chr. 
6:72. 

III. Kedesh-naphtali, a fortified and Le- 
vitical city of refuge in Naphtali, Josh. 
19:37; 21:32; iChr.6:76. Barak, judge of 
Israel, was born here, and assembled here 
his forces for a decisive battle with Sisera, 
Judg. 4:6, 10. It was ravaged by Tiglath- 

20 



pileser, 2 Kin. 15:29. It is to be found in 
the modern village Kades, 4 miles west by 
north of Lake el-Huleh, on a hill overlook- 
ing the Jordan plain. But see Zaanaim. 

KE'DRON. 'See KlDRON. 

KEHE'LATHAH, or Kehe'lah, assem- 
bling, 2 1 st station of the Hebrews in the 
Wanderings, Num. 33:22, 23. 

KEI'LAH, citadel, I., a fortified city in the 
plains of Judah, towards the south, Josh. 
15:44; see Keilah, II., which David once 
relieved from a siege by the Philistines, but 
a part of whose people, the Baalites, after- 
wards sought to deliver him up to Saul, 
1 Sam. 23:1-13. Compare Psa. 31:6, 8, 21. 
Two of its rulers helped to rebuild Jeru- 
salem, Neh. 3 : 17. It may be traced at 
Khubbet Kilah, 8 miles northwest of He- 
bron. 

II. A descendant of Caleb, 1 Chr. 4: 15, 19. 

KELA'IAH, despised of the Lord, and 
KELI'TA, a dwarf, a Levite active in Ez- 
ra's reform, Ezra 10:23; Neh. 8:7; 10:10. 

KEM'UEL, helper, or assembly of God, 
I., 3d son of Abraham's brother Nahor, 
and father of Bethuel, Gen. 22:21 ; 24:15. 

II. Num. 34:24. — III. 1 Chr. 27:17. 

KE'NAN, possessor, 1 Chr. 1:2. See Cai- 

NAN. 

KE'NATH, possession, a city of Gilead, 
captured and named by Nobah, Num. 32 : 42, 
and Jair, 1 Chr. 2:23; in the tribe of Ma- 
nasseh. Now Kunawat, in the Hauran. 

KE'NAZ, hunter, I., son of Eliphaz and 
grandson of Esau, Gen. 36:11, 15; 1 Chr. 
1:36, the head of a tribe of Kenezites in 
Eastern Arabia, towards the Persian Gulf; 
traced by some in the Anezeh, now a very 
large and powerful tribe of the Eastern 
Bedouins. 

II. An Edomitish prince, Gen. 36:42; 
1 Chr. 1:53. See Josh. 14:14. 

III. Younger brother of Caleb, and father 
of Othniel, Josh. 15:17. 

IV. Grandson of Caleb, 1 Chr. 4:15. 

KE'NITES, workers in iron, an aborigi- 
nal people who dwelt west of the Dead 
Sea, and extended themselves far into Ara- 
bia Petraea, Gen. 15:19, associated with the 
Amalekites, and Midianites, 1 Sam. 15:5. 
Jethro, a Midianite, Num. 10:29, was a Ke- 
nite, and his family accompanied the Israel- 
ites, and settled with other Kenites in va- 
rious parts of the Holy Land, Judg. 1:16; 
4:11; 1 Sam. 30:29; 1 Chr. 2:55. Heber 
and the Rechabites were their descend- 
ants, Judg. 5:24. See Jonadab and Midi- 
an. The Kenites of whom we read appear 
to have known and served Jehovah, and the 

305 



KEN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



KID 



whole tribe were friendly to the Hebrews. 
Saul spared them, when sent by Samuel 
to destroy the Amalekites among whom 
they dwelt, i Sam. 15:6; and David feigned 
an attack upon them, but shared with them 
his spoils, 1 Sam. 27:10; 30:29. The Ke- 
nites denounced by Balaam, Num. 24:21, 
22, and dispossessed by the Israelites, Gen. 
15:19, appear to have been an older Arabi- 
an tribe. 

KEN'IZZITES, hunters, an ancient peo- 
ple of Canaan, whose land God promised 
to the descendants of Abraham, Gen. 15: 19. 
They appear to have mingled with other 
Canaanites, and lost their distinctive name 
before the time of Joshua. 

KEPT, John 17: 12, safely guarded. 
KER'CHIEF, a rich and coquettish veil 
for the head, Ezek. 13:18, 21. 

KE'REN-HAP'PUCH, horn for paint, i. e., 
cosmetics. Job's 3d daughter, Job 42:14. 
See Eye. 

KERI'OTH, cities, I., probably to be joined 
with Hazor, Kerioth-hazor, a double town 
in the south or Simeonite portion of Judah, 
Josh. 15:25; now Kureitein, 12 miles south 
of Hebron. See Judas, I. 

II. A strong city of Moab, north of Am- 
man and southwest of Bozrah, taken by 
Babylon, Jer. 48:24, 41; Amos 2:2. 

KE'ROS, curved, among the Nethinim 
who returned after the Captivity, Ezra 
2:44: Xeh. 7:47. 

KETU'RAH, fragrance, the wife of Abra- 
ham, after the death of Sarah, Gen. 25:1-6. 
Though she is called a " concubine," this 
may have been to distinguish her sons as 
well as Ishmael from Isaac the son of prom- 
ise, Gen. 25:6; 1 Chr. 1:32; Gal. 4:22, 30. 
Her sons, named Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, 
Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah, were estab- 
lished by Abraham in the east country out 
of Isaac's way, and became the ancestors 
of many Arabian tribes. 

KEY, Heb. opening, Gr. closing, Judg. 
3:23-25. Ancient keys were simpler and 
clumsier than ours, many consisting of a 
straight piece of wood or metal, from half 
a foot to two feet long, curved at the end, 
and having several teeth or pegs by which 
the bars of the lock within were disengaged, 
Song 5:4, 5. Some — for the gates of a city, 
palace, or castle — were large and heavy, 
and their possession was a symbol of au- 
thority, Isa. 22:22; Rev. 3:7; 9:1; 20:1. 
The scribes had authority to teach reli- 
gion, Luke 1 1 : 52. Christ, the head over all 
things for his church, gave Peter and the 
other apostles "the keys of the kingdom 
306 



of heaven," Matt. 16:19; 18:18, by direct- 
ing them to open the church to converted 
Gentiles, and by preaching to all men the 
forgiveness of sin through Christ's atone- 
ment, and the establishment of his king- 
dom, Matt. 19:28; 21:5; Rev. 11:15. They 
could only preach the ministry of reconcili- 
ation, 2 Cor. 5:18-20. Hence the professed 
"power of the keys," the authority of any 
nominally Christian church to grant abso- 
lution, and thus perform a function belong- 
ing to God only, Mark 2:7; Acts 5:31, is a 
usurpation of divine rights, and an intru- 
sion between the sinner and his all-suffi- 
cient Saviour. 

KEZI'A, cassia, the fragrant name of Job's 
2d daughter, Job 42 : 14. 

KE'ZIZ, abrupt, valley of, a city on the 
east border of Benjamin, Josh. 18:21, per- 
haps in the valley called Kaazis, between 
Jericho and Bethany. 

KIB'ROTH-HATTA'AVAH, graves of the 
longing, the 14th of the encampments of 
Israel in the wilderness, where they desired 
of God flesh for their sustenance, declaring 
they were tired of manna, Num. 11:34, 35; 
S3 : 16. Quails were sent in miraculous 
quantities ; but while the meat was in their 
mouths, God smote so great a number of 
them that the place was called " the graves 
of those who lusted," Psa. 78:30, 31, a mon- 
ument to warn mankind against the sin of 
discontent, Deut. 9:22; 1 Cor. 10:6. It was 
near Taberah, Num. 11:3, 4, northeast of 
Sinai, towards the eastern fork of the Red 
Sea, Num. 10:33; 11:22, 31. See Quails. 

KIBZA'IM, two heaps, a Kohathite Levit- 
ical city of refuge in Ephraim, Josh. 21:22, 
near the Kishon and the boundary of Zeb- 
ulun; compare 1 Chr. 6:68, where Jokme- 
AM is substituted. 

KID, the young of the goat, Num. 15: 11 ; 
1 Kin. 20:27; Song 1:8, still a favorite food 
of the Arabs, as of old among the Jews, 
Luke 15:29, and used in sacrifices, Num. 
7:16, etc.; Lev. 4:23, 28; 9:3; 16:5; 23:19, 
etc. See Goats. 

KID'RON, or Ce'dron, turbid, black, a 
winter torrent, and the valley in which it 
flowed, east of Jerusalem. This valley be- 
gins a mile and a quarter northwest of the 
city, passes easterly some 200 rods north 
of the present wall, full of excavated tombs, 
and turns to the south. Here it is wide 
and open, with olive and other fruit-trees; 
but as it runs south between the city and 
Mount Olivet, it becomes narrow and deep. 
Opposite Mount Moriah it is a mere tor- 
rent's bed, 100 feet below the city wall, 500 



KID 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



KID 




JERUSALEM AND ITS VALLEYS, FROM THE SOUTH; THE KIDRON VALLEY OPENING ON THE RIGHT, 

AND HINNOM ON THE LEFT. 



feet lower than the summit of Mount Oli- 
vet. It sinks still deeper as it passes Silo- 
am, the valley of Hinnom, and the well of 
Nehemiah, and then winds southeast, in a 
narrow and precipitous gorge, through the 
horrid wilderness of St. Saba, to the Dead 
Sea. The Kidron is now a wady rather 
than a " brook," its bed being dry most of 
the year ; even in the rainy season it has 
no constant stream, though heavy and con- 
tinued rains create an impetuous but short- 
lived torrent. If its waters were those 
" running through the midst of the land," 
which Hezekiah stopped, sealing its source, 
"the upper spring of Gihon," and turning 
its waters into the city, 2 Chr. 32:4, 30, this 
would explain in part its present dry con- 
dition. It is crossed by a causeway and a 
bridge of a single arch, between St. Ste- 
phen's gate and the garden of Gethsem- 
ane, where the valley, nearly level, is 400 
feet wide. By this route probably David 
fled from Absalom, 2 Sam. 15:23, 30; and 
the Saviour often passed this way in go- 
ing to Bethany, Mount Olivet, and Geth- 
semane, Luke 22:39; John 18:1, 2. A 2d 
bridge crosses the ravine 1,000 feet south, 
150 feet below the city wall. The ravine 
runs on 500 yards more to the " fountain of 
the virgin" and the village Siloam; then 
passes the valley of the Tyropceon, sloping 
down from the right, and then the valley 
of Hinnom, 200 yards wide, below which is 
en-Rogel, now Bir Ayub, or Job's well. 



This region is now fertile and cultivated, 
anciently "the King's Garden," Neh. 3:15. 
The historical part of the Kidron is thus 
about 2^ miles long. Its sides are full of 
tombs, ancient and modern, the Jews still 
coveting a burial on Mount Olivet, and the 
Moslems using the city side of the valley. 
In this valley and in that of Hinnom, at 
their confluence, kings Asa, Josiah, and 
Hezekiah destoyed the idols and abomi- 
nations by which Jerusalem was defiled, 
1 Kin. 15:13; 2 Kin. 23:4, 6, 12;. 2 Chr. 29:16; 
30:14. See Hinnom and Jerusalem. Its 
whole length in a straight line would be 15 
miles, and it falls into the Dead Sea south 
of Ras Feshkhah, through a gorge 600 feet 
high, having descended 3,792 feet. About 
8 miles from Jerusalem stands the Greek 
convent Mar Saba, beyond which the ra- 
vine is named Wady en-Nar, valley of fire. 
See Sea, III. A part of the waters of the 
ancient Kidron were derived from the tem- 
ple itself, flowing down by several chan- 
nels to the deep bed of the brook. The 
prophet Ezekiel makes use of this fact in a 
beautiful and cheering allegory, foretelling 
the river of divine grace that shall yet ren- 
ovate the world. The stream he describes 
issues from the temple, beside the altar of 
God; it flows with an ever-increasing vol- 
ume ; it carries with it into the dreary wil- 
derness verdure, fruitfulness, and melody; 
and even heals the bitter waters of the 
Dead Sea itself, Ezek. 47:1-12. 

307 



KIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



KIN 



KI'NAH, an elegy, a town in the extreme 
south of Judah (Simeon) towards the Dead 
Sea, Josh. 15:22. 

KINE, the old English for cows, Gen. 
32:15; 41:2-27. "Milch-kine" are milk- 
ing cows, 1 Sam. 6:7-14. See Heifer. 

KING, KINGS. In Scripture the word 
king does not always imply either a high 
degree of power or great extent of terri- 
tory. Many single towns, or towns with 
their adjacent villages, are said to have had 
kings ; and many persons are called kings 
in Scripture whom we should rather de- 
nominate chiefs or leaders. Moses is said 
to have been " king in Jeshurun," or Israel, 
Deut. 33:5; he was the chief, the leader, 
the guide of his people, though not king in 
the same sense as David or Solomon. So 
small a country as Canaan contained 31 
kings who were conquered, Josh. 12:9-24, 
besides many who no doubt escaped the 
arms of Joshua. Adoni-zedek, himself no 
very powerful king, mentions 70 "kings " 
whom he had subdued and mutilated. See 
also 1 Kin. 4:21. These kings, in many 
cases, were no doubt like the sheikhs of 
Arab tribes at the present day. In the New 
Testament also the title " king " is applied 
to Roman emperors and governors, 1 Pet. 
2 : 13, 17 ; Rev. 17 : 10, 12 ; and to Herod An- 
tipas, the tetrarch, Mark 6:22; Luke 3:19. 

The Israelites had no kings till Saul, hav- 
ing been governed, first by elders, as in 
Egypt; -then by rulers of God's appoint- 
ment, as Moses and Joshua ; then by judges, 
as Othniel, Ehud, Gideon, Samuel; and 
lastly by kings, as Saul, David, Solomon. 
Being peculiarly the people of God, their 
form of government was essentially a the- 
ocracy. God prescribed for them a code 
of laws; he designated their rulers; these 
laws and rulers the people were to obey 
"in the Lord;" and in all cases of doubt, 
he, as the actual head of the government, 
was to be consulted, in the spirit of the 
words, " The Lord is our Judge, the Lord is 
our Lawgiver, the Lord is our King," Isa. 
33:22; 1 Tim. 1:17. Their demand for a 
king was offensive to him, as an unbelie- 
ving and rebellious departure from the more 
immediate headship of Jehovah, 1 Sam. 8: 7. 
Yet even under the regal government they 
were still to regard him as their king. Idol- 
atry was treason against the throne. Their 
code of laws was still his holy book. It 
was a prophet or high-priest of Jehovah 
who anointed the king, and placed the 
crown upon his head and the sceptre in his 
hand, Deut. 17:15, 18-20; 1 Sam. 10:1, 25; 
308 



12:12-15; 2 Sam. 1:14, 21; 1 Kin. 1:39; 
2 Kin. 9:1-6; 11:12; Psa. 21:3. By the in- 
strumentality of his sacred ministers God 
gave such directions concerning public af- 
fairs as were needed and sought for, 1 Sam. 
30:7; 2 Sam. 2:1; and these agents of God, 
with their instructions and warnings, per- 
formed a most important part in the na- 
tional history, 1 Kin. 20:22, 38; 2 Kin. 1:15. 
Sc far as people and kings looked to God as 
their Head they prospered ; and it was for 
lack of this that they were ruined. Of the 
2 kingdoms, Judah and Israel, the latter 
most rapidly and fully threw off its alle- 
giance, 2 Chr. 13:4-12; and therefore it was 
the first to perish, having continued 254 
years from the death of Solomon, B. C. 975- 
721, with 19 kings of 9 different dynasties. 
The kingdom of Judah continued 387 years 
after the separation, B. C. 975-588, having 
been held by 19 successive kings of the line 
of David. See Israel and Judah. 

The table on page 309 presents in one 
view the kings of Judah and Israel as given 
in the Bible, with the year when each one 
began to reign, and the length of his reign. 
The chronology is that of Usher and Wi- 
ner, who nearly coincide. 

The Hebrew kings were absolute mon- 
archs, though restricted in many cases by 
regard to religion, laws, and customs, the 
desire of esteem, and the fear of revolution. 
They were held sacred, as " the Lord's an- 
ointed," 2 Sam. 1:14; Lam. 4:20. They 
had numerous officials : recorders or chron- 
iclers, 1 Kin. 4:3; scribes, 2 Sam. 8*17; 
stewards, Isa. 22:15; 36:3; "friends" and 
counsellors, 1 Kin. 4:5; 1 0^.27:32; keep- 
ers of the wardrobe, 2 Kin. 5:22; captains 
of the guard, 2 Sam. 20:23; 1 Kin. 2:25; 
various treasurers, 1 Chr. 27:25-31; and 
the chief of the army, 2 Sam. 11 :i; 20:23. 
Their income was derived from the royal 
lands, flocks and herds, from tithes, taxes, 
and duties, sometimes from commerce, and 
largely from enforced "presents." They 
employed the various insignia of royalty, 
and had palaces, 1 Kin. 7:1-12, court offi- 
cers, thrones, royal robes, and golden uten- 
sils, 1 Kin. 10:18-21; 22:10, crowns and 
sceptres, 2 Sam. 1:10; 12:30; Psa. 45:6, sig- 
net-rings, 1 Kin. 21:8; Esth. 8:8, and ob- 
sequious service, 1 Sam. 24:8. 

The two books of Kings, in the original 
Hebrew one book, contain a history of the 
kings of Judah and Israel intermingled, 
commencing with Solomon and ending with 
Zedekiah ; unlike the books of Chronicles, 
which give an account only of the kings of 



KIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



KIN 



KINGS OF JUDAH, 




KINGS OF ISRAEL, 




all of one dynasty. 




of nine dynasties. 






NAME. 


If 

.3 


Id 



a 




K 


"5 
1 


NAME. * 


S§ 


S « 
P 


CONTEMPOKARY PROPHETS, 
KINGS, AND EVENTS. 


i Rehoboam, 


17 


975 


975 


22 


Jeroboam, 


1 


I. 


Shishak, Egypt, 975-953- 


2 

3 


Abijah, 
Asa, 


3 
41 


958 _ 
955 


_ 954 
953 


2 

24 


Nadab, 
Baasha, 


2 

3 


II. 
II. 


Homer, 950. 










_ 930 
f 929 


2 

12 


Elah, Zimri, 
Omri, 


4, 5 
6 


II.III. 

IV. 


Lycurgus, 923-841. 


4 


Jehoshaphat, 


25 


914 r 


L 918 


22 


Ahab, 


7 


IV. 


Ben-hadad, 914-885. 


5 Jehoram, 

6 Ahaziah, 
Athaliah, usurper 

7 Joash, 


8 
1 
7 

40 


892 ^| 

885 C 
878 | 


J 897 
1 896 

f 883 


2 
12 

28 


Ahaziah, 
Jehoram, 

Jehu, 


8 
9 

10 


IV. 
IV. 

V. 


Hazael, 885-845. 
Carthage founded, 869. 






I 


K 856 


17 


Jehoahaz, 


11 


V. 


Shalmaneser II., 860-824. 


8 Amaziah, 


29 


838 r 


j 840 


16 


Jehoash, 


12 


V. 








1 


L 825 


4i 


Jeroboam II. 


13 


V. 


Jonah, 830-815. 


9 


Uzziah, 


52 


810 ' 












Macedon founded, 815. 
Joel, 812-795. 


io Jotham, 
ii Ahaz, 


16 
16 


758 1 

741 K 


1 784 

772 

L 771 

1 7 6 ° 
f 758 

1 738 

r 72g 


12 
6mo 
imo 

10 
2 

20 

8 
9 


Interregnum, 

Zachariah, 

Shallum, 

Menahem, 

Pekahiah, 

Pekah, 

Interregnum, 
Hoshea, 


14 
15 
16 
17 
18 

19 


V. 

VI. 
VII. 
VII. 
VIII. 

IX. 


Amos, 800-784. 
Hosea, 786-736. 
Shalmaneser III., 783-773. 
Pul invades Israel, 770. 
Isaiah, 766-698. 
Rome founded, 754. 
Micah, 750-698. 
Nabonassar, 747-731. 
Tiglath-pileser, 745-727. 


12 Hezekiah, 


29 


726 J 


■ 721 




Captivity, 






Nahum, 720-698. 

Numa Pompilius, 715-673. 


13 Manasseh, 

|. 


55 


697 1. 












Sennacherib, 705-681. 


14 Amon, 

15 Josiah, 


2 

3i 


642 
640 ■ 












Solon, 638-558. 
Zephaniah, 630-620. 
Jeremiah, 628-588. 


16 Jehoahaz, 3 mos. 

17 Jehoiakim, 

18 Jehoiachin, 3 mos. 

19 Zedekiah, 


11 
11 


609 1 

598 L 












Daniel, 606-538. 
Nebuchadnezzar, 605-562. 


[Captivity, 




588 1 












Ezekiel, 594"576. 



309 



KIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



KIN 



Judah. In the Septuagint and Vulgate, our 
2 books of Samuel are also called books of 
Kingdoms. The various histories compri- 
sing the 2 books of Kings were evidently 
the work of a single inspired writer, and 
not a mere collection. They are believed 
to have been written before the books of 
Chronicles — which contain many Chaldee 
and Persian expressions — and Jewish tradi- 
tion confirmed by internal evidence makes 
the prophet Jeremiah their author, B. C. 620. 
The writer probably drew a part of his 
materials from the records of each reign 
left by contemporary prophets and priests, 
1 Kin. 11:41; 14 : 29 ; 15 : 7, 23 ; 22 : 45 ; 2 Kin. 
8:23; 12:19. See Chronicles. They con- 
tinue the history given in the 2 books of 
Samuel, and may be divided into 3 peri- 
ods: I. 1 Kin. 1-11, Solomon's reign. — II. 
1 Kin. 12 — 2 Kin. 10, from the division of 
the kingdom to the captivity of the 10 
tribes. — III. 2 Kin. 11-25, to the captivity of 
Judah, and Jehoiachin's 37th year — where 
we find an earnest of a still future return of 
God's favor to the covenant people. The 
history is not a mere record of events, but 
an account of the relations of the nation to 
Jehovah its rightful King, and of his deal- 
ings with it in his providence and by his 
priests, and especially his prophets, in ful- 
filment of his word in 2 Sam. 7:12-17. All 
these sacred annals are highly instructive. 
They show us the perfect fulfilment of the 
divine promises. and warnings by Moses; 
and every page confirms the inspired dec- 
laration, "The fear of the Lord is the be- 
ginning of wisdom." 

The book of Isaiah should be read in 
connection with the story of Ahaz and Hez- 
ekiah, and Jeremiah with that of Jehoiakim 
and Zedekiah. 

The names of Omri, Mesha, Jehu, Mena- 
hem, Hoshea, and Hezekiah are found on 
the stone tablets of Assyria and Babylon, 
containing the annals of Tiglath-pileser, 
Sargon, Sennacherib, and Esar-haddon ; 
and Egyptian monuments confirm the 
Scripture records in 1 Kin. 11:19, 20, 40, 
and the story of Shishak's conquest of Ju- 
dah, of Assyria's struggles with Egypt, and 
Babylon's ascendency over both under 
Nebuchadnezzar. New Testament allu- 
sions to the narrative are found in Matt. 
6:29; 12:42; Mark 1:6; Luke4:25-27; 10:4 
with 2 Kin. 4 : 29 ; Acts 7 : 47, 48 ; Rom. 11:2- 
4; Heb. 11:35; Jas. 5:17, 18; Rev. 2:20; 
11:6. See also Matt. 17:3-12. 

KING'DOM of Heaven, literally "of the 
heavens," is an expression used in the New 
310 



Testament, especially by Matthew, to sig- 
nify the reign, dispensation, or administra- 
tion of Jesus Christ, Matt. 3:2; 4:17; 13:31- 
47; 2 Tim. 4: 18. It is also called " the king- 
dom of God," Matt. 6:33; Mark 1:14, 15; 
Luke 4 : 43 ; John 3:3,5, and of Christ, Matt. 
13:41; Eph. 5:5; Rev. 1:9. The ancient 
prophets, when describing the character of 
the Messiah, Dan. 2:44; 7:13, 14; Mic. 4:1- 
7, and even when speaking of his humilia- 
tion and sufferings, were wont to inter- 
sperse hints of his power, his reign, and 
his divinity. The Jews, overlooking the 
spiritual import of this language, expected 
the Messiah to appear as a temporal king, 
exercising power over his enemies, resto- 
ring the throne of David to all its splendor, 
subduing the nations, and rewarding his 
friends and faithful servants in proportion 
to their fidelity and services, Matt. 20:21; 
Luke 17:20; 19:11; Acts 1:6. Hence the 
contests among his disciples, ere they had 
fully learned Christ, about precedency in 
his kingdom ; and hence probably the two 
sons of Zebedee desired the two chief pla- 
ces in it, or those nearest to their endeared 
Master and Lord. They afterwards learned 
that his kingdom was not of this world, 
John 18:36, 2>7', that its origin, spirit, means,, 
and ends were spiritual and heavenly, Rom. 
14:17; 2 Cor. 10:3-5. It has indeed its out- 
ward form, the visible church, Matt. 13:47, 
and bestows on the world the richest of 
temporal blessings; but its true dominion 
is in the souls of men. It embraces all who 
by the Spirit of Christ are united to him as 
their divine Head and King, to love, serve,, 
and enjoy him for ever, Matt. 18:3; 19:14, 
and those only, Matt. 13:41, 47-50; 22:11- 
14; Luke 13:28, 29; 1 Cor. 6:9, 10; Rev. 
21 :27. His work on earth was to establish 
it, Matt. 3:2. He introduced his disciples 
into it while on earth, and more fully after 
his resurrection and ascension, John 20:22; 
Acts 2:32-36; is "head over all things," in 
order to make it triumphant and supreme 
even on earth, Dan. 7:27; Eph. 1:20-22; 
Rev. 11:15. ^ will be perfected in heaven, 
Matt. 8:11, and will never cease, Luke 1 : t,2>, 
even when the mediatorial reign of the Sa- 
viour is accomplished, 1 Cor. 15:28. 

See Old Testament predictions of the 
Messiah under Prophets. 

KINS'MAN often denotes mere relation- 
ship, Lev. 18:12, 13, 17; Num. 27:11; Job 
19:14; Psa. 38:11. But the Hebrew word 
goel, redeemer, designates one's nearest 
male blood relative, to whom certain rights 
and duties appertained. See Redeemer. 



KIR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



KIS 



KIR, a walled place, I., a strong city of 
Moab, with a fortress, 3,000 feet above the 
Dead Sea; called also Kir-hareseth, Kir- 
haresh, and Kir-heres, Isa. 15:1; 16:7, 11; 
Jer. 48:31,36. It was once nearly destroyed 
by Joram king of Israel, 2 Kin. 3:25. It is 
now called Kerak, and is a town of 300 
families, on a steep hill at the head of a 
ravine running up 15 miles into the moun- 
tains of Moab. Three-fourths of its pres- 
ent inhabitants are nominal Christians, 
greatly oppressed by the Mohammedan 
Arabs around them. See Mesha. 

II. A region subject to Assyria to which 
Tiglath-pileser transported the captive peo- 
ple of Damascus, 2 Kin. 16:9. Assyrian in- 
scriptions record that this region had been 
conquered by Esar-haddon. Compare 
2 Kin. 19:37. It is mentioned with Elam, 
Isa. 22:6, and is believed to have been in 
the vicinity of the river Kur or Cyrus, on 
the northeast of Armenia. The Kur flows 
southeast, unites with the Araxes, and emp- 
ties into the Caspian Sea. 

KIRJATHA'IM, two cities, I., the dual 
form of Kirjath, a city. It was an ancient 
city of Emim, east of the Jordan; after- 
wards inhabited by the Moabites, Amo- 
rites, and Israelites in turn, Gen. 14:5; 
Deut. 2:9-11 ; Jer. 48:1, 23; Ezek. 25:9. It 
fell within the limits of the tribe of Reuben, 
Num. 32:37; Josh. 13:19. It is supposed 
to be the modern Kureyat, 11 miles south- 
west of Medeba. 

II. A Levitical city of refuge in Naph- 
tali, 1 Chr. 6:76; called Kartan in Josh. 
21:32. 

KIR'JATH-AR'BA, the city of Arba, the 
son of Anak, Gen. 23 : 2 ; Josh. 14:15; 15:13, 
54; 20:7; 21:11; Judg. 1:10; Neh. 11:25. 
See Hebron. 

KIRJATH- A' RIM, city of forests, Ezra 
2:25; called also Kirjath-baal, Josh. 15:60; 
18 : 14, Kirjath, Josh. 18 : 28, and Baalah, Josh. 

15:9. See KlRJATH-JEARIM. 

KIR'JATH-HU'ZOTH, city of streets, a. 
town of Moab to which Balak led Balaam, 
Num. 22:39. Perhaps the same as Kir. 

KIR'JATH-JEA'RIM, city of forests. See 
Kirjath-arim. It was assigned to Judah, 
perhaps in part to Benjamin, being on the 
border-line of each, Josh. 15:9, 60; 18:14, 
15, 28, and was one of the 4 Gibeonite cities 
that deceived Joshua, Josh. 9 : 3-17. See Ma- 
haneh-dan. Hither the ark was brought 
back from the Philistines, 1 Sam. 6:21; 7:1, 
2, and remained in the house of Abinadab 
some 70 years, till David removed it to the 
house of Obed-edom and thence to Jerusa- 



lem, 2 Sam. 6:2-12; 1 Chr. 13; 15; 2 Chr. 
1:4. Compare Psa. 132:6, "the fields of 
Jearim." It was repeopled after the Cap- 
tivity, Ezra 2:25; Neh. 7:29. Its site is 
probably found at Kuryet el Enab, 8 miles 
from Jerusalem on the way to Ramleh, 
where are well-preserved ruins of a Gothic 
church of the Crusaders. 

KIR'JATH-SAN'NAH, city of palms, Josh. 
15:49, and KIR'JATH-SE'PHER, city of 
books, Josh. 10:38, 39; 12:13; J 5 :I 5> 49> a ^ so 
called Debir, which see. 

KISH, boiv or trap, I., in A. V. Cis, Acts 
13:21, the father of king Saul, 1 Sam. 9:1, 
21; 14:51; 1 Chr. 8:33; 9:39. 

II. A descendant of Benjamin, 1 Chr. 
8:30; 9:36. — III. A Merarite Levite under 
Hezekiah, a cleanser of the temple, 2 Chr. 
29:12. — IV. 1 Chr. 6:44; 15:17; 23:21, 22. — 
V. Esth. 2:5. 

KISH'ION, hardness, a Gershonite Levite 
town in Issachar, Josh. 19:20; 21:28, in A. 
V. Kishon. 

KI'SHON, winding, now the Nahr el-Mu- 
katta, Josh. 19:11, a brook which rises in 
the plain of Esdraelon, near the foot of 
Mount Tabor. After passing through the 
great plain and receiving the waters of va- 
rious smaller streams it flows northwest, 
along the foot of Mount Carmel, and dis- 
charges itself into the Mediterranean a 
short distance south of Acre. The supplies 
it receives from the Carmel ridge, see Car- 
mel, II., make it a perennial stream for 
about 7 miles from its' mouth. But all the 
eastern part of its channel, now that the 
great plain through which it flows is un- 
wooded, is dry throughout the summer 
season; and yet in the winter, and after 
heavy rains, it swells to a full and rapid 
torrent. The drowning of Sisera's host, 
Judg. 4:13; 5:21, is paralleled by a simi- 
lar destruction of Arabs fleeing from the 
French after the battle of Mount Tabor, 
April 18, 1799. The Deburieh, an affluent 
of the Kishon from the northeast, is also 
dry in the summer, but speedily becomes 
a deep and strong current when swollen 
by the rains on the surrounding heights. 
See Megiddo. 

KISS. This salutation was customary in 
the East to express regard and reverence 
as well as affection, Gen. 29 : 13 ; Ruth 1:14; 
Song 1:2; Acts 20:37. Sometimes the beard 
was kissed, 2 Sam. 20:9; and, in token of 
humble affection, the feet, Luke 7:38, or 
even the ground beneath them, Isa. 49:23. 
Mention is made of the practice between 
parents and children, Gen. 27:26; 31:28, 

3ii 



KIT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



KOR 



55; Luke 15:20, between bridegroom and 
bride, Song 8:1, between near male rela- 
tives and friends, Gen. 33:4; 45:15; 1 Sam. 
20:41, or acquaintances of equal rank, 
2 Sam. 20:9; Psa. 85:10; Luke 22:48; Acts 
20:37, from condescending superiors, 2 Sam. 
J 5 : 5; I 9'39. an d from inferiors, Luke 7:45. 
Images and the heavenly bodies were wor- 
shipped by kissing the hand towards them, 
1 Kin. 19:18; Job 31:27; Hos. 13:2. The 
expression, " Kiss the Son," Psa. 2: 12, may 
be illustrated by 1 Sam. 10:1, where king 
Saul receives the kiss of allegiance from 
Samuel. This salutation being customary 
in those days between man and man, was 
used in the early church as a pledge of 
Christian peace and charity, Rom. 16:16; 
1 Cor. 16:20; 2 Cor. 13:12; 1 Thess. 5:26; 
1 Pet. 5:14; and this custom was kept up 
more or less for centuries between persons 
of the same sex only, and died out with the 
age of persecutions. 

KITE, Heb. clamorer, a bird of prey, un- 
clean by the Mosaic law, Lev. 11:14; Deut. 
14:13, remarkable for its swiftness, cour- 
age, and long sight, Job 28:7, in the A. V. 
" vulture." The red kite, milvus regalis, is 
common in Palestine. 

KIT'TIM, son of Javan, and grandson of 
Noah, Gen. 10:4; 1 Chr. 1:7. See Chit- 
tim. 

KNEAD'ING was usually performed by 
women, Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 
13:8; Jer. 7:18, but sometimes by male ba- 
kers by trade, Hos. 7:4, as shown on Egyp- 
tian monuments. See Bread. Each fam- 
ily usually made its own bread. The 
kneading-troughs, Exod. 8:3; 12:34, trans- 
lated "store" in Deut. 28:5, 17, were either 
small wooden bowls, or circular pieces of 
leather which might be drawn up like a bag 
by a cord encircling the edge. The Arabs 
of the present day use both. 

KNEE and KNEEL'ING. Strong knees 
betokened vigor and courage, and weak or 
trembling knees the opposite, Psa. 109:24; 
Isa. 35:3; Dan. 5:6; Heb. 12:12. Kneeling 
was a sign of subjection, Gen. 27:29; 42:6, 
or of asking a favor, Matt. 17:14; Mark 
1:40; 10:17, and was customary in recei- 
ving a personal benediction, the same He- 
brew word signifying "to bless," Gen. 27:4, 
7, 10, 19; Lev. 9:22, 23; Num. 24:1, and "to 
thank," Deut. 8:10; Psa. 16:7. "To bow 
the knee " means "to worship," Exod. 20:5; 
1 Kin. 19:18; Psa. 95:6; Isa. 66:3; and this 
was the customary posture in prayer, 2 Chr. 
6:13; Ezra 9:5; Dan. 6:10; Luke 22:41; 
Acts 7:60; 9:40; 20:36; 21:5; Eph. 3:14. 
312 



KNIFE is used to translate 4 different 
Hebrew words, and applied to all cutting 
instruments, of flint, Exod. 4:25; Josh. 5:2, 
3, bone, bronze, and iron, and of various 
sizes, from those used in the slaughter and 
carving of sacrifices, Gen. 22:6, 10; Ezra 
1:9; Prov. 30:14, or for pruning-hooks. Isa. 
18:5, to those used as lancets, 1 Kin. 18:28, 
and in sharpening reed-pens, Jer. 36:23. 
They were not generally used at table. 

KNOPS or KNOBS, ornamental balls like 
pomegranates, on the sacred candlestick, 
Exod. 25:31-36; 37:17-22. In Amos 9:1 — 
translated "lintel" — and Zeph. 2:14, indi- 
cating the shape of the capital of a column. 
Another Heb. word describes the gourdlike 
ornaments of the temple walls and the bra- 
zen sea, 1 Kin. 6:18; 7:24. 

KO'HATH, assembly, the 2d son of Levi, 
Gen. 46:11, born in Canaan, dying in Egypt 
at the age of 133, Exod. 6:16, 18. The Ko- 
hathites his descendants were prominent 
among the 3 divisions of the Levites, and 
had the honorable service of bearing the 
ark, the altars, the table of show-bread, 
etc., during the journeys of the Israelites 
in the desert, Num. 3:31, these having been 
previously covered by the priests, Num. 
4:4-15. See Uzzah. There were 4 fami- 
lies of his sons, 1 Chr. 23:12, and at the 
exodus his male posterity numbered 8,600, 
of whom 2,750 were from 30 to 50 years old. 
Their station in camp was south of the tab- 
ernacle, near that of Reuben, Num. 3:19, 
20, 27-31 ; 4:35, 36. Their cities were in 
Manasseh, Ephraim, and Dan, Josh. 21:5, 
20-26; 1 Chr. 6:61-70, and they furnished 
judges, treasurers, and singers, 1 Chr. 
26:23-32; 2 Chr. 20:9. See Priests. 

KO'RAH, ice, or baldness, I., 2d son of 
Esau and Aholibamah, a prince of Edom, 
Gen. 36:5, 14, 18. 

II. A son of Hebron, tribe of Judah, 
1 Chr. 2:43. 

III. A Kohathite Levite, who rebelled 
against Moses and Aaron, and so against 
Jehovah. He was a cousin of Moses, for 
their fathers Izhar and Amram were bro- 
thers, Exod. 6:16-21. He was jealous of 
the civil authority and priestly dignity con- 
ferred by God upon Moses and Aaron, his 
cousins, while he was simply a Levite ; and 
to obtain a part at least of their power for 
himself, he stirred up a factious spirit in 
the people. Too much, alas, of what may 
seem to be zeal for the honor of God has 
its true character displayed in the pride 
and ambition of this rebellious Levite. 
Korah and the 250 Levites whom he had 



KOR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LAM 



enticed to join him were destroyed by fire 
from the Lord; while Dathan and Abiram 
were swallowed by the miraculous opening 
of the earth, Num. 16; Psa. 106:17, J 8; Jude 
11. But Korah's children escaped, Num. 
26: 11 ; and the Korahites, or " sons of Ko- 
rah," were a celebrated family of door- 
keepers, singers, and poets in the time of 
David, 1 Chr. 9:17-19; 26:1; 2 Chr. 20:19. 
To them are inscribed several Psalms, Psa. 
42, 44-49, 84, 85, 87, 88. 

KO'RE, a partridge, I., 1 Chr. 9:19; 26:1. 
II. 2 Chr. 31:14. In 1 Chr. 26:19 it is put 
in A. V. for Korah. 

KOZ, and, with the article, HAKKOZ, a 
thorn, 1 Chr. 24: 10, head of a line of priests 
in David's reign, Ezra 2:61; Neh. 3:4, 21; 
7:63. 

L. 

LA'BAN, white, I., a rich herdsman of 
Mesopotamia, son of Bethuel, and grand- 
son of Nahor, Abraham's brother, Gen. 
24:28-31. His character is shown in the 
gladness with which he gave his sister Re- 
bekah in marriage to the only son of his 
rich uncle Abraham, Gen. 24:30, 50, and 
in his deceitful and exacting treatment of 
Jacob his nephew and son-in-law, against 
which Jacob defended himself by cunning 
as well as fidelity. When the prosperity 
of the one family and the jealousy of the 
other rendered peace impossible, Jacob, at 
the command of God, secretly departed, to 
go to Canaan. Laban pursued him; but 
being warned by God to do him no harm, 
returned home after making a treaty of 
peace. He seems to have known and wor- 
shipped God, Gen. 24:50; 30:27; 31:53; but: 
the "gods " or teraphim which Rachel stole 
from her father, Gen. 31 :3o, 34, tend to sug- 
gest that he was not without some taint of 
idolatry. 

II. Deut. 1:1. See Libnah, I. 

LACE, twisted, the blue cord or ribbon 
binding the high priest's breastplate to the 
ephod, Exod. 28:28, ■$]; 39 :2I > 31; Num. 
15:38; also called "wire" in Exod. 39:3, 
"thread" in Judg. 16:9, and "line" in 
Ezek. 40:3. 

LA'CHISH, impregnable, or smitten, a. 
royal and strong city of Canaan, whose 
king Japhia united with neighboring kings 
against Joshua, but was defeated and ta- 
ken, Josh. 10:1-33. ^ l a y m the southwest 
part of Judah, Josh. 10:3, 5, 31; was forti- 
fied by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:9, and proved 
strong enough to resist for a time the whole 



army of Sennacherib, 2 Kin. 18:17; I 9 ; 8; 
2 Chr. 32:1, 9, 21; Mic. 1:13. It was here 
that king Amaziah was slain, 2 Kin. 14:19; 
2 Chr. 25:27. For a wonderful confirma- 
tion of the truth of Scripture, see Sen- 
nacherib. The site of Lachish is thought 
to be Um Lakis, 25 miles west of Hebron, 
in the Shephelah. 

LAD'DER, Gen. 28:12-17. The comfort- 
ing vision of the heavenly ladder shown to 
the fugitive Jacob assured him of the omni- 
present providence of God, and of his com- 
munication of all needed good to his peo- 
ple in the desert of this world, Heb. 1 : 14. 
It was also an assurance that there was a 
way open from earth to heaven, as well as 
from heaven to earth ; and we may see in 
it an illustration of the nature of Christ, in 
which heaven and earth meet; and of his 
work, which brings man home to God, John 
1:51. 

LA'ISH, a lion, I. See Dan, II. 

II. Isa. 10:30, a town near Anathoth on 
the north of Jerusalem, passed by the in- 
vading Assyrians ; now Adasa. 

III. A native of Gallim, and father of 
Phaltiel, I Sam. 25:44; 2 Sam. 3:15. 

LAH'MAN, a town in the low land of Ju- 
dah, Josh. 15:40, now Tell Hamam, 6 miles 
southeast of Eglon. 

LAH'MI, of Bethlehem, 1 Chr. 20:5, ap- 
parently a brother of Goliath. But see 
2 Sam. 21:19. Perhaps we should read 
that Elhanan the son of Jair, a Bethlehem- 
ite, slew a brother of Goliath. 

LAKE. See Merom and Sea. That most 
ttrrible description of hell, as a lake burn- 
ing with fire and brimstone, Rev. 19:20; 
21:8, recalls the fire and sea in which Sod- 
om was consumed and swallowed up. 

LAMB, the young of the sheep, and also 
the kid of the goat, Exod. 12:3-5. Christ 
is the Lamb of God, John 1:29, 36, as being 
the accepted sacrifice for human sin, Acts 
8:32; 1 Pet. 1:19. The sacrifices of the 
Old Testament were an ordained and per- 
petual foreshadowing not only of his expi- 
atory death, but of his spotless holiness and 
his unresisting meekness, Isa. 53 : 4~9- He 
is described in Rev. 5:6: 12:11 as wearing 
the form of a sacrificial lamb in heaven it- 
self. See Passover and Sacrifices. In 
1 Pet. 1 : 18, 19 there may be an allusion to 
the fact that ancient coins bore the figure 
of a lamb. 

LA'MECH, vigorous, I., son of Methusael, 
Gen. 4:18-24, a descendant of Cain, in the 
5th generation, and ancestor of a numerous 
posterity distinguished for skill in agricul- 

313 



LAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LAN 



ture, music, and several mechanic arts. 
He is the first polygamist on record. His 
address to his 2 wives is the oldest speci- 
men of poetry extant, and is a good illus- 
tration of Hebrew parallelism. 

"Adah and Zillah, hear my voice ; 

Ye wives of Lamech, hearken to my speech. 
I have slain a man to my wounding, 

Even a young man to my hurt. 
If Cain shall be avenged seven-fold, 

Truly Lamech seventy and seven fold." 

Many explanations of this abrupt fragment 
have been suggested. The most satisfac- 
tory, perhaps, is that Lamech had acci- 
dentally or in self-defence killed a man, 
and was exposed to the vengeance of "the 
avenger of blood;" but quiets the fears of 
his wives by saying that as God had pro- 
hibited the slaying of Cain under heavy 
penalties, Gen. 4:15, much more would he 
guard the life of Lamech who was compar- 
atively innocent. 

II. The son of Methuselah, and father of 
Noah ; he lived jjj years, and died only 5 
years before the flood, Gen. 5:25-31 ; 1 Chr. 
1:3; Luke 3:36. 

LAMENTA'TIONS of Jeremiah, an ele- 
giac poem, composed by the prophet on 
occasion of the destruction of Jerusalem 
by Nebuchadnezzar. The first 2 chapters 
principally describe the calamities of the 
siege of Jerusalem; the 3d deplores the 
persecutions which Jeremiah himself had 
suffered; the 4th adverts to the ruin and 
desolation of the city and temple and the 
misfortune of Zedekiah; and the 5th is a 
kind of form of prayer for the Jews in their 
captivity. At the close, the prophet speaks 
of the cruelty of the Edomites, who had in- 
sulted Jerusalem in her misery, and threat- 
ens them with the wrath of God. B. C. 586. 

The first 4 chapters of the Lamentations 
are in the acrostic form, every verse be- 
ginning with a letter of the Hebrew alpha- 
bet in regular order. The 1st, 2d, and 
4th chapters contain 22 verses each, ac- 
cording to the letters of the alphabet; the 
3d chapter has 3 successive verses begin- 
ning with the same letter, making 66 in all. 
Moreover, all the verses in each chapter 
are nearly of the same length. The 5th 
chapter is not acrostic. See Letters. The 
style of Jeremiah's Lamentations is lively, 
tender, pathetic, and affecting. It was the 
talent of this prophet to write melancholy 
and moving elegies, 2 Chr. 35:25; and nev- 
er was a subject more worthy of tears, nor 
treated with more tender and affecting 
sentiments. One would think, as has often 



been said, that every letter was written 
with a tear, and every word was the sob of 
a broken heart. Yet he does not forget 
that a covenant God still reigns. 




LAMP. The lamps of the ancients, some- 
times called " candles " in our Bible, were 
cups and vessels of many convenient and 
graceful shapes, and might be carried in 
the hand or set upon a stand. See Can- 
dlestick. The lamp was fed with vege- 
table oils, chiefly olive, tallow, wax, etc., 
and was kept burning all night. Compare 
Matt. 8:12; 22:13, " tne outer darkness." 
The poorest families, in some parts of the 
East, still regard this as essential to health 
and comfort. A darkened house therefore 
forcibly told of the extinction of its former 
occupants, Job 18:5,6; Prov. 13:9; 20:20; 
Jer. 25:10, 11; while a constant light was 
significant of prosperity and perpetuity, 
2 Sam. 21:17; 1 Kin. 11:36; 15:4; Psa. 
132: 17. Lamps to be carried in the streets, 
Judg. 7:16, 20; 15:4, presented a large sur- 
face of wicking to the air, and needed to 
be frequently replenished from a vessel of 
oil borne in the other hand, Matt. 25:3, 4,8. 
Torches and lanterns, John 18:3, were very 
necessary in ancient cities, the streets of 
which were never lighted. 

LAND' MARK. Fences and walls seem 
to have been little used in Judaea, Mark 
2:23, though gardens were sometimes in- 
closed. The ancient and permanent lim- 
its, therefore, of individual property in the 
open field, Ruth 2:3; Job 24: 2, were marked 
by trees or heaps of stones at the corners ; 



LAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LAN 



and as it was easy, by removing these, to 
encroach on a neighbor's ground, a pecu- 
liar form of dishonesty arose, requiring a 
severe punishment, Deut. 19:14; 27:17; 
Prov. 22:28; 23:10; Hos. 5:10. 

LAN'GUAGE, one of the distinguishing 
gifts of God to man, essential to all high 
enjoyment and improvement in social life, 
and to be prized and used in a manner 
worthy of its priceless value for the glory 
of God and the benefit of mankind. The 
original language was not the growth of a 
mere faculty of speech in man, but a crea- 
tion and gift of God. Adam and Eve when 
created knew how to converse with each 
other and with the Creator. For some 
2,000 years "the whole earth was of one 
language and of one speech," Gen. 11 :i. 
But about 100 years after the flood, accord- 
ing to the common chronology, and later 
according to others, God miraculously 
"confounded the language " of the Cushite 
rebels at Babel ; and peopling the earth by 
these scattered families of diverse tongues, 
he frustrated their designs and promoted 
his own. There are now several hundreds 
of languages and dialects spoken on the 
earth, and infidels have hence taken occa- 
sion to discredit the Bible doctrine of the 
unity of the human race. It is found, how- 
ever, that these languages are distributed 
in several great classes, which have stri- 
king affinities with each other; and as com- 
parative philology extends its researches, 
it finds increasing evidence of the substan- 
tial oneness of the human race and of the 
truth of Scripture. The ancient inscrip- 
tions on Babylonian bricks and Assyrian 
tablets, called cuneiform, or wedge-shaped, 
because the letters are formed by groups 
of small wedges in all positions — horizon- 
tal, perpendicular, and oblique — are frag- 
ments of the ancient sacred language of 
Assyria, Babylon, and Persia. It has sev- 
eral dialects, and is akin to the Shemitic 
languages, while it furnishes evidences of 
one still more ancient, called the Accadian, 
from which translations were made into 
the Assyrian. Not a few of its roots are 
found in the Sanscrit. 

The miracle performed at Jerusalem on 
the day of Pentecost was the reverse of that 
at Babel, Acts 2:1-18, and beautifully illus- 
trated the tendency of the gospel to intro- 
duce peace and harmony where sin has 
brought discord, and to reunite all the tribes 
of mankind in one great brotherhood. 

To the student of the Bible, one of the 
most important subjects is the character 



and history of the original languages in 
which that holy book was written. In re- 
spect to the original Greek of the New Tes- 
tament, see under the article Greece. The 
Greek version of the Old Testament, the 
Septuagint, is often quoted in the New 
Testament, sometimes when varying from 
the original Hebrew, though not always. 
It was the language most used by our Lord 
and his disciples, and no doubt their very 
words are in many cases thus preserved. 
The Hebrew language, in which the Old 
Testament was written, is but one of the 
cluster of cognate languages which an- 
ciently prevailed in Western Asia, com- 
monly called the Shemitic languages, as 
belonging particularly to the descendants 
of Shem. A proper knowledge of the He- 
brew, therefore, implies also an acquaint- 
ance with these other kindred dialects. 

The Shemitic languages may be divided 
into 3 principal dialects, namely, the Ara- 
maean, the Hebrew, and the Arabic. 1. The 
Aramaean, spoken in Syria, Mesopotamia, 
and Babylonia, is subdivided into the Syri- 
ac and Chaldee dialects, sometimes called 
also the West and East Aramaean. 2. The 
Hebrew or Canaanitish dialect, Isa. 19:18, 
was spoken in Palestine, and probably with 
little variation in Phoenicia and the Phoeni- 
cian colonies, as, for instance, at Carthage 
and other places. The remains of the Phoe- 
nician and Punic dialects are too few and 
too much disfigured to enable us to judge 
with certainty how extensively these lan- 
guages were the sa?ne as the dialect of Pal- 
estine. 3. The Arabic, to which the Ethiop- 
ic bears a special resemblance, comprises 
in modern times a great variety of dialects 
as a spoken language, and is spread over 
a vast extent of country ; but so far as we 
are acquainted with its former state, it ap- 
pears more anciently to have been limited 
principally to Arabia and Ethiopia. 

These languages are distinguished from 
European tongues by several marked pe- 
culiarities ; they are all, except the Ethi- 
opic, written from right to left, and their 
books begin at what we should call the 
end; the alphabet, with the exception of 
the Ethiopic, which is syllabic, consists of 
consonants only, above or below which the 
vowel-points are written; they have sev- 
eral guttural consonants very difficult of 
pronunciation to Europeans; the roots of 
the language are in general verbs of 3 let- 
ters, and pronounced, according to the va- 
rious dialects, with one or more vowels; 
the verbs have but 2 tenses, the past and 

315 



LAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LAO 



the future ; and the pronouns in the oblique 
cases are generally united in the same word 
with the noun or verb to which they have a 
relation. These various dialects form sub- 
stantially one language, of which the origi- 
nal home was Western Asia. That they 
have all diverged from one parent stock is 
manifest, but to determine which of them 
has undergone the fewest changes would 
be a difficult question. The language of 
Noah and his son Shem was substantially 
that of Adam and all the antediluvians. 
Shem and Heber were contemporary with 
Abraham, and transmitted, as we have good 
reason to believe, their common tongue to 
the race of Israel; for it is not to be as- 
sumed that at the confusion of Babel no 
branch of the human family retained the 
primitive language. It does not appear 
that the descendants of Shem were among 
the builders of Babel, Gen. 10:8-10. The 
oldest records that are known to exist are 
composed in the Hebrew language. In it 
Moses wrote down the divine communica- 
tions and the history of Israel, Exod. 17:14; 
24:4; 34:27; Num. 33:2. It nourished in 
its purest form in Palestine, among the 
Phoenicians and Hebrews, until the period 
of the Babylonish exile ; soon after which 
it declined, and at 450 B. C. was succeeded 
by a kind of Hebraeo-Aramaean dialect, 
such as was spoken in the time of our Sa- 
viour among the Jews. The West Aramae- 
an had flourished before this for a long time 
in the east and north of Palestine; but it 
now advanced farther west, and during the 
period that the Christian churches of Syria 
flourished it was widely extended. It is now 
almost a dead language. No translation of 
the Old Testament Hebrew Scriptures pre- 
ceding the time of Christ is known to us. 
The Hebrew may now be regarded as hav- 
ing been a dead language, except among a 
small circle of literati, for about the space 
of 2,000 years. Our knowledge of Arabic 
literature extends back very little beyond 
the time of Mohammed. But the followers 
of this pretended prophet have spread the 
dialect of the Koran over vast portions of 
the world. Arabic is now the vernacular 
language of Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and in a 
great measure of Palestine and all the north- 
ern coast of Africa ; while it is read and un- 
derstood wherever the Koran has gone, in 
Turkey, Persia, India, and Tartary. 

The remains of the ancient Hebrew 

tongue are contained in the Old Testament 

and in the few Phoenician and Punic words 

and inscriptions that have been here and 

3i6 



there discovered. The remains of the Ara- 
maean are extant in a variety of books. In 
Chaldee we have a part of the books of 
Daniel and Ezra, Dan. 2:4 to 7:28; Ezra 
4:8 to 6: 18, and 7:12-26, which are the most 
ancient of any specimens of this dialect. 
The Targum of Onkelos, that is, the trans- 
lation of the Pentateuch into Chaldee, af- 
fords the next and purest specimen of that 
language. In Syriac there is a considera- 
ble number of books and manuscripts ex- 
tant. The oldest specimen of this language 
that we have is contained in the Peshito, or 
Syriac version of the Old and New Testa- 
ment, made perhaps within a century after 
the time of Christ. A multitude of writers 
in this dialect have flourished, many of 
whose writings are probably still extant, 
although but few have been printed in Eu- 
rope. In Arabic there exists a great vari- 
ety of manuscripts and books, historical, 
scientific, and literary. A familiar knowl- 
edge of this and its kindred dialects throws 
much valuable light on the Old Testament 
Scriptures. 

LAODICE' A, justice of the people, a large 
and opulent city of Asia Minor, the me- 
tropolis of Phrygia Pacatiana. It was sit- 
uated on the river Lycus, not far above 
its junction with the Maeander, and in the 
vicinity of Colossae and Hierapolis. Its 
earlier name was Diospolis ; but after be- 
ing enlarged by Antiochus II. it was called 
Laodicea, from his wife Laodice. About 
A. D. 65 or 66, this city, together with Hi- 
erapolis and Colossae, was destroyed by an 
earthquake, but was quickly rebuilt by 
Marcus Aurelius. It is now in ruins, and 
the place is called Eski-hissar, or the old 
castle. A Christian church was early gath- 
ered here. It was addressed by Paul in 
his letter to Colossae, and in another now 
lost, Col. 2:1; 4:13-16, though some think 
the " Epistle to the Ephesians " is the one 
alluded to. The church at Laodicea was 
probably visited by Paul A. D. 63, and is 
one of the 7 which received special mes- 
sages from Christ after his ascension, Rev. 
1:11; 3:14-22. It was wealthy and luke- 
warm. We know little of its after-history, 
except that an important council was held 
there near the middle of the 4th century, 
and that some form of Christianity lin- 
gered there until the time of the Turks. 

LAP'IDOTH, torches, husband of Debo- 
rah, Judg. 4:4, 5. 

LAP'PING, a mode of drinking in which 
the water is taken in the hollow of the hand 
and thrown upon the tongue by quick mo- 



LAP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LAW 



tions, the head being held near the stream, 
Judg. 7:5, 6. 

LAP'WING, Heb. double-crest, supposed 
to mean the hoopoe, a beautiful migratory 
bird, of filthy habits and a hooping voice ; 
pronounced unclean by Moses, Lev. 11:19. 
It is about the size of a thrush ; its beak is 
long, black, thin, and a little hooked, its 




legs gray and short. On its head is a tuft 
of feathers of different colors, which it 
raises or lowers as it pleases. Its neck 
and breast are somewhat reddish, and its 
wings and tail black, with white streaks. 

LAS-flE'A, a city near Fair-havens, mid- 
way on the south side of Crete. Paul passed 
it on his voyage to Rome, Acts 27:8. 

LA'SHA, a chasm, Gen. 10:19, m the bor- 
der of Canaan; supposed to mean Callir- 
rhoe, with its hot springs, in the Zerka Main 
chasm, east of the Dead Sea; but perhaps 
Laish, at the northeast corner of Canaan. 

LASHA'RON, a Canaanite city, Josh. 
12:18, perhaps Sarura, 7 miles southwest 
of Tiberias. 

LATCH'ET, the thong by which the san- 
dal was secured to the foot, Luke 3: 16. 

LATTICE. See next column. 

LAUD, to extol, by words of praise or in 
song, Rom. 15:11. 

LAUGH'TER is expressive of joy, Psa. 
126:2, of mockery, Gen. 18:13, of proud 
security, Job 5:22, of God's sense of the 
folly and madness of sin, Psa. 2:4; 59:8; 
Prov. 1 : 26. 

LA'VER, a large circular vessel, cast 
from the polished brass mirrors contribu- 



ted by the Hebrew women, and placed be- 
tween the door of the tabernacle and the 
altar of burnt-offering, with water for the 
necessary sacred ablutions, Exod. 30:18- 
21; 38:8; 40:7, 30-32. 

For the temple of Solomon, besides the 
vast brazen sea for the use of the priests 
(see Sea), 10 lavers were made for clean- 
sing the sacrifices, 2 Chr. 4:6. Each laver 
contained about 300 gallons, and was sup- 
ported above a highly elaborate and beau- 
tiful base, 1 Kin. 7:27-39. They were sta- 
tioned within the court of the priests, in 
front of the temple, 5 on each side. The 
laver was probably the reservoir, and its 
base the basin in which the hands and feet 
were washed. See Temple. 




p— ipj— ! 



LATTICE-WINDOW, CAIRO. 

LAT'TICE, Judg. 5:28, or casement, 2 Kin. 
1:2; Prov. 7:6, a network or blind before a 
window. See House. 

LAW, in the Bible, signifies sometimes 
the whole word of God, Psa. 19:7-11 ; 119; 
Isa. 8:20; sometimes the Old Testament, 
John 10:34; 15:25, and sometimes the 5 
books of Moses, which formed the first of 
the 3 divisions of the Hebrew Scriptures, 
Luke 24:44; Acts 13:15. The Pentateuch 
was probably "the law," a copy of which 
every king was to transcribe for himself 
and study, and which was to be made 
known to young and old, in public and in 
private, Deut. 6:7; 17:18, 19; S 1 '-^^, 26 - 
In many other places the Mosaic institu- 
tions as a whole are intended by "the 
law," in distinction from the gospel— the 
old dispensation instead of the new, John 
1:17; Acts 25:8; Heb. 10:1-18. 

When the word refers to the law of Mo- 
ses, careful attention to the context is some- 
times requisite to judge whether the civil, 
the ceremonial, or the moral law is meant. 
The ceremonial or ritual laws, concerning 
the forms of worship, sacrifices, priests, 

317 



LAW 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LAZ 



purifications, etc., were designed to distin- 
guish the Jewish nation from the heathen, 
and to foreshadow the gospel dispensation. 
As a code, they were annulled after Christ's 
ascension, Gal. 3:24; Eph. 2:15; Heb. 9; 
10:1-22, though many of them, springing 
from sound sanitary and social principles, 
are still worthy of heed. The civil laws, 
Acts 23:3; 24:6, were for the government 
of the Jews as a nation, and included the 
10 commandments. The whole code was 
adapted with consummate wisdom to the 
condition of the Jews, and has greatly in- 
fluenced all wise legislation in later years. 
Its pious, humane, and just spirit should 
characterize every code of human laws. 
The moral law, Deut. 5:22; Matt. 5:17, 18; 
Luke 10:26, 27, is more important than the 
others from its bearings on human salva- 
tion. It was written by the Creator on the 
conscience of man, and sin has never fully 
erased it, Rom. 1:19; 2 : 12-15. It was more 
fully taught to the Hebrews, especially at 
Mount Sinai, in the 10 commandments, and 
is summed up by Christ in loving God su- 
premely and our neighbor as ourselves, 
Matt. 22 : 37-40. It was the offspring of love 
to man, Rom. 7:10, 12; required perfect 
obedience, Gal. 3:10; Jas. 2:10; and is of 
universal and perpetual obligation. Christ 
confirmed and enforced it, Matt. 5:17-20, 
showing its demand of holiness in the 
heart, applying it to a variety of cases, and 
supplying new motives to obedience by re- 
vealing heaven and hell more clearly, and 
the gracious guidance of the Holy Spirit. 
Some have argued from certain passages 
of Scripture that this law is no longer bind- 
ing upon Christians; that they "are not 
under the law, but under grace," Rom. 
6:14, 15; 7:4, 6; Gal. 3:13, 25; 5:18; and 
the perversion of these passages leads men 
to sin and perish because grace abounds. 
Rightly understood, they harmonize with 
the declarations of the Saviour, Matt. 5:17. 
To the soul that is in Christ, the law is no 
longer the arbiter of his doom ; yet it still 
comes to him as the divinely-appointed 
teacher of that will of God in which he now 
delights, Psa. 119:97; Matt. 5:48; 11:30. 

The word "law" sometimes means an 
inward guiding and controlling power. The 
" law in the mind " and the " law in the 
members" mean the holy impulses of a 
regenerated soul and the perverse inclina- 
tions of the natural heart, Rom. 7:21-23. 
Compare also Rom. 8:2; 9:31; Jas. 1:25; 
2:12. 

LAWYERS, men who devoted them- 
318 



selves to the study and explanation of the 
Jewish law, particularly of the traditionary 
or oral law. They belonged mostly to the 
sect of the Pharisees, and fell under the 
reproof of our Saviour for having taken 
from the people the key of knowledge. 
They were as the blind leading the blind, 
Matt. 22:35; Luke 10:25; II: 5 2 5 Tit. 2:I °- 
See Scribes. 

LAZ'ARUS, Heb. Eleazar, help of God, 
I., a friend and disciple of Christ, brother 
of Martha and Mary, with whom he resi- 
ded at Bethany near Jerusalem. Our Sa- 
viour had a high regard for the family, and 
often visited them ; and when Lazarus was 
dangerously ill, word was sent to Christ, 
" Lord, behold, he whom thou lovest is 
sick." The Saviour reached Bethany after 
he had lain 4 days in his grave, and re- 
stored him to life by a word, " Lazarus, 
come forth." This public and stupendous 
miracle — of which Spinoza said that if he 
were satisfied of its truth he would tear 
to pieces his whole system and embrace 
Christianity — drew so many to Christ that 
his enemies sought to put both him and 
Lazarus to death, John 11; 12:1-11, thus 
showing the truth of what Christ said in 
connection with the other Lazarus, " Nei- 
ther will they be persuaded though one 
rose from the dead," Luke 16:31. The 
narrative displays Christ as a tender and 
compassionate friend, weeping for and with 
those he loved, and at the same time as the 
Prince of life, beginning his triumph over 
death and the grave. Happy are they 
who, in view of their own death or that of 
friends, can know that they are safe in Him 
who says, " I am the resurrection and the 
life;" and, "because I live, ye shall live 
also." 

II. The helpless beggar w T ho lay at the 
rich man's gate in one of Christ's most 
solemn and instructive parables. The one, 
though poor and sorely afflicted, was a 
child of God. The other, described as self- 
indulgent rather than vicious or criminal, 
was living without God in the enjoyment 
of every earthly luxury. Their state in 
this life was greatly in contrast with their 
real character before God, which was re- 
vealed in the amazing changes of their 
condition at death, Luke 16:19-31. See 
Abraham's Bosom, and on ver. 31, Laza- 
rus, I. Our Saviour plainly teaches us in 
this parable that both the friends and the 
foes of God know and begin to experience 
their doom immediately after death, and 
that it is in both cases unchangeable and 



LEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LEB 



eternal. The name Lazarus has passed 
into many languages : the Italians have 
lazzarone, beggars, and lazaretto, hospital 
for the sick, especially lepers, for whose 
care in part the " Knights of St. Lazarus" 
were organized in 1119. In English we 
have "lazar-house." See Simon. 

LEAD. There are early allusions to 
this well-known metal in Scripture. The 
Egyptians "sank as lead " in the Red Sea, 
Exod. 15:10; Num. 31:22; Ezek. 27:12; 
Zech. 5:7, 8. Job refers to its use in pre- 
serving a permanent record of events, by 
being melted and poured into letters deep- 
ly cut in a rock, Job 19:24. Leaden tab- 
lets also were used by the ancients for sim- 
ilar records. This metal was employed, 
before the use of quicksilver was known, 
in purifying silver; and the process by 
which these metals are purged from their 
dross illustrates God's discipline of his 
people, Jer. 6 : 29, 30 ; Ezek. 22 : 17-22. Lead 
mines existed near Mount Sinai and in the 
mountains of Egypt. 

LEAF. The leaves of the olive, Gen. 
8:11, the oak, Isa. 1:30; 6:13, and the fig, 
Gen. 3:7; Matt. 24:32, are mentioned in 
the Bible, and many apt and beautiful 
allusions are made to leaves in general, as 
symbols of prosperity and grace, Psa. 1:3; 
Jer. 17:8, or of adversity and decay, Job 
13:25; Isa. 64:6; Matt. 21:19. See also 
Lev. 26:36; Isa. 34:4; Dan. 4:12, 14, 21; 
Mark 13:28; Rev. 22:1, 2. In Jer. 36:23 
"leaves" are folds or columns of a book- 
roll. 

LEAGUES with the powerful nations 
around the Hebrews were allowed them 
for securing peace and friendly dealings, 
but entangling alliances and familiar inti- 
macy were forbidden, 2 Kin. 18:20, 21; 
20:12, 13; 2 Chr. 20:35-37; 28:20, 21; Isa. 
30:2-7; 31:1-3; Hos. 5:13; 12:1. With the 
Canaanites, Exod. 23:32, 33, the Amale- 
kites, Exod. 17:8, 14, and the Moabites, 
Deut. 2:9-19, no league was ever to be 
made. See Alliance. 

LE'AH, weary, the elder daughter of La- 
ban, and the 1st wife of Jacob, though less 
beloved than her sister Rachel. She had 
through life the remembrance of the deceit 
by which her father had imposed her upon 
Jacob. She was the mother of 7 children, 
among whom were Reuben — Jacob's first- 
born — and Judah, the ancestor of the lead- 
ing tribe among the Jews, of the royal line 
and of our Lord, Gen. 29:16-35; 30:1-21. 
She is supposed to have died before the 
removal of the family into Egypt, and was 



buried in the family cemetery at Hebron, 
Gen. 32:22; 33:7; 46:5-7; 49:31. 

LEAS'ING, falsehood, Psa. 4:2; 5:6. 

LEAVEN is sour dough which is kept 
over from one baking to another, in order 
to raise the new dough. Leaven was for- 
bidden to the Hebrews during the 7 days 
of the Passover, the " days of unleavened 
bread," Luke 22:1, in memory of what 
their ancestors did when they went out of 
Egypt, they being then obliged to carry 
unleavened meal with them, and to make 
bread in haste, the Egyptians pressing them 
to be gone, Exod. 12:8, 15-20, 39; Josh. 5:11. 
They were very careful in cleansing their 
houses from it before this feast began, 1 Cor. 
5:6. God forbade either leaven or honey 
to be burned before him in his temple, Lev. 
2:11. The pervading and transforming 
effect of leaven is used in illustration of the 
like influence on society exerted by the pu- 
rifying principles of the gospel, or by false 
doctrines and corrupt men, Matt. 13:33; 
16:6-12; Luke 12:1; 1 Cor. 5:6-8; Gal. 5:9. 

LEB'ANON, white, a chain of mountains 
on the north of Palestine, 100 miles in ex- 
treme length and 20 wide, so named from 
the whitish limestone of which they are 
composed, but still more from their snowy 
whiteness in winter, like Mont Blanc, the 
Himalayas, the White Hills, etc. It con- 
sists of 2 main ridges, running northeast 
and southwest, nearly parallel with each 
other and with the coast of the Mediterra- 
nean. See view in Sidon. The western 
ridge was called Libanus by the Greeks, 
and the eastern Anti-Libanus. Between 
them lies a long valley called Ccele-Syria, 
that is, Hollow Syria, and the " valley of 
Lebanon," Josh. 11 : 17, at present el-Bekaa, 
3,000 feet above the sea level. It opens 
towards the north, but is exceedingly nar- 
row towards the south, where the river 
Litany, anciently Leontes, issues from the 
valley and flows west to the sea, north of 
Tyre. The western ridge is generally high- 
er than the eastern ; its highest peak, Dhor 
el Kudib, north of the group of cedars, is 
said to be 10,051 feet high; the average 
height is about 6,000 feet. In the eastern 
range, now called Jebel esh-Shurky, Mount 
Hermon, now Jebel esh-Sheikh, rises into 
the region of perpetual ice. See Hermon. 
An Arab poet says of the 2d highest peak 
of Lebanon, " The Sannin bears winter on 
his head, spring upon his shoulders, and 
autumn in his bosom, while summer lies 
sleeping at his feet." 

Lebanon formed the northern limit of the 
3T9 



LEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LEE 



Holy Land, Deut. 1:7; 11:24, and though 
claimed by the Hebrews was not possessed, 
Josh. 13:1-6; Judg. 3:1-3. The Hebrew 
writers often allude to this sublime moun- 
tain range, Isa. 10:34; 35 :2 > rising like a 
vast barrier on their north, Isa. 37:24. 
They speak of its sea of foliage agitated by 
the gales, Psa. 72:16; of its noble cedars 
and other trees, Isa. 60:13; Jer. 22:23; °f 
its innumerable herds, the whole of which, 
however, could not atone for one sin, Isa. 
40:16; of its excellent wine, Hos. 14:7, its 
snow-cold streams, Jer. 18:14, and its bal- 
samic perfume, Hos. 14:5. Its forests fur- 
nished abundant materials for Solomon, 
1 Kin. 5:9-11, and for the Assyrians, etc., 
Isa. 37:24; Ezek. 31:16. The fir-trees and 
cedars of Lebanon are represented as say- 
ing to the king of Babylon, " Since thou art 
laid low no feller is come up against us," 
Isa. 14:8. An ancient inscription found at 
Babylon states that Nebuchadnezzar em- 
ployed for the woodwork of the Chamber of 
Oracles the largest of the trees he brought 
from Mount Lebanon. And a fresh con- 
firmation of the fact implied by Isaiah was 
found in 1883, in a wild valley on the east 
slope of Lebanon — two inscriptions cut in 
the rocks on opposite sides of the valley, 5 
yards long and 2^ high, giving an account 
of the buildings Nebuchadnezzar was erect- 
ing at Babylon. Moses longed to enter the 
Holy Land, that he might " see that goodly 
mountain and Lebanon," Deut. 3:24, 25; 
and Solomon says of the Beloved, the type 
of Christ, " his countenance is as Leba- 
non," Song 5: 15. " The tower of Lebanon 
which looketh towards Damascus," Song 
7:4, is brought to recollection by the ac- 
counts given by modern travellers of the 
ruins of ancient temples, built of stones of 
vast size. Many such ruinous temples have 
been discovered in different parts of Leba- 
non, several of them on conspicuous points, 
high up in the mountains, where the labor 
of erecting them must have been stupen- 
dous. 

At present Lebanon is inhabited by a 
hardy and turbulent race of mountaineers. 
Its vast wilderness of mountains forms al- 
most a world by itself. Its western slopes 
particularly, rising by a succession of ter- 
races from the plain of the coast, are cov- 
ered with vines, olives, mulberries, and 
figs ; and occupied, as well as the valleys 
among the mountains, by numberless vil- 
lages. Anti-Lebanon is less populous and 
cultivated; most of its occupants are Mo- 
hammedans. The chief inhabitants of Leb- 
320 



anon are Druses and Maronites; the for- 
mer Mohammedan mystics, and the lat- 
ter bigoted Romanists. Among them are 
interspersed many Greeks and Armeni- 
ans. 

For " cedar of Lebanon," see Cedar. 

LEBA'OTH, lionesses, a city in the south- 
west of Judah and Simeon, Josh. 15:32; 
19:6; in 1 Chr. 4:31 called Beth-birei; now 
Kh. Beeyud, near Arad, 15 miles south of 
Hebron. 

LEBB-flS'US, hearty, Matt. 10:3, where the 
clause " Lebbseus, whose surname was " is 
omitted in the R. V. See Judas, III. 

L,E,BO'N AH, frankincense, Judg. 21:19, a 
town of Ephraim, near Shiloh, between 
Bethel and Shechem. Its name and site 
are preserved in the present village of Lub- 
ban, 10 miles south of Nablous. 




LEEK, a bulbous vegetable resembling a 
small onion. The Hebrews complained in 
the wilderness that manna grew insipid to 
them ; they longed for the leeks and onions 
of Egypt, Num. 11:5. Hasselquist says the 
karrat, or leek, is surely one of those after 
which the Israelites pined ; for it has been 
cultivated in Egypt from time immemorial. 
The Hebrew word is usually translated 
" grass " in the English Bible. 

LEES, or dregs, the refuse and sediment 
of wine. Wines that have been allowed to 
stand a long time on the lees thereby ac- 
quire a superior color and flavor ; hence 
such wines are used as a symbol of gospel 
blessings, Isa. 25:6; also of a nation or 
community that, from long quiet and pros- 
perity, has become rich and luxurious, and 
has settled down in carnal security, Jer. 
48:11; Zeph. 1:12. >To drink the dregs of 
the cup of God's wrath, Psa. 75:8; Isa. 
51:17, is to drink it to exhaustion; that is, 
to suffer God's wrath without mitigation or 
end. 



LEF 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LEP 



LEFT HAND, the north, Gen. 14:15; Job 
23:9. "Left-handed," Judg. 3:15; 20:16, 
able to use the left hand as effectively as 
the right. 

LEG, the lower limb from knee to foot, 
Lev. 4:11 ; 8:21 ; 1 Sam. 17:6. The legs of 
the crucified were sometimes broken to 
hasten their death, John 19:31-33. 

LE'GION. The number in a Roman le- 
gion varied at different periods from 3,000 
to more than twice that number. In the 
time of Christ, a legion contained 6,ooo, 
besides the cavalry. There were 10 co- 
horts in each legion, which were divided 
each into 3 maniples or bands, and these 
into 2 centuries containing 100 men each. 
In the Bible a legion means a number in- 
definitely large. The Saviour cured a de- 
moniac who called himself " Legion," as if 
possessed by myriads of demons, Mark 
5:9. The expression, "twelve legions of 
angels," Matt. 26:53, illustrates the immen- 
sity of the heavenly host and their zealous 
devotion to Christ. 

LEHA'BIM. See Libya. 

LE'HI, jawbone, a place in Judah where 
Samson was enabled to slay 1,000 Philis- 
tines with the jawbone of an ass, and where, 
in answer to his petition, a fountain sprang 
up to relieve his thirst, Judg. 15 : 9-19. Prob- 
ably the Hebrew word Lehi in verse 19 
should be left untranslated, as in the mar- 
ginal reading: " God clave a hollow place 
that was in Lehi, and there came water 
thereout." This spring he called En-hak- 
kore, "the fountain of him that prayed." 
It continued to flow, and may even to this 
day be testifying that God hears the cry of 
his people, and can turn a dry land into 
springs of water for their use, Gen. 21:19; 
Num. 20:11. A site for Lehi has been 
found at Beit Likiyeh, 4 miles north of Bir 
es-Seba. 

LEM'UEL, devoted to God, the king to 
whom were addressed the counsels in Prov. 
31 : 1-9. Some suppose it to be an enigmat- 
ical name for Solomon. 

LEN'TILES, a species of pulse or small 
beans, ervum lens, still common in Syria 
and Egypt under the name 'adas, 2 Sam. 
23: 11. They were parched over the fire to 
be portable for travellers, and Barzillai fur- 
nished them for David and his people when 
weary, 2 Sam. 17:28. They were some- 
times an ingredient in bread, Ezek. 4:9. 
We find Esau longing for a mess of pottage 
made of lentiles, Gen. 25:34. In Barbary, 
Dr. Shaw says, " Lentiles are dressed in 
the same manner as beans, dissolving easi- 
21 




ly into a mass, and making a pottage of a 
chocolate color." 

LEOP'ARD, Heb. spotted, a fierce wild 
beast of the feline genus, beautifully spot- 
ted with a diversity of colors ; it has small 
eyes, wide jaws, sharp teeth, round ears, a 
large tail, 5 claws on the fore-feet, and 4 on 
those behind. It is swift, crafty, and cruel, 
dangerous to all domestic cattle, and even 
to man, Jer. 5:6; 13:23; Hos. 13:7; Hab. 
1 :8. Its name, leo-pard, implies that it has 
something of the lion and of the panther in 
its nature. It seems from Scripture that 
the leopard could not be rare in Palestine. 
Its Hebrew name occurs significantly in 
several names of places ; as Beth-nimrah, 
the haunt of leopards, Num. 32:36. So in 
Nimrah, Nimrim, and perhaps Nimrod the 
mighty hunter. Isaiah, describing the hap- 
py reign of the Messiah, says, ch. 11:6, 




" The leopard shall lie down with the kid, 
and the calf and the young lion and the 
fatling together." The spouse in the Can- 
ticles speaks of the mountains of the leop- 
ards, Song 4:8, such as Lebanon and Her- 
mon, where they are still found. In Dan. 
7:6 the leopard symbolizes the rapid pro- 
gress of the Macedonian kingdom, its 4 
heads denoting Alexander's 4 generals. In 
Rev. 13:2 the Roman Empire is described. 
LEP'ER, Heb. smitten, a person afflicted 
321 



LEP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LET 



with leprosy. As it now exists, leprosy is 
a scaly disease of the skin, occurring in 
several distinct forms and with many de- 
grees of severity; beginning with slight 
reddish eruptions, followed by scales of a 
grayish white color, sometimes in circles 
an inch or two in diameter, and at other 
times much larger; in many cases attack- 
ing only the knees and elbows, in others 
the whole body; usually not affecting the 
general health, but considered impossible 
of cure. It is said not to be infectious, but 
is communicated from father to son for sev- 
eral generations, gradually becoming less 
noticeable. It corresponds in the main 
with the disease the symptoms and treat- 
ment of which are so fully described in Lev. 
13; 14. There is little doubt, however, that 
the ancient leprosy, in its more aggravated 
form, is to be regarded as a plague or judg- 
ment from God, Deut. 24:8. It was pecu- 
liarly dreaded among the Jews as unclean 
and infectious, and also as being a special 
infliction from Jehovah, as we know it to 
have been in the cases of Miriam, Num. 
12:10, Gehazi, 2 Kin. 5:27, and Uzziah, 
2 Chr. 26:16-23. No remedies were effec- 
tual. The sufferer was commended to the 
priest, not to the physician, and was sep- 
arated from many of the privileges of soci- 
ety. We find that lepers associated chiefly 
with each other, 2 Kin. 7:8; Luke 17:12, 13. 
The term, "the plague of leprosy," is ap- 
plied not only to this disease in men, but 
to a similar infection sometimes sent into 
houses and garments, Lev. 14. The exact 
nature of this latter cannot be ascertained, 
but it bears the marks of a special aggra- 
vation, as a judgment from God, of some 
evil not unknown in that climate. It illus- 
trates the awful result of moral corruption 
in society uncounteracted by the grace of 
God. The disease in all its forms is a live- 
ly emblem of sin. This malady of the soul 
is also all-pervading, unclean, contagious, 
and incurable ; it separates its victim from 
God and heaven ; it proves its existence by 
its increasing sway and its fatal termina- 
tion. But the Saviour has shown his power 
to heal the worst maladies of the soul by 
curing the leprosy with a word, Luke 17 : 12- 
19, and to admit the restored soul to all the 
privileges of the sons of God. 

Elephantiasis, supposed by some to 
have been the disease of Job, and the 
"botch" or ulcer of Egypt, Deut. 28:27, 35, 
is a tuberculous malady somewhat akin to 
the leprosy, but more dreadful. Its name 
is derived from the dark, hard, and rough 
322 



appearance of the skin, and from the form 
of the feet, swollen and despoiled of the 
toes. This horrid malady infects the whole 
system; ulcers and dark scales cover the 
body, and the hair, beard, fingers, and all 
the extremities drop off. It is still met with 
in tropical countries, and was introduced 
into Europe by the Crusaders ; but after 
occasioning dreadful havoc and the build- 
ing of thousands of "hospitals for lepers," 
it disappeared from Europe in general, 
though many cases occur in Norway, and 
some in the ports of Spain. 

LES'BOS. See Mitylene. 

LE'SHEM, a gem, Josh. 19:47. See Dan. 

LET, sometimes used in the old English 
sense, that is, to hinder, Exod. 5:4; Isa. 
43:13; Rom, 1:13; 2 Thess. 2:7. 

LETTER, Luke 23:38; Gal. 6:11, "in 
how large a hand." The Hebrews have 
certain acrostic poems which begin with 
the letters of the alphabet ranged in order. 
The most considerable of these is Psalm 
119, which contains 22 stanzas of 8 verses 
each, all acrostic ; that is, the first 8 begin 
with Aleph, the next 8 with Beth, and so 
on. Psalms 25, 34 have but 22 verses each, 
beginning with the 22 letters of the Hebrew 
alphabet. Others, as Psalms in, 112, have 
one-half of the verse beginning with one 
letter, and the other half with the next. 
Thus, 
" Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord, 

Who delighteth greatly in his commandments." 
The first half of the verse begins in "he 
Hebrew with Aleph, the second with Beth. 
Psalms 2>7 and 145 are acrostic. The Lam- 
entations of Jeremiah are also in acrostic 
verse, as well as the 31st chapter of Prov- 
erbs, from the 8th verse to the end. In 
John 7:15, the word " letters " means learn- 
ing ; the Jews said of Christ, Whence this 
man's qualifications to teach us the Scrip- 
tures, since he has not learned of the doc- 
tors of the law ? 

Paul speaks of "the letter" in distinc- 
tion from "the spirit," Rom. 2:27, 29; 7:6; 
2 Cor. 2>'^'i contrasting the mere word of 
the law and its outward observance with 
its spiritual meaning and cordial obedi- 
ence to it through the Spirit of Christ. 

LETTERS. Epistolary correspondence 
seems to have been little practised among 
the ancient Hebrews. Some few letters 
are mentioned in the Old Testament, 
2 Sam. 11:14; Ezra 4:8. They were con- 
veyed to their destination by friends or 
travellers, Jer. 29:3; or by royal couriers, 
2 Chr. 30:6; Esth. 8:10. The letter was 



LET 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LEV 



usually in the form of a roll, the last fold 
being pasted down. They were sealed, 
i Kin. 21 : 8, and sometimes wrapped in an 




AN ANCIENT EPISTLE. 

envelope, or in a bag of costly materials, 
and highly ornamented. To send an open 
letter was expressive of contempt, Neh. 
6:5. In the New Testament we have nu- 
merous examples of letters from the pens 
of the apostles. 

LETU'SHIM, hammered, an Arabian 
tribe, descendants of Abraham and Ketu- 
rah, Gen. 25:1-3. 

LfEUM'MlM, peoples, kinsmen of the Le- 
tushim. 

LE'VI, entwined, I., the 3d son of Jacob 
and Leah, born in Mesopotamia ; father of 
3 sons, Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, and 
of Jochebed the mother of Moses, Gen. 
29:34; Exod. 6:16-20. For his share in 
the treacherous massacre of the Shechem- 
ites, Gen. 34, his father at death foreboded 
evil to his posterity, Gen. 49:5-7; but as 
they afterwards stood forth on the Lord's 
side, Moses was charged to bless them, 
Exod. 32:26-29; Deut. 33:8-11. He joined 
his brethren in their ill-treatment of Joseph, 
Gen. 2>7j went down into Egypt with his 
family, Gen. 46:11, and lived to the age of 
137 years. The tribe of Levi was, accord- 
ing to Jacob's prediction, scattered over all 
Israel, having no share in the division of 
Canaan, but certain cities in the portions of 
•other tribes, Josh. 21 : 1-40. It was not the 
worse provided for, however, since God 
chosejxiis tribe for the service of the tem- 
ple and priesthood, and bestowed on it 
many privileges above the other tribes. 
All the tithes, firstfruits, and offerings pre- 
sented at the temple, as well as several 
parts of all the victims that were offered, 
belonged to the tribe of Levi. See Le- 
vites. 

II. The apostle Matthew was also called 
Levi. See Matthew. 

III. and IV. Ancestors of the Saviour, 
Luke 3 : 24, 29. 

LEVI'ATHAN, a jointed monster, Psa. 
74:14; 104:26, a huge reptile described in 
job 41. Probably the animal denoted is 
the crocodile, the terror of the Nile, as 
Behemoth, in Job 40, is the hippopotamus 
of the same river. 

The crocodile is a native of the Nile and 



other Asiatic and African rivers; in some 
instances even 30 feet in length; of enor- 
mous voracity and strength, as well as 
fieetness in swimming; attacks mankind 
and the largest animals with most daring 
impetuosity; when taken by means of a 
powerful net, will often overturn the boats 
that surround it; has proportionally the 
largest mouth of all monsters whatever; 
moves both its jaws alike, the upper of 
which has not less than 36, and the lower 
30 sharp, but strong and massy teeth ; and 




is furnished with a coat of mail so scaly 
and callous as to resist the force of a mus- 
ket-ball in every part except under the 
belly. In several passages in the Bible 
the king of Egypt appears to be addressed 
as leviathan, Isa. 27:1; Ezek. 29:3; 32:2. 

LE'VITES. All the descendants of Levi 
may be comprised under this name, Exod. 
6:16, 25; Josh. 3:3 (see Levi), but chiefly 
those who were employed in the lower ser- 
vices in the temple, by which they were 
distinguished from the priests, who were 
of the race of Levi by Aaron, and were 
employed in higher offices, Num. 3:6-10; 
18:2-7; Ezek. 44:15. God chose the Le- 
vites for the service of his tabernacle and 
temple instead of the first-born son of each 
family, to whom such duties naturally be- 
longed, and who were already sacred to 
God in memory of the great deliverance in 
Egypt, Exod. 13; Num. 3:12, 13, 39-51- In 
the wilderness the Levites took charge of 
the tabernacle and its contents, encamped 
around it as its proper guardians, Num. 
3:23, 29, 35, and conveyed it from place to 
place, each of the 3 families having a sep- 
arate portion, Num. 1:51; 4; 1 Chr. 15:2, 
27. After the building of the temple they 
took charge of the gates, of the sacred ves- 
sels, of the storehouses for cattle, flour, 
wine, oil, and spices, of the preparation of 
the show-bread and other offerings, and of 

323 



LEV 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LEV 



the singing and instrumental music, i Chr. 
9; 23; 2 Chr. 29. They brought wood, wa- 
ter, etc., for the priests; aided them in pre- 
paring the sacrifices, and in collecting and 
disbursing the contributions of the people, 
2 Chr. 30:16, 17; 35:1. See Nethinim. 
They were also the temple guards, Neh. 
13:13, 22; and the salutation and response 
in Psalm 134 are thought by Bishop Lowth 
to have been their song in the night. But 
besides their services in the temple, they 
performed a very important part in teach- 
ing the people, 2 Chr. 30:22; Neh. 8:7, 
among whom they were scattered, binding 
the tribes together, and promoting virtue 
and piety. They studied the law, and were 
the ordinary judges of the country, but sub- 
ordinate to the priests, 2 Chr. 17:9; 19:8- 
11. God provided for the subsistence of 
the Levites by giving to them the tithe of 
corn, fruit, and cattle, Num. 18:18-24; Dut 
they paid to the priests the 10th of their 
tithes, Neh. 10:37, 38; and as the Levites 
possessed no estates in land, the tithes 
which the priests received from them were 
considered as the firstfruits which they 
were to offer to the Lord, Num. 18:21- 
32. The payment of tithes to the Levites 
appears not to have been enforced, but 
depended on the good- will of the people; 
hence the special charges laid on their 
brethren not to forget them, Deut. 12:12, 
18, 19; 14:28; 26:12. 

God assigned for the habitation of the 
Levites 48 cities, with fields, pastures, and 
gardens, Num. 35. Of these, 13 were given 
to the priests, all in the tribes near Jerusa- 
lem. Six of the Levitical cities were ap- 
pointed as cities of refuge, Num. 35:1-8; 
Josh. 20; 21. While the Levites were ac- 
tually employed in the temple they were 
supported out of the provisions kept in 
store there, and out of the daily offerings. 
The same privilege was granted to volun- 
teers drawn to Jerusalem by the fervor of 
their love to God's service, Deut. 12:18, 19; 
18:6-8. The consecration of Levites was 
without much ceremony. See Num. 8:5- 
22; 2 Chr. 29:34. 

The Levites wore no peculiar dress to 
distinguish them from other Israelites till 
the time of Agrippa. His innovation in 
this matter is mentioned by Josephus, who 
remarks that the ancient customs of the 
country were never forsaken with impu- 
nity. 

The Levites were divided into different 
classes: the Gershonites, Kohathites, and 
Merarites, Num. 3:17-20. They were still 
324 



further divided into courses, like the priests, 
1 Chr. 23-26. At first, assuming the lesser 
duties when 25 years old, they entered in 
full on their public duties at 30 years of 
age, Num. 4:3; 8:24, 25; but David fixed 
the age for commencing at 20 years; and 
at 50 they were exempt, 1 Chr. 23:24-27. 
The different courses of porters, singers, 
guards, etc., were on duty in succession, 
one week at a time, coming up to Jerusa- 
lem from their own cities for the purpose, 

1 Chr. 23-26; 2 Chr. 23:4, 8; 31:17; Ezra 
3:8-12. After the revolt of the 10 tribes, a 
large portion of the Levites abandoned 
their cities in Israel and dwelt in Judah, 

2 Chr. 11:12-14; 13:9-11. After the Cap- 
tivity numbers of them returned from be- 
yond the Euphrates to Judaea, Ezra 2:36- 
42; Neh. 11:15-19; 12:24-31. In the New 
Testament they are not often mentioned, 
Luke 10:32; John 1:19; Acts 4:36. The 
" scribes " and " doctors," however, are 
supposed to have belonged chiefly to this 
class. 

LEVIT'ICUS, the 3d book in the Pen- 
tateuch; called Leviticus because it con- 
tains principally the laws and regulations 
relating to the Levites, priests, offerings, 
and sacrifices. The Hebrews call it "the 
priests' law." In the 1st section, the vari- 
ous bloody and unbloody sacrifices are 
minutely described: the burnt -offerings, 
the meat, sin, peace, ignorance, and tres- 
pass offerings; the sins for which and the 
mode in which they were to be offered. 
The fulness of these details not only signi- 
fied the importance of God's worship, but 
forbade all human additions and changes 
that might lead to idolatry. The whole 
scheme was " a shadow of good things to 
come," typical of the Lamb "who through 
the eternal Spirit offered himself without 
spot unto God." Its best commentary is 
the Epistle to the Hebrews. 

A full account of the consecration of 
Aaron and his sons as priests is followed 
by the instructive narrative of Nadab and 
Abihu. Then are given the laws respect- 
ing personal and ceremonial purifications, 
a perpetual memento of the defilement of 
sin and of the holiness of God. Next fol- 
lows a description of the great day of Ex- 
piation ; after which the Jews are warned 
against the superstitions, idolatry, impu- 
rity, etc., of the Canaanites ; and laws are 
given guarding their morals, health, and 
civil order. The observance of their dis- 
tinguishing festivals is enjoined upon them ; 
and laws are given respecting the Sabbath 



LEV 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LIF 



and the Jubilee, vows and tithes. The 
warnings and promises in the latter part 
of the book point their attention to the fu- 
ture, and aim to unite the whole nation in 
serving their covenant God; it is a shadow, 
the substance of which is Christ and his 
kingdom. The book is generally held to 
be the work of Moses, though he was prob- 
ably assisted by Aaron. Its date is B. C. 
1490. It contains the history of the 1st 
month of their 2d year after leaving Egypt. 

LEVY, a company of men pressed into 
service on public works, 1 Kin. 5:13, 14; 
9: 15. This enforced labor has always been 
customary among Eastern tyrants, often at 
a great sacrifice of life. 

LEWD, in Acts 17:5, means "bad," and 
in Acts 18: 14 lewdness means " mischief." 
Elsewhere the specific sense of licentious- 
ness is intended. 

LIB'ERTINES, Acts 6:9, Latin libertinus, 
a freedman, that is, one who, having been 
a slave, either by birth or capture, has ob- 
tained his freedom ; or the son of a parent 
who was a freedman. The " Synagogue 
of the Libertines " stands connected with 
those of the Cyrenians and Alexandrians, 
who were of African origin ; it is therefore 
supposed by some that the Libertines were 
of African origin also. It is, however, more 
probable that this word denotes Jews who 
bad been taken captive by the Romans in 
war and carried to Italy, and having been 
there manumitted, were accustomed to visit 
Jerusalem in such numbers as to erect a 
synagogue for their particular use, as was 
the case with Jews from other cities men- 
tioned in the context. They originated the 
persecution against Stephen which resulted 
in his martyrdom. See Synagogue. 

LIB'NAH, whiteness, I., the 5th station of 
the Israelites after leaving Sinai, Num. 
33:20, 21, and after the repulse at Kadesh, 
Deut. 1 : 44-46; 2:1; probably the Laban of 
Deut. 1:1. Perhaps at Hajr el-Abyad, " the 
white stone" in the heart of the desert et- 
Tih, north of Sinai. 

II. A city in the Shephelah, or western 
lowland of Judah, probably southeast of 
Gaza. It was conquered by Joshua from 
the Canaanites, and assigned to the priests, 
Josh. 10:29-32; 12:15; 15:42; 21:13; 1 Chr. 
6:57. Hamutal, wife of king Josiah, was 
born there, 2 Kin. 23:31 ; 24:18. Its inhab- 
itants revolted against the idolatrous and 
cruel Jehoram, 2 Chr. 21:10. It was a 
strongly fortified place, and under its walls 
the Assyrian army was miraculously cut 
off, 2 Kin. 19:8, 9, 35; Isa. 37:8. 



LIB'YA, a country in the north of Africa, 
stretching along on the Mediterranean be- 
tween Egypt and Carthage, and running 
back somewhat into the interior. The part 
adjoining Egypt was sometimes called Lib- 
ya Marmarica ; and that around Cyrene, 
Cyrena'ica, from its chief city ; or Pentapo- 
litana, from its 5 cities, Cyrene, Apollonia, 
Berenice, Arsinoe, and Ptolemais. In these 
cities great numbers of Jews dwelt in the 
time of Christ ; and they, with their Libyan 
proselytes, resorted to Jerusalem to wor- 
ship, Acts 2:10. Libya received its name 
from the Lehabim or Lubim, Gen. 10:13, a 
warlike people, who assisted Shishak king 
of Egypt, and Zerah the Ethiopian, in their 
wars against Judaea, 2 Chr. 12:3; 14:9; 
16:8; Dan. 11:43. They were also allies 
of ancient Thebes, Nah. 3 : 9. Compare Jer. 
46:9; Ezek. 30:5. See Phut. Libya fell 
at length under the power of Carthage, and 
subsequently of the Greeks, Romans, Sar- 
acens, and Turks. 

LICE, the 3d plague of Egypt, Exod. 
8:16; Psa. 105:31; peculiarly offensive to 
the priests, who were obliged to shave and 
wash their entire body every 3d day, lest 
they should carry any vermin into the tem- 
ples. According to some interpreters they 
were the small stinging gnats which abound 
in Egypt, or, with greater probability, the 
sand-ticks. 

LIE. The essence of a falsehood is the 
intent to deceive, and its guilt may be ag- 
gravated by the selfishness or malice of the 
design. Scripture condemns it in all its 
forms and degrees, and ascribes it to " the 
father of lies " Satan, and to his " children," 
Lev. 19:11; John 8:44; Phil. 4:8; Col. 3:9; 
1 Tim. 1:9, 10; Rev. 21:27; 22:15. Satan 
beguiled our first parents by the greatest 
of falsehoods, "Ye shall not surely die;" 
and every promise to their children of good 
to be derived from sin is alike false and 
fatal. Lies may be told by looks, gestures, 
etc., as well as by words or under oath. 
All untruthfulness is diametrically opposed 
to the nature of the " God of truth," and the 
many instances of falsehood recorded in 
Scripture do not imply his approval. 

LIEUTEN'ANTS, Ezra 8:36; Esth. 3:12; 
8:9; 9:3, translated "princes "in Dan. 3:2; 
6:1, the provincial satraps in ancient Per- 
sia. 

LIFE, in the Bible, is either natural, Gen. 
3:17; spiritual, that of the renewed soul, 
Rom. 8:6; or eternal, a holy and blissful 
immortality, John 3:36; Rom. 6:23. Jeho- 
vah is "the living God," both as distin- 

325 



LIG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LIN 



guished from idols and as the self-existent 
Creator of all things, Jer. 10:10; John 5:26; 
Acts 14: 15; 1 Tim. 6:16. In the same sense 
Christ is "the life," John 1:4; 1 John 1 :i, 2. 
Christ is the great Author of natural life, 
Col. 1:16; and also of spiritual and eternal 
life, John 14:6; 6:47. He has purchased 
these by laying down his own life; and 
gives them freely to his people, John 10: 11, 
28. He is the spring of all their spiritual 
life on earth, Gal. 2 : 20 ; will raise them up 
at the last day, and make them partakers 
for ever of his own life, John 11:25; I 4 :I 9J 

17:2,3. 

LIGHT, one of the most wonderful, cheer- 
ing, and useful of all the works of God; 
called into being on the first of the 6 days 
of creation by his voice: "Let there be 
light ;" and there was light. No object bet- 
ter illustrates whatever is pure, glorious, 
spiritual, joyful, and beneficent. Hence 
the beauty and force of the expressions, 
"God is light," 1 John 1:5, and "the Fa- 
ther of lights," Jas. 1:17; Christ is the " Sun 
of righteousness," Mai. 4:2, and "the light 
of the world," John 1:9; 8:12. So also the 
word of God is "a light," Psa. 119:105; 
2 Pet. 1:19; truth and Christians are lights, 
Matt. 5:14; John 3:19; 12:36; prosperity is 
"light," Esth. 8:16; Isa. 58:8; and heaven 
is full of light, Rev. 21:23-25. The oppo- 
site of all these is "darkness." 

LIGHTENING. See Thunder. 

LIGN-ALOES. See Aloes. 

LIG'URE, probably the same with the 
jacinth, a stone in the high-priest's breast- 
plate, Exod. 28:19; 39:12, said to have 
been of a deep and brilliant red color, 
with a tinge of yellow, and transparent; 
perhaps the tourmaline. 

LI'KING, Job 39:4; Dan. 1:10, condition. 

LIL'Y. Of this queenly plant several 
varieties are found among the wild flowers 
of Palestine, the profusion, beauty, and fra- 
grance of which are the delight of travel- 
lers. The lily is a spring flower, and ap- 
pears early in all parts of the Holy Land. 
It was introduced in the ornamental work 
of the temple, 1 Kin. 7:19-26; 2 Chr. 4:5. 
In Canticles it is often employed as a sym- 
bol of loveliness. More commonly it is 
applied to the bride and her various per- 
fections : ch. 2:1,2, where the bride speaks, 
ver. 1, the bridegroom answers, ver. 2, and 
the bride again responds, ver. 3. The bride- 
groom's lips are compared to lilies in ch. 
5: 13, and he is described as feeding among 
the lilies, ch. 2:16; 6:3; which typically 
represents Christ as delighting himself with 
326 



the graces of his people. From the lily our 
Saviour has also drawn one of his most 
striking figures: " Consider the lilies of the 
field, how they grow;" "even Solomon in 




THE SCARLET MARTAGON : LILIUM CHALCEDONI- 
CUM. 

all his glory was not arrayed like one of 
these," Matt. 6:28. The lily of the valleys, 
Song 2:1, means simply the lily growing in 
valleys, not our " lily of the valley," which 
is unknown in Palestine. 

LIME was well known in Bible times, 
Lev. 14:42, 45, and its burning in a kiln 
with thorns to make plaster is mentioned 
in Isa. 33:12. The king of Moab so used 
the bones of the king of Edom, Amos 2:1. 
Inscriptions made in plaster upon rock, 
Deut. 27:2-4, or upon rocks afterwards 
plastered and painted, are found in Egypt 
still clear and fresh after 3,000 years. 

LINE, often the cord or line used in meas- 
uring land, etc.. 1 Kin. 7:23; Psa. 78:55; 
Isa. 34:17; Amos 7:17; hence in Psa. 16:6 
the lot or portion so measured. In Psa. 
19 : 4 the " line " of the heavens may denote 
the stately movements of the heavenly bod- 
ies which measure climates, months, and 
seasons on the earth. In Isa. 44:13 "line" 
means a stylus or graver. 

LIN'EN. Many different words in He- 



LIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LIV 



brew and Greek are translated in the A. V. 
" linen," " fine linen," " linen yarn," " flax," 
and "silk," in describing the garments of 
the priests, Exod. 28:39, 42; 39:28; Ezek. 
44:18, of princes, Gen. 41:42; 2 Sam. 6:14; 
1 Chr. 15:27, and of the virtuous woman, 
Prov. 31:13, 22, 24, the tabernacle hang- 
ings, the veil before the holy of holies, and 
its curtain, Exod. 26:1, 31, 36; 2 Chr. 3:14, 
the robes of angels, Ezek. 9:2, 3, 11 ; Dan. 
10:5; 12:6, the cloths in which Christ's body 
was wrapped. John 19:40. Some of these 
terms are used interchangeably, and it is 
not easy to define them precisely ; they may 
probably denote different qualities of linen 
as to fineness, color, and origin. Some 
Egyptian linens were of extraordinary fine- 
ness and evenness of thread, one mummy 
bandage from Thebes being found to have 
152 threads in the warp and 71 in the woof 
to each square inch. Fine li^pn of snowj' 
whiteness was highly prized, and was a 
symbol of the purity of angels and of the 
redeemed church, Rev. 19:8. See Cotton, 
Flax, and Silk. In Rev. 15:6 the R. V. 
reads, " arrayed with precious stone pure 
and bright." 

LIN'TEL, or "upper door-post," the 
cross-piece crowning the 2 side-posts of a 
door, Exod. 12:7, 22, 23; 1 Kin. 6:31, or the 
projecting chapiter of a column, Amos 9:1; 
Zeph. 2:14. See Passover. 

LI'NUS, a Christian at Rome, whose sal- 
utation Paul sent to Timothy, 2 Tim. 4:21. 




LI'ON, the well-known and noble king 
Gi beasts, frequently spoken of in Scrip- 
ture, Jer. 25:38; Ezek. 19:4, 8, 9; Amos 
3:12; Rev. 4:7; compare Ezek. 1:10. He 
often exceeds 8 feet in length and 4 feet in 
height; and his majestic and dauntless as- 
pect, his prodigious strength and agility, 
and his peculiar roar, make him the terror 



of the forests. Lions were common in Pal- 
estine, Num. 23:24; 24:9; 2 Kin. 17:26; 
Song 4:8, the Hebrew name being found in 
the names of several places, as Laish, Le- 
baoth, etc. (see Jordan), and the Hebrews 
had many different names for them, to dis- 
tinguish the different ages, etc. Five of 
these occur together in Job 4:10, 11. See 
also Nah. 2:11, 12. There is also a variety 
of words describing their movements, roars, 
and growls. The Psalmist alludes to the 
stealth)^ creeping of the lion till he can 
spring upon his prey in Psa. 10:9, 10; and 
1 Pet. 5:8 describes Satan, the merciless de- 
stroyer, as a roaring lion. The Bible read- 
er will remember the exploits of Samson, 
David, and Benaiah, Judg. 14:5, 6; 1 Sam. 
17 : 34-36 ; 2 Sam. 23 : 20, the story of the dis- 
obedient prophet slain by a lion, 1 Kin. 
13:28, and of the obedient Daniel, safe in 
the lions' den, Dan. 6; also the sublime 
image of Jehovah's care for his people, in 
Isa. 31:4. 

" The Lion of the tribe of Judah," Rev. 
5:5, is Jesus Christ, who sprang from the 
tribe of Judah and the race of David, and 
overcame death, the world, and the devil. 
It is supposed that a lion was the device of 
the tribe of Judah; hence this allusion, 
Gen. 49:9. 

LIP, often translated "language," or 
" tongue," and meaning a different dialect, 
Isa. 28:11; 1 Cor. 14:21. " The fruit of the 
lips," Heb. 13:15, is praise; "the calves 
of the lips," Hos. 14:2, are thank-offerings. 
Covering the lips with a corner of one's 
garment, as if unclean, Isa. 6:5, 7, was a 
sign of mourning or humiliation, Ezek. 
24:17, 22; Mic. y.7. 

LIST, please, like, or will, Matt. 17:12; 
Mark 9:13; John 3:8; Jas. 3:4. 




LIT'TER, a light, covered conveyance, 
resembling a sedan-chair, or a palanquin; 
borne by men, but oftener at the present 
day in Syria between 2 mules or camels. 
Solomon's "chariot," Song 3:9, or bed as 
in the margin, is supposed to have been an 
elegant mule-litter. The Hebrew word 
used in Isa. 66: 20, with another from a verb 
to roll, denotes covered wagons in Num. 7: 3. 

LIVER, Lev. 3:4, io, 15; Prov. 7:23; 
327 



LIV 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LOC 



Lam. 2: n. This organ in man was re- 
garded by the ancients as the seat of the 
passions. Idolaters consulted the liver of 
the victim offered in sacrifice, for purposes 
of divination, Ezek. 21:21. 

LIVE'LY, living, vigorous, Exod. 1:19; 
Psa. 38:19; Acts 7:38; 1 Pet. 1:3; 2:5. 

LIVING CREA'TURES, Ezek. 1; 3:13; 
10:15-17, the cherubim, Ezek. 10. Trans- 
lated "beasts " in A. V. in Rev. 4:6-9; 5:6- 
14; 6:1-7, etc. 




LIZ'ARD, a cold-blooded reptile, with 
much resemblance to the serpent, but hav- 
ing 4 feet. Large numbers are found in 
Syria, varying greatly in size, appearance, 
and place of abode ; some dwelling partly 
in water, and others on the rocks of the 
desert, or among old ruins. Lizards were 
unclean by the Levitical law, Lev. 11:30. 
See Chameleon, Ferret. 

LOAF, Heb. a circle, Exod. 29:23; Judg. 
8:5; 1 Sam. 10:3, a round fiat cake, the 
usual form of bread anciently, 1 Chr. 16:3; 
Matt. 14:17. See Bread. 

LO-AM'MI, not my people, a name di- 
vinely given to Hosea's 2d son, to. signify 
God's rejection of Israel and subsequent 
restoration, Hos. 1:9, 10; 2:23. 

LOANS for commercial purposes are not 
mentioned in the early Biblical records, but 
only those in aid of the poor, Neh. 5 : 1, 3, 13. 
Jehovah, as the sole proprietor of the land 
occupied by the Jews, required them, as 
one condition of its use, to grant liberal 
loans to their poor brethren ; and every 7 
years the outstanding loans were to be- 
come gifts, and could not be reclaimed. If 
a pledge was taken on making a loan it 
must be done with mercy and under cer- 
tain benevolent restrictions, Exod. 22:25, 
27; Deut. 15:1-11; 23:19, 20; 24:6, 10-13, 
17. The great truth so prominent in this 
and similar features of the Mosaic laws 
ought to be restored to its fundamental 
place in our theories of property; and no 
one who believes in God should act as the 
owner, but only as the steward of what he 
328 



possesses, all of which he is to use as re- 
quired by its great Owner. In the same 
spirit our Saviour enjoins the duty of loan- 
ing freely, even to enemies, and without 
hope of reward, Luke 6 : 34, 35. See Usury. 

LOCK, Judg. 3 : 23, 25 ; Neh. 3 : 3, 6, 13-15 ; 
Song 5:5. See Key. 

LO'CUST, a voracious winged insect, be- 
longing to the order known among natu- 
ralists as the Orthoptera, including various 
creeping and leaping insects, closely re- 
sembling the grasshopper, and a great 
scourge in Oriental countries in both an- 
cient and modern times. There are 10 
different names in the Hebrew Bible for 
insects of this kind ; but some of these prob- 
ably designate different forms or stages in 
life of the same species. The most destruc- 
tive species of modern Syria and Arabia are 
the Oedipoda migratoria and the Acridium 
peregrinum^ The Bible represents their 
countless swarms as directed in their flight 
and march by God, and used in the chas- 
tisement of guilty nations, Deut. 28:38-42; 
1 Kin. 8:37; 2 Chr. 6:28. A swarm of lo- 
custs was among the plagues of Egypt; 
they covered the whole land, so that the 
earth was darkened, and devoured every 
green herb of the earth, and the fruit of 
every tree which the hail had left, Exod. 
10:4-19. But the most particular descrip- 




tion of this insect, and of its destructive 
career, in the sacred writings, is in Joel 
2:3-10. This is one of the most striking 
and animated descriptions to be met with 
in the whole compass of prophecy; and 
the double destruction to be produced by 
locusts and the enemies of which they were 
the harbingers is painted with the most 
expressive force and accuracy. We see 
the destroying army moving before us as 
we read, and see the desolation spreading. 
It should also be mentioned that the 4 in- 
sects specified in Joel 1 : 4, the palmer- 
worm, the locust, the canker-worm, and the 



LOC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LOI 



caterpillar, are strictly, according to the 
Hebrew, only different forms of locusts, 
some perhaps without wings, as mentioned 
below. See also Lev. 11:21, 22. 

Dr. Shaw remarks, " Those which I saw 
were much bigger than our common grass- 
hoppers, and had brown spotted wings, 
with legs and bodies of a bright yellow. 
Their first appearance was towards the 
end of March, the wind having been some 
time from the south. In the middle of 
April their numbers were so vastly in- 
creased that in the heat of the day they 
formed themselves into large and numer- 
ous swarms, flew in the air like a succession 
of clouds, and as the prophet Joel expresses 
it, they darkened the sun. When the wind 
blew briskly, so that these swarms were 
crowded by others, or thrown one upon an- 
other, we had a lively idea of that compari- 
son of the Psalmist, Psa. 109:23, of being 
tossed up and down as the locust. In the 
month of May these swarms gradually re- 
tired into the Metijiah and other adjacent 
plains, where they deposited their eggs. 
These were no sooner hatched in June than 
each of the broods collected itself into a 
compact body of a furlong or more square, 
and marching afterwards in a direct line 
towards the sea, they let nothing escape 
them, eating up everything that was green 
and juicy, not only the lesser kinds of veg- 
etables, but the vine likewise, the fig-tree, 
the pomegranate, the palm, and the apple- 
tree, even all the trees of the field, Joel 
1:12; in doing which they kept their ranks 
like men of war, climbing over, as they 
advanced, every tree or wall that was in 
their way ; nay, they entered into our very 
houses and bedchambers like thieves. The 
inhabitants, to stop their progress, made a 
variety of pits and trenches all over their 
fields and gardens, which they filled with 
water ; or else they heaped up . therein 
heath, stubble, and such like combustible 
matter, which were severally set on fire 
upon the approach of the locusts. But this 
was all to no purpose, for the trenches 
were quickly filled up and the fires extin- 
guished by infinite swarms succeeding one 
another, while the front was regardless of 
danger and the rear pressed on so close 
that a retreat was altogether impossible. 
A day or two after one of these broods was 
in motion others were already hatched to 
march and glean after them, gnawing off 
the very bark and the young branches of 
such trees as had before escaped with the 
loss only of their fruit and foliage. So just- 



ly have they been compared by the prophet 
to a great army ; who further observes that 
the land is as the garden of Eden before 
them, and behind them a desolate wilder- 
ness." 

The locust was a " clean " animal for the 
Jews, Lev. 11:22, and might be used for 
food. In Matt. 3:4 it is said of John the 
Baptist that " his meat was locusts and wild 
honey." They are still eaten in the East, 
and regarded by some as a delicacy, though 
usually left to the poorest of the people. 
Niebuhr remarks, " Locusts are brought to 
market on strings in all the cities of Ara- 
bia, from Babelmandel to Bassorah. On 
Mount Sumara I saw an Arab who had col- 
lected a whole sackful of them. They are 
prepared in different ways. An Arab in 
Egypt threw them upon the glowing coals, 
and after he supposed they were roasted 
enough, he took them by the legs and head 
and devoured the remainder at one mouth- 
ful. When the Arabs have them in quan- 
tities, they roast or dry them in an oven, 
or boil them and eat them with salt. The 
Arabs in the kingdom of Morocco boil the 
locusts, and then dry them on the roofs of 
their houses. One sees there large baskets 
full of them in the markets." 

In Rev. 9:7-10 there is a terrific descrip- 
tion of symbolical locusts, in which they 
are compared to war-horses, their hair to 
the hair of women, etc. Niebuhr heard an 
Arab of the desert, and another in Bagdad, 
make the same comparison. In like man- 
ner the Italians still call locusts little hor- 
ses, and the Germans hay-horses. 

LOD, 1 Chr. 8:12; Ezra 2: 33. See Lydda. 

LO'-DEBAR, no pasture, a town east of 
the Jordan near Mahanaim in the north of 
Dan ; the home of Machir, who gave shelter 
to Mephibosheth, 2 Sam. 9:4, 5; 17:27. 

LODGE, to stay over night, 1 Kin. 19:9; 
iChr.9:27; Neh.4:22; 13:20, 21 ; Job3i :32; 
Isa. 10:29. On Isa. 1:8 see Garden. » 

LOG, Heb. a hollow, the smallest meas- 
ure of liquids among the Hebrews, contain- 
ing i-i2th of a hin, or about 5-6ths of a pint, 
Lev. 14:10, 12, 15, 21, 24. 

LOINS, the lower part of a man's back, 
Jer. 30:6, and the organs within, Gen. 
35:11; 1 Kin. 8:19; represented as the seat 
of strength, Deut. 33:11; Job 40:16; Psa. 
69:23; Isa. 21:3; girt with sackcloth in 
mourning, Gen. 37:34- See Girdle. 

LO'IS, a pious Jewess at Lystra, whose 
" unfeigned faith " Paul traces in her daugh- 
ter Eunice and her grandson Timothy, 
2 Tim. 1:5. 

329 



LOO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LOT 



LOOKED, Acts 28 : 6, expected, as in 
R. V. 

LOOK'ING-GLASS'ES, or rather, mirrors, 
were anciently made, not of glass, but of 
metal, chiefly copper, Exod. 38 : 8 ; Job 37 : 18, 
melted and cast in a circular form, highly 




polished, and attached to an ornamental 
handle. Similar mirrors have been found 
in the ruins of ancient Egypt. They were 
far inferior to modern mirrors, 1 Cor. 13:12, 
as is our present knowledge of divine 
things compared with our future direct and 
open vision. See also 2 Cor. 3:18; Jas. 
1:23. 

LORD. This name belongs to God by 
preeminence, and in this sense ought never 
to be given to any creature. Jesus Christ, 
as the Messiah, the Son of God, and equal 
with the Father, is often called Lord in 
Scripture, especially in the writings of Paul. 
The word Lord, in the English Bible, when 
printed in small capitals, stands always for 
Jehovah in the Hebrew. See Jehovah. 

LORD'S-DAY. See Sabbath. 

LORD'S SUP'PER, called also "the 
breaking of bread," Acts 2:42; 20:7, and 
"the communion of the body and blood of 
Christ," 1 Cor. 10:16, is one of the 2 simple 
ordinances of the Christian church, institu- 
ted by our Saviour in the most affecting 
circumstances on the Passover night in 
which he was betrayed, to be observed by 
his followers until his 2d coming. Bread 
and wine, the symbols of his body broken 
and his blood shed for our redemption, are 
to be tasted by each communicant, to keep 
in mind that great sacrifice, the foundation 
of all our hopes and the strongest motive 
to a holy and devoted life, Exod. 24:5-8; 
Rom. 3:25; 2 Cor. 5:14, 15. In the Lord's 
Supper the covenant is renewed between 
Christ and his people. It is also the visible 
330 



token of Christian fellowship ; and all true 
believers — having united themselves to his 
church and leading consistent lives — and 
none but they, should claim to partake of 
it, 1 Cor. 5:6-8. In it Christians may ex- 
pect and should seek to receive of the ful- 
ness of Christ, grace for grace, 2 Cor. 1:21, 
22; Eph. 4:15, 16; while those who partake 
heedlessly incur great guilt, and may look 
for chastisement. Some such abuses seem 
to have marred this service in Corinth, or 
rather the love-feasts or agapce that ac- 
companied it, 1 Cor. 11:20-34. The dogma 
of the Romish Church, that the bread is 
changed into the very body and soul of 
Christ, which the priest offers anew in sac- 
rifice, is contrary to the Scripture and to 
all the senses, as it is also to common 
sense. 

LO-RUHA'MAH, not obtaining mercy \ 
the name divinely given to Hosea's 1st 
daughter, a type of Israel's forfeiture of his 
favor during the Captivity, Hos. 1:6; 2:1,. 
23. See Hosea. 

LOT, covering, the son of Haran, brother 
of Milcah and Iscah, and nephew of Abra- 
ham, followed his uncle from Ur, and after- 
wards from Haran, to settle in Canaan, 
They went down into the south, the Negeb,, 
and into Egypt during a famine, and return- 
ing lived together near Bethel and Ai, Gen. 
11:27-31; 12:4-6; 13:1-4. Abraham had a 
great affection for him, and when they could 
not continue longer together in Canaan, be- 
cause they both had large flocks and their 
shepherds sometimes quarrelled, Gen. 13 : 5- 
7, he generously gave Lot the choice of his 
abode. Lot chose the plain of Sodom, which 
appears then to have been the most fertile 
part of the land. Here he continued to 
dwell till the destruction of Sodom and the 
adjacent cities. He was a righteous man 
even in Sodom, 2 Pet. 2:6-9, and " a judge," 
condemning their evil practices, Gen. 19:9; 
but the calamities consequent upon his 
choice of this residence — his capture by 
Eastern marauders, Gen. 14, the molesta- 
tion caused by his ungodly and vicious 
neighbors, the loss of his property in the 
burning city, the destruction of his sons-in- 
law and of his wife — if they do not prove 
that he regarded ease and profit more than 
duty, show that the most beautiful and fruit- 
ful land is not always the best ; the profli- 
gacy of its citizens may sink it into the 
abyss of perdition, and endanger all who 
have any concern with it. Real estate in 
Sodom proved worthless, as it is in any 
similar place; and no "durable riches," 



LOT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LUC 



worthy of being a man's chief good, can 
be found in any earthly property — it is all 
to be burned. Lot's wife, looking back 
with disobedient regrets, and arrested by 
the threatened judgment midway in her 
flight to the mountain, struck dead and 
becoming incrusted with salt, is an awful 
warning to all who turn their faces Zion- 
ward but are unwilling to leave all for 
Christ, Gen. 19; Luke 17:28-32. Lot es- 
caped with his 2 daughters to Zoar, and 
became the father of Moab and Ammon by 
them, they no doubt palliating their crime 
by the plea that they dared not marry any 
of the heathen among whom they dwelt. 
The Dead Sea is now called by the natives 
Bahr Lut, the sea of Lot. See Sodom. 

LO'TAN, covering, eldest son of Seir, 
Gen. 36:20, 22, 29; 1 Chr. 1:38. 

LOTS were often cast by the Jews, as well 
as by other ancient nations, with the ex- 
pectation, when God was appealed to, that 
he would so control them as to give a right 
direction in doubtful cases, Judg. 20:9; 
1 Sam. 10:20, 21; 1 Chr. 26:14; Psa. 22:18; 
Prov. 16:33; 18:18. They were often used 
by the divine appointment. The portions 
of the 12 tribes were thus assigned to them ; 
and hence each tribe's portion was called 
"the lot of its inheritance," Num. 26:55, 
56; Psa. 125:3; Acts 8:21. The scape-goat 
was to be selected and the order of the 
priests' service determined by lot, Lev. 
16:8; 1 Chr. 24:5; 25:8. By the same 
means Achan, Jonathan, and Jonah were 
discovered, Josh. 7:14; 1 Sam. 14:41, 42; 
Jon. 1:7. By lot Christ's garments were 
divided, Matt. 27:35, and Matthias was des- 
ignated by Christ to be an apostle in the 
place of Judas, Acts 1 : 26. A common mode 
of casting lots was by the use of pebbles, 
one or more. of them being marked, and all 
being shaken together in some fold of a 
garment, an urn, or a helmet, before draw- 
ing, Prov. 16:33; John 19:24. As the use 
of lots by one who believes in the particu- 
lar providence of God involves a solemn 
appeal to the Disposer of all events, they 
should never be used on trivial occasions; 
and in this day a case can rarely occur 
when such an appeal would be warranted. 
See Purim. 

LOVE. God is love; and he that 

DWELLETH IN LOVE DWELLETH IN GOD, 

and God in him, i John 4:16. Love is a 
chief attribute of Jehovah, the length and 
breadth and height and depth of which are 
beyond comprehension, for they are infi- 
nite, Eph. 3: 18, 19. Between the 3 Persons 



of the Godhead love is unutterably full, 
perfect, and blissful ; towards holy angels 
and Christians God's love is an infinite 
fatherly complacency and affection ; to- 
wards sinners it is immeasurable compas- 
sion. It is shown in all his works and 
ways, and dictated his holy law, but is most 
signally displayed in the gospel, John 3:16. 
" Herein is love." See Law. 

Holy love in man would make the whole 
heart and soul supremely delight in and 
obey God, and cordially and practically 
love all beings according to their charac- 
ter — the good with fellowship of soul, and 
the evil with a Christlike benevolence — 
abstaining from all that would harm them, 
and doing all that we can for their good, 
without reference to a return. Such a love 
would meet and fulfil all the ends of the 
law, Matt. 22:37-40; Rom. 13:8-10. With- 
out it none can enter heaven ; and as the 
affections of every unrenewed heart are all 
mixed with sin, being given to forbidden 
objects, or selfishly and unduly given to 
objects not forbidden, we must be "born 
again " in order to see God, John 3:3:1 John 

4:7, 19; 5 = 4- 

LOVE-FEASTS, Jude 12 ; 2 Pet. 2 : 13. See 
Feasts. 

LOVER, in Scripture any intimate friend, 
1 Kin. 5:1; Psa. 38:11. 

LOW COUNTRY, or Shephelah, 2 Chr. 
26:10. See Judaea. 

LOWER PARTS OF THE EARTH, val- 
leys, Isa. 44:23; also the abode of disem- 
bodied spirits, secluded from view, Psa. 
63:9; Eph. 4:9; hence, in Psa. 139:15, the 
womb. 

LU'BIM, thirsty. See Libya. 

LU'CAS, A. V. Phile. 24. See Luke. 

LU'CIFER, light-bring er,the Latin name 
of the morning star, or " son of the morn- 
ing." In the figurative language of Scrip- 
ture, a brilliant star denoted an illustrious 
prince, Num. 24:17. Christ was given to 
men as the " bright and morning Star," 
Rev. 2:28; 22:16. The word Lucifer is 
used once only in the English Bible, and 
then of the king of Babylon, Isa. 14: 12. It 
is now commonly, though inappropriately, 
given to the prince of darkness. 

LU'CIUS of Cyrene, Acts 13:1, compare 
Acts 2:10; 11:19, 20, one of the ministers 
and teachers of the Christian church at 
Antioch, and probably a kinsman of Paul, 
Rom. 16:21. He is supposed by some to 
be the same with the evangelist Luke; but 
for this there is no good reason. 

LU'CRE, gain. "Filthy lucre" is ill- 
331 



LUD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LYD 



gotten and base gain, i Tim. 3:3, 8; Tit. 
1:7, 11. 

LUD, the 4th son of Shem, Gen. 10:22, 
and ancestor, it is thought, of the Lydians 
in Asia Minor, 1 Chr. 1:17. 

LU'DIM, descendants of Mizraim, Gen. 
10:13, dwelling in Africa, probably near 
Ethiopia; they were famous bowmen, Isa. 
66:19, and are mentioned as soldiers with 
the Ethiopians, Libyans, and Tyrians, Jer. 
46:9; Ezek. 27:10; 30:5. 

LU'HITH, the ascent of, a hill leading 
up to a Moabite sanctuary, Isa. 15:5; Jer. 
48:5. 

LUKE, Lucas, Phile. 24, or Lucanus, the 
evangelist, probably the same person who 
is called by St. Paul "the beloved physi- 
cian," and distinguished from them "of 
the circumcision," Col. 4:11, 14. Luke was 
the writer of the gospel which bears his 
name, and of the Acts of the Apostles, hav- 
ing been the friend and companion of Paul 
in most of the journeys recorded in the 
latter book. Thus, in Acts 16:11, he first 
uses the word "we," and shows that he 
was with Paul at Troas and in his first 
Macedonian tour. After they reach Phi- 
lippi an interval of separation occurs ; but 
they are again at Philippi when Paul sails 
thence for Jerusalem, and from that time 
he continues with the apostle in his la- 
bors, voyages, and sufferings to the close of 
his first imprisonment at Rome, Acts 17:1 ; 
20:5,6,13-16; 21-28; Phile. 24; 2 Tim. 4:11. 
His personal history before and after this 
period of his companionship with Paul is 
unknown, or rests on uncertain traditions. 
His own narrative contains the least pos- 
sible mention of himself; yet we cannot 
doubt that he was eminently useful to the 
early church, by his learning, judgment, 
fidelity, and even his medical skill, besides 
leaving to the world the invaluable legacy 
of his writings. See Acts and Gospel. 

LU'NATIC, formed from the Latin luna, 
the moon, and corresponding to the origi- 
nal Greek word and to the English " moon- 
struck;" applied to a class of persons men- 
tally and often corporally diseased, who 
were believed to suffer most when the 
moon was full. Insanity, epilepsy, and 
morbid melancholy were among the fre- 
quent effects of demoniac possession, yet 
this possession existed independently of 
these effects, and was a more dreadful ca- 
lamity. Lunatics are expressly mentioned 
in distinction from men possessed by evil 
spirits, Matt. 4:24; 17:15. See Devils and 
Mad. 

332 



LUST originally meant any longing de- 
sire, however innocent, Deut. 12:15; 14:26. 
But, in tacit acknowledgment of the de- 
pravity of man's passions, general usage 
soon attached the idea of guilt to the word ; 
and now it usually denotes carnal, lascivi- 
ous desire, Matt. 5:28. In Gal. 5:16, 17, 24 
we see that the aspirations of the heart re- 
newed by the Holy Spirit oppose and will 
subdue the native evil desires, 1 Cor. 15:57; 
but in the unrenewed heart these reign 
uncontrolled, lead to greater and greater 
outward sins, and secure eternal death, 
Jas. 1:14, 15. Lusty in Judg. 3:29 means 
stout, vigorous. 

LUZ, bending or hazel, I., a spot north of 
Jerusalem visited while uninhabited by 
Abraham, Gen. 12:8; 13:3, and by Jacob, 
who named it Bethel, Gen. 28:19; 35:6; 
48:3. A Canaanite town was afterwards 
built near by and called Luz, and after the 
conquest Bethel was built on or near the 
same site. See Bethel. The 2 are dis- 
tinguished in Josh. 16:2. There is now a 
Khirbet el-Lozeh y/ 2 miles west of Beitin. 

II. An unknown town in "the land of 
the Hittites," founded by a refugee from 
Luz who rendered an important service to 
the Hebrews, Judg. 1:26. 

LYCAO'NIA, a small province of Asia 
Minor, bounded north by Galatia, east by 
Cappadocia, south by Isauria and Cilicia, 
and west by Phrygia. It appears to have 
been within the limits of Phrygia Major, 
but was erected into a Roman province by 
Augustus. The country is level, but not 
fertile, though peculiarly adapted to sheep- 
pasturage. Of its cities, Iconium, Derbe, 
and Lystra are mentioned in the New 
Testament, Acts 14:6. See Lystra. The 
"speech of Lycaonia," ver. 11, is generally- 
supposed to have been a dialect of Greek, 
corrupted by a large mixture of Syriac. 
On his 1st journey Paul traversed it from 
west to east, Acts 14 : 1-21 ; 2 Tim. 3:11; on 
his 2d and 3d, from east to west — to Troas, 
Acts 16:1-8, and to Ephesus, 18:23; 19:1. 
Lycaonia now forms part of the Turkish 
province of Caramania. 

LY'CIA, a province in the southwest of 
Asia Minor, bounded west by Caria, east 
by Pamphylia, north by Phrygia and Pisi- 
dia, and south b)' the Mediterranean. The 
country is somewhat mountainous, though 
not barren. Of its cities, only Patara and 
Myra are mentioned in the New Testa- 
ment, Acts 21:1, 2; 27:5. 

LYD'DA, in Hebrew Lud or Lod, in Ben- 
jamin, 1 Chr. 8:12; Ezra 2:33, and by the 



LYD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MAC 



Greeks called Diospolis, was a city 9 miles 
east of Joppa, on the way to Jerusalem. 
Here Peter healed iEneas, Acts 9:33, 34. 
It was destroyed not long after Jerusalem, 
but was soon rebuilt, and became the seat 
of a famous Jewish school. A Christian 
church was here organized, and was in 
existence A. D. 518. Lydda is often men- 
tioned in the history of the Crusades. It 
was situated in the midst of fine and exten- 
sive plains, the soil of which is a rich black 
mould, that might be rendered exceeding- 
ly fertile. It is at present only a miserable 
village called Ludd. The ruins of a stately 
church of the middle ages, called the 
Church of St. George, preserve the name of 
a saint and martyr said to have been born 
and buried here in the 3d century. The 
English Crusaders adopted him as the 
"patron" of England, and many fabulous 
legends are told of his exploits. 

LYD'IA, I., a woman of Thyatira, resi- 
ding at Philippi in Macedonia, and dealing 
in purple cloths. She was not a Jewess 
by birth, but had become a proselyte to 
Judaism and " worshipped God." She was 
led by the grace of God to receive the gos- 
pel with joy, Paul's first European convert; 
and having been baptized with her house- 
hold, constrained Paul and his fellow-la- 
borers to make her house their home while 
at Philippi, Acts 16:14, 15, 40. Compare 
Phil. 4:3. See Philippi. 

II. In Ezek. 30:5, properly Ludim. 

LYSA'NIAS. See Abilene. 

LYS'IAS, or Claudius Lysias, commander 
of the Roman guard at Jerusalem during 
Paul's last visit there. In the honorable 
discharge of his duty he repeatedly saved 
Paul from the malice of the Jews, Acts 
21:27-40; 22; 23. 

LYS'TRA, a city in the eastern part of 
Lycaonia, near Derbe and Iconium, and 
the native place of Timothy. Paul and 
Barnabas preached the gospel here, and 
having healed a cripple were almost wor- 
shipped. Soon after, however, at the insti- 
gation of persecuting Jews from Antioch 
and Iconium, Paul was stoned there, Acts 
14:6, 19. Timothy seems to have witnessed 
or known of his sufferings, 2 Tim. 3:10, 11, 
and at Paul's 2d visit was ready to enter 
on the public service of Christ, Acts 16:1. 
Hamilton finds its site at Bin-bir-Kilisseh, 
at the foot of a mountain of volcanic origin 
named Karadagh, where are the ruins of a 
number of churches. The city appears to 
have claimed Jupiter as its special patron, 
Acts i<±:n. 



M. 

MA'ACAH, or Maachah, oppression, I., 
a city and region of Syria or Aram, 1 Chr. 
19:6, 7, somewhere near the foot of Mount 
Hermon and Geshur, apparently the rocky 
tract east of the Ledja. The portion of 
Manasseh beyond Jordan reached to this 
country, like that of Og king of Bashan, 
Deut. 3:13, 14; but it does not appear to 
have become subject to Israel, Josh. 12:4-6; 
13:13, except during the reign of David, 
Solomon, and Jeroboam II. The king of 
Maachah, with other Syrians, joined the 
Ammonites in a war with David, and they 
were defeated and made tributary, 2 Sam. 
10:6-8, 19. 

II. A wife of David, and the mother of 
Absalom. She was a daughter of Talmai, 
king of Geshur in Syria, 2 Sam. 3:351 Chr. 
3:2. 

III. The wife of Rehoboam and mother 
of Abijah, kings of Judah. She is called 
the "daughter" of Abishalom or Absalom, 
1 Kin. 15:2; 2 Chr. 11:20-22. In 2 Chr. 

•13:2 she is called Michaiah, and is said to 
be the daughter of Uriel. She appears to 
have exerted a great influence over the 
members of the royal family, but was de- 
graded from her high position by Asa her 
grandson, for promoting idolatry, 2 Chr. 
15:16. 

Six others of the same name are men- 
tioned in Gen. 22:24; 1 Kin. 2:39; 1 Chr. 
2:48; 7:16; 8:29; 11:43; 27:16. 

MA'ALEH-ADUM'MIM, A. V. the going 
tip of Adummim, a rough pass near Gilgal, 
Josh. 15:7; 18:17. 

MA'ALEH-AKRAB'BIM, ascent of scor- 
pions, Num. 34:4; Josh. 15:3; Judg. 1:36. 
See Akrabbim. Trumbull identifies it with 
the pass el-Yemen, 30 miles southwest of 
the Dead Sea, and 6 miles west of the pass 
es-Sufah. 

MA'ARATH, openness, a town in Judah, 
north of Hebron, Josh. 15:59- 

MAASE'IAH, the work of God, the name 
of many places mentioned in 1 Chr. 15:18, 
20; 2 Chr. 23:1; 26:11; 28:7; 34:8; Ezra 
10:18, 21, 22, 30; Neh. 3:23; 8:4, 7; 10:25; 
11:5, 7; 12:42; Jer. 21:1; 35:4; 5 I: 59- 

MACEDO'NIA, a large country lying 
north of Greece proper, bounded south by 
Thessaly and Epirus, east by Thrace and 
the ^Egean Sea, west by the Adriatic Sea 
and Illyria, and north by Dardania and 
Mcesia. Its principal rivers were the Stry- 
mon and Axius, flowing through 2 great 
plains. Its most celebrated mountains were 

333 



MAC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MAG 



Olympus and Athos : the former renowned 
in heathen mythology as the residence of 
the gods, lying on the confines of Thessaly, 
and principally within that state ; the lat- 
ter being at the extremity of a promontory 
which juts out into the iEgean Sea, and 
noted in modern times as the seat of sev- 
eral monasteries, in which are many man- 
uscripts supposed to be valuable. This 
region is believed to have been peopled by 
Kittim, Gen. 10:4; but little is known of 
its early history. The Macedonian empire 
is traced back some 400 years before the 
famous Philip, under whom, and especial- 
ly under his son Alexander the Great, it 
reached the summit of its power. Alexan- 
der, B. C. 336-323, at the head of Macedo- 
nians and Greeks united, conquered a 
large part of Western and Southern Asia. 
This power was foretold by Daniel, 8:3-8, 
under the symbol of a goat with one horn ; 
and it is worthy of note that ancient Mace- 
donian coins still exist bearing that na- 
tional symbol. After the death of Alexan- 
der the power of the Macedonians declined, 
and they were at length conquered by the 
Romans under Paulus iEmilius, B. C. 168, 
who divided their country into 4 districts. 
The Romans afterwards divided the whole 
of Greece and Macedonia into 2 great prov- 
inces, which they called Macedonia and 
Achaia, B. C. 142, Rom. 15:26; 2 Cor. 9:2. 
See Greece. In the New Testament the 
name is to be taken in this latter sense. 
Of the cities of Macedonia proper there are 
mentioned in the New Testament, Amphip- 
olis, Apollonia, Bercea, Neapolis, Philippi, 
and Thessalonica. This country early re- 
ceived the gospel, A. D. 52, Paul having 
been summoned to labor there by a super- 
natural vision, Acts 16:9 to 17:15. He vis- 
ited it 3 or 4 times, and established churches 
at Thessalonica, Philippi, etc. It is often 
mentioned, as in Acts 18:5; 19:21; 20:1-6; 
Rom. 15:26; 2 Cor. 1:16; 9:2; 11:9. Its 
Christians are highly commended, Acts 
17:11; Phil. 4:10, 14-19; 1 Thess. 1:3-8; 
2:8, 17-20; 3:10, and it was honored by its 
Christian women, Acts 16:13, T 4! Phil- 4 : 2, 
3. Its fertile soil is now languishing under 
the Turkish sway. 

MACHBAN'AI, cloaked, 1 Chr. 12:13. 

MACHBE'NAH, a cloak, or a band, 1 Chr. 
2:48, 49, a town of Judah, colonized by de- 
scendants of Maachah. 

MA'CHIR, sold, I., eldest son of the patri- 
arch Manasseh, Gen. 50:23; 1 Chr. 7:14. 
His son Gilead and his daughter Abiah, 
1 Chr. 2:21, 23, are mentioned. His pos- 
• 334 



terity were active in the conquest of Gil- 
ead, Num. 32:39; Josh. 17:1, and in the 
war with Jabin and Sisera, Judg. 5:14. 

II. Son of Ammiel, a Gileadite chief who 
befriended Jonathan's son Mephibosheth, 
and afterwards sent supplies to David, flee- 
ing from Absalom, 2 Sam. 9:4, 5; 17:27-29. 

MACHPE'LAH, double, or a portion, a 
place near Hebron containing the field and 
cave purchased of Ephron by Abraham for 
a family tomb. Sarah was first buried 
there, Gen. 23, and afterwards Abraham, 
Isaac, Jacob, with Rebekah, Leah, etc., 
Gen. 25:9; 49:30; 50:13. See Hebron. 

MAD, and " beside thyself," in Acts 26 : 24, 
25, are the same word in Greek. Harm- 
less madmen or lunatics are still revered 
in the East as persons whose spirits are in 
converse with the other world, and the)- 
are ministered to and suffered to do as 
they please. Compare 1 Sam. 21:10-15; 
2 Cor. 11 :i9. 

MA'DAI, the 3d son of Japheth, and the 
Medes, etc., descended from him, Gen. 10 : 2. 
See Media. 

MA'DIAN. See Midian. 

MADMAN' N AH, dunghill, a city first as- 
signed to Judah, and afterwards to Simeon, 
Josh. 15:31; 1 Chr. 2:49. Compare Beth- 
marcaboth, Josh. 19:5. It is perhaps Min- 
yai, 15 miles from Gaza on the road to 
Egypt. 

MAD 'MEN, dunghill, an unknown place 
in Moab, Jer. 48:2. 

MADME'NAH, dunghill, a town in Ben- 
jamin not far from Jerusalem, site not 
known, Isa. 10:31. 

MA' DON, strife, a town in North Canaan 
whose king, Jobab, was defeated by Joshua, 
Josh. 11 : 1 ; 12:19. 

MAG'DALA, a tower, in R. V., Matt. 
15:39, Magadan, now a small Turkish vil- 
lage called el-Mejdel. It lay near the shore 
of the Sea of Galilee, at its most westerly 
point, 3 miles northwest of Tiberias, in the 
southern part of a small plain on which 
stood also Capernaum at the other end, 
and Dalmanutha in its immediate vicinity, 
Matt. 15:39; Mark 8:10. Mary Magdalene 
was born or resided at Magdala; and it 
was the seat of a Jewish school after Jeru- 
salem was destroyed. 

MAG'DIEL, endowed by God, an Edom- 
ite chief, Gen. 36:43. 

MA'GI, or Wise Men, an appellation 
given among the Medes and Persians to a 
class of priests, wise men, philosophers, 
etc., who devoted themselves to the study 
of the moral and physical sciences, and 



MAG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MAH 



particularly cultivated astrology and medi- 
cine. They alone performed the religious 
rites, and pretended to communicate to 
men secret things, future events, and the 
will of the gods. See Media. As they 
thus acquired great honor and influence, 
they were introduced into the courts of 
kings and consulted on all occasions. They 
also accompanied the army in warlike ex- 
peditions; and so much importance was 
attached to their advice and opinions that 
nothing was attempted without their ap- 
probation. See Artaxerxes, I. and Rab- 
mag. A similar class of men existed in 
Babylon, Egypt, Arabia, etc. The book of 
Daniel shows in what high estimation they 
were held in Babylon. Daniel was appoint- 
ed master of the wise men ; but their jeal- 
ousy of his wisdom and their hatred of his 
religion, as well as the terms in which they 
are spoken of in Isa. 47:13, 14; Dan. 2:9, 
27, show that as a class they were destitute 
of true wisdom. See Simon Magus. 

Not so those who came " from the East " 
to salute and adore the infant Jesus, Matt. 
2:1-12. The captivity of the Jews beyond 
•the Euphrates had dispersed through the 
East much knowledge of the true God; 
and these philosophers and astronomers, in 
their search after wisdom, had found and 
believed the prophecies respecting the Mes- 
siah — among others that of Balaam, who 
came from the East, Num. 23:7, and fore- 
told Christ as the Star of Jacob, Num. 24:17 ; 
and of Daniel, "chief of the magi," Dan. 
2:48; 5:11; 7:13, 14, 21, 27; 9:25-27 — and 
were divinely guided to his presence at 
Bethlehem. See Star. In them the sci- 
ence and philosophy of the heathen world 
laid their homage at the feet of Christ, fore- 
tokening the opening of Christ's kingdom 
to the Gentiles and the time when all the 
world shall pay him tribute as the true 
King of men. Compare Psa. 72:10, 11; Isa. 
-60:1-3. 

MAG'IC means, in the Bible, all the super- 
stitious ceremonies of magicians, sorcerers, 
•enchanters, necromancers, spiritualists, ex- 
orcists, astrologers, soothsayers, interpret- 
ers of dreams, fortune-tellers, casters of 
nativities, etc., which are all forbidden by 
the law of God, whether practised to hurt 
or to benefit mankind. It was also forbid- 
den to consult magicians on pain of death, 
Lev. 19:31; 20:6; Deut. 18:9-14. Magic 
arts and implements are mentioned in Gen. 
31 : 19, 30, 32-35, Laban's teraphim ; compare 
Judg. 18:5, 6, 14-20; Ezek. 21:19-22; Zech. 
10 : 2 ; in the story of the Exode, Exod. 7 and 



8 ; of Balaam, Num. 22 : 5-7 ; 23 : 23 ; 24 : 1 ; of 
the witch of En-dor, 1 Sam. 28; and of the 
Ephesian books, Acts 19:19. See also Isa. 
2:6; 8:19; 19:3; 29:3, 4; Jer. 14:14; 23:25 
to end ; 29 : 8, 9 ; Mic. 3 : 6, 7, 11; Acts 16 : 16- 
18. There is no evidence of supernatural 
power in any case. See Enchantments, 
Sorcerers. 

MAGI'CIANS. See Magi and Magic. 
This Hebrew word means sacred scribes. 
The magicians of Egypt were probably 
priests. 

MAGISTRATES. Applied in Scripture 
to various civil and military rulers. In 
Acts 16:20, 22, 35, 38, the Roman Prae- 
tors. 

MA'GOG, the 2d son of Japheth, Gen. 
10:2; 1 Chr. 1:5. See Gog. In Ezek. 38 
and 39 and Rev. 20:7-9 are denoted the 
violent assaults of the enemies of Christian- 
ity and their defeat. The barbaric Scythi- 
ans, from between the Black Sea and the 
Caspian, who overran much of Western 
Asia in the 7th century B. C, well answered 
to the description in Ezekiel. 

MA'GOR-MIS'SABIB, terror on every 
side, the significant name given by Jere- 
miah to the persecuting Pashur, Jer. 20:3, 
4. The same words are used in Psa. 31 : 13, 
but elsewhere only by Jeremiah, Jer. 6:25; 
20:10; 46:5; 49:29; Lam. 2:22. 

MAHALAL'EEL, praise of God, I., the 
4th from Adam in the line of Seth, Gen. 
5:12-17; 1 Chr. 1:2; Luke 3:37. 

II. A descendant of Judah and of Pharez, 
Neh. 11:4. 

MA'HALATH, harp, I., Esau's wife, and 
daughter of Ishmael. See Bashemath. 

II. A granddaughter of David, cousin and 
wife of Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:18. 

III. In the title of Psalms 53 and 88, con- 
jectured to refer to the tune or the instru- 
ment used in chanting these Psalms ; or as 
Hcngstenberg and Alexander suggest, to 
the spiritual malady which they lament. 

MAHANA'IM, two hosts, a place so named 
because a host of angels here met the host 
of Jacob on his return from Padan-aram, 
Gen. 32:1, 2. It lay north of the Jabbok 
and near Penuel, and afterwards became 
a Levitical city in the tribe of Gad, Josh. 
13:26; 21:38, 39. It was apparently a town 
of some strength, for lshbosheth lived there 
during his short reign, and David took 
refuge there during Absalom's rebellion, 
2 Sam. 2:8; 4:5; 17:24,27. Solomon drew 
supplies thence, 1 Kin. 4:14. 

MA'HANEH-DAN, the camp of Dan, as 
translated in Judg. 13:25; compare 16:31; 

335 



MAH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



MAM 



the place where the Danites assembled and 
prepared to invade Laish, Judg. 18:11, 12. 

MA'HARAI, hasty, i Chr. 11:30; 27:13. 

MA'HER - SHA'LAL - HASH - BAZ, haste, 
spoil, speed to the prey, the name given by 
Isaiah to one of his sons for a prophetic 
intimation of the speedy victory of the As- 
syrians over Syria and Israel, Judah's ene- 
mies, Isa. 8: 1-3. 

MAH'LAH, disease, I., in A. V. Maha- 
lah, i Chr. 7:18. 

II. First of Zelophehad's 5 daughters, 
who married their kinsmen to secure their 
inheritance in Manasseh, Num. 26 : 33 ; 27 : 1- 
11 ; 36:11 ; Josh. 17:3. 

MAH' LI, sick, I., son of Merari, and 
grandson of Levi, Exod. 6:19; Num. 3:20, 
2,^\ 1 Chr. 6:19; 23:21; 24:26,28. 

II. A nephew of the preceding, 1 Chr. 
23:23; 24:30. 

MAH'LON, sick, a son of Elimelech and 
Naomi, and the first husband of Ruth the 
Moabitess, Ruth 1; 4:9. 

MAKE, Luke 24:28, to act or appear; so 
in 2 Sam. 13:6. 

MAKHE'LOTH, assemblies, 24th station 
of the wandering Israelites, Num. 33:25. 

MAKKE'DAH, herdsman's place, a chief 
city of the Canaanites, near which 5 con- 
federate kings were defeated, taken in the 
cave to which they had fled, and executed. 
It lay in the vicinity of Libnah, Azekah, 
and Lachish, southwest of Jerusalem, in 
the tribe of Judah, Josh. 10:10-28; 12:16; 
15:41. 

MAK'TESH, a mortar, Zeph. 1:11, appa- 
rently in or near Jerusalem, and occupied 
by merchants ; but we have no clew to its 
location. 

MAL'ACHI, messenger of Jehovah, the 
last of the minor prophets and of all the 
Old Testament writers ; little known, Hag. 
1:13; Mai. 3:1. Malachi most probably 
prophesied about B. C. 416, in the latter 
part of the administration of Nehemiah, 
and after Haggai and Zechariah, at a time 
of great disorder among the priests and 
people of Judah, whom he reproves. He 
inveighs against the priests; reproves the 
people for having taken strange wives, for 
inhumanity to their brethren, for divorcing 
their wives, and for neglect of paying tithes 
and firstfruits. He seems to allude to the 
covenant that Nehemiah renewed with the 
Lord, together with the priests and the 
chief of the nation. In the latter part he 
foretells the coming of John the Baptist in 
the spirit and power of Elijah, Mai. 3:1; 
4:5, 6; Matt. 11:10, 14; 17:10-13; Luke 
336 



1:17. He also foretells the twofold coming 
of Christ, and the blessedness of those who 
fear and serve him. Thus the Old Testa- 
ment closes with predictions of the Mes- 
siah, and the New Testament opens with 
the record of their fulfilment. 

MAL'CHAM, their king, I. See Molech. 

II. Son of Shaharaim, 1 Chr. 8:9. 

MALCHI'AH, or MALCHI'JAH,/<?/z0zWz\r 
king, the name of 10 or more persons in 
the period of the Captivity. 

MAL'CHIEL, God's king, grandson of 
Asher, Gen. 46:17; Num. 26:45; * Chr. 

MAL'CHI-SHU' A, king of help, son of Saul 
and Ahinoam, slain at Gilboa, 1 Sam. 14:49; 
31:2; 1 Chr. 8:33; 9:39; 10:2. 

MAL'CHUS, ruler ox counsellor, the bond- 
servant of Caiaphas, whose right ear was 
cut off by Peter and miraculously restored 
by Christ in Gethsemane, Matt. 26:51. The 
seizure of the Saviour immediately after 2 
manifestations of his divinity, Luke 22:51; 
John 18:6, evinces the blindness and obsti- 
nacy of mankind in sin. Note that his 
name is given only by John, who was ac- 
quainted with the family, while it is Luke 
only, a physician, who mentions the heal- 
ing of the ear. " Suffer ye thus far," seems 
to mean, leave me free a moment for this 
purpose. The hands so often stretched 
out to heal were now to be bound and soon 
nailed to the cross. 

MAL'LOWS, Job 30:4, supposed by Bo- 
chart to signify the plant called Orache, the 
Atriplex Halimus of Linnaeus. It grows 
in salt marshes 5 feet high, and its termi- 
nal leaves are used in the East, either green 
or boiled, as food by the poor. 

MAL'LUCH, ruler ox counsellor, the name 
of 6 men, chiefly of the era of the Captivity. 

MAM'MON, a Chaldee word signifying 
riches. Our Saviour says we cannot serve 
God and mammon, Matt. 6:24. Wealth is 
as truly an idol to those who set their hearts 
on it as Jupiter or Diana ; and no idolater 
can enter heaven. He also charges us, 
from the example of the unjust steward, so 
to use worldly goods, which are generally 
sought and used sinfully — "the unright- 
eous mammon " — as to have God the Judge 
our friend, and receive the true riches in 
heaven, Luke 16:9, 11, 13. 

MAM'RE, stoutness, I., an Amorite prince, 
brother of Eshcol and Aner. Al 1 . 3 united 
their forces to aid Abraham in the rescue 
of Lot, Gen. 14. He gave his name to 

II., the town where he dwelt, afterwards 
Hebron, Gen. 35 : 27, in the suburbs of which 



MAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MAN 



was a large terebinth-tree, or grove (see 
Oak), called in the A. V. "the plain of 
Mamre." Here Abraham and his descend- 
ants often pitched their tents, Gen. 13:18; 
18:1. The cave of Machpelah lay on the 
slope of the valley opposite to the grove of 
Mamre, Gen. 23:17, 19; 25:9; 49:30; and 
from the heights near by Abraham could 
see the smoking plain of Sodom, Gen. 
19:27, 28. 

MAN OF SIN. See Antichrist. 

MAN'AEN, consoler, a converted Jew, a 
foster brother of Herod Antipas, but unlike 
him in character and end : Manaen was a 
minister of Christ at Antioch; Herod was 
guilty of the blood of both Christ and his 
forerunner, Acts 13:1. "One shall be ta- 
ken, and another left." 

MAN'AHATH, rest, I., of Mount Seir, a 
son of Shobal, driven out by the sons of 
Esau, Gen. 36:23; 1 Chr. 1:40. 

II. A place to which certain Benjamites 
removed, 1 Chr. 8:6, perhaps in the border 
of Judah, 1 Chr. 2:52-54. 

MANAS'SEH, in Matt. 1:10; Rev. j:6, 
A. V. Manasses, causing to forget, I., the 
eldest son of Joseph and Asenath, born in 
Egypt, Gen. 41:50, 51, and adopted by Ja- 
cob as one of his own sons, and head of a 
tribe, as was his brother Ephraim, Gen. 48. 
In apportioning his benedictions Jacob was 
doubtless divinely guided. 

The tribe of Manasseh, with that of 
Ephraim and of Benjamin, all descendants 
of Rachel, formed " the camp of Ephraim," 
on the left of the tabernacle in the desert. 
In the division of the Holy Land, Manasseh 
received a double portion: one part east of 
the Upper Jordan and the Sea of Galilee, 
the other west of the Jordan, between 
Ephraim and Issachar, to the Mediterra- 
nean, Num. 32:33,39-42; Josh. 16 and 17; 
3'et Ephraim 's portion was better, and its 
wealth and power far greater, according to 
the prediction of Jacob. 

In the early history of Manasseh, Machir 
"the father of (the land of) Gilead," and 
Jair his grandson, were famous, Deut. 3 : 13- 
15; 1 Chr. 2:21-23. The western half of 
the tribe were slow in expelling the Ca- 
naanites, Josh. 17:1, 2; Judg. 1:27, 28; but 
the tribe took part in the war with Jabin, 
Judg. 5:14, and furnished the judges Gide- 
on, Jair, and perhaps Jephthah. They ac- 
cepted Ishbosheth after the death of Saul, 
2 Sam. 2:9, but were among those who 
crowned David at Hebron, 1 Chr. 12:19-21, 
31, 2>7, and are honorably named as sharing 
in religious revivals, 2 Chr. 15:9; 30:1-18; 
22 



31:4; 34:6-9. They were chastised by Ha- 
zael, 2 Kin. 10:32, 2>3, an d carried captive 
by the Assyrians, 1 Chr. 5:25, 26. Their 
recovery is alluded to in 2 Chr. 15:9; 30:1- 
18; 34:6,9; Ezek. 48:3-5. 

II. The son and impious successor of the 
good Hezekiah, king of Judah, and the 
pious Hephzibah. Compare Isa. 62:4. He 
began to reign at 12 years old, B. C. 698, 
and reigned 55 years. His sons suffered a 
fiery baptism to Moloch, 2 Chr. 33:6, or 
were even sacrificed, Ezek. 23:37, 39. The 
worship of Baal and Astarte was revived, 
Jer. 7:18, impure images erected in the 
temple itself, 2 Kin. 21:7; 23:17, Avith un- 
authorized priests, Zeph. 1:4; the altars 
and the ark of Jehovah were removed, 
2 Chr. 33:16; 35:3, the Sabbath disregard- 
ed, Isa. 56 : 2 ; 58 : 13, and priests and proph- 
ets cruelly slain, 2 Kin. 21:16; 24:4; Isa. 
57:1-4; Jer. 2:30. Isaiah and Habakkuk 
prophesied at the beginning of his reign, 
Jeremiah and Zephaniah at its close. For 
his shocking idolatries, tyranny, and cru- 
elties God suffered him to be carried as a 
prisoner to Babylon in the 22d year of his 
reign, probably by Esar-haddon king of 
Assyria. Here, however, he so humbled 
himself that God moved the Assyrians to 
restore him to his throne, as a tributary; 
and thenceforth he set himself to undo 
the evil he had done. He abolished the 
idols he had worshipped and the diviners 
he had consulted ; accomplished many re- 
forms for the spiritual and material good 
of his kingdom ; repaired the defences of 
Jerusalem, inclosing with a wall new space 
on the west and Ophel on the southeast; 
and strengthened the walled cities of Judah. 
After a reign longer than that of any other 
king of Judah, he died in peace and was 
buried in Jerusalem, 2 Kin. 21 ; 2 Chr. 2,3- 

The "prayer of Manasseh," in the Apoc- 
rypha, was not admitted to the canon even 
by the Council of Trent, and was probably 
the work of some inventive writer before 
the Christian era. 

III. A grandfather of Micah's renegade 
priest, Judg. 18:30, A. V. Many versions 
have Moses instead of Manasseh, and that 
is probably the true reading. 

Two men of this name repudiated their 
heathen wives in Ezra's day, Ezra 10:30, 23- 

MAN'DRAKES, Hebrew Duda'im, Gen. 
30:14-16; Song 7:13, a plant to which was 
attributed superstitiously the power of ren- 
dering barren women fruitful. It is the 
Atropa Mandragora of Linnaeus, a plant of 
the genus belladonna, with a root like a 

337 



MAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MAN 



beet, white and reddish blossoms, and fra- 
grant yellow apples, which ripen from May 




to July. The strong odor of the fruit, of 
the size of a small apple, made it prized in 
the East. 

MA'NEH, a portion, a Hebrew weight of 
ioo shekels, i Kin. 10:17 with 2 Chr. 9:16; 
or, as usually reckoned, of 60 shekels, Ezek. 
45:12. See Pound and Weights. 

MAN'GER, Greek, a crib or feeding- 
trough; in Luke 13:15 a "stall" — margin, 
"manger." See Inn. 

MAN'NA, the miraculous food given by 
God to the Israelites during their wander- 
ings in the desert. It was like a small 
grain, white like hoar-frost, round, and of 
the size of coriander-seed, Exod. 16; Num. 
11. It fell every morning with the dew 
about the camp of the Israelites, and in so 
great quantities during the whole 40 years 
of their journey in the wilderness that it 
was sufficient to serve the entire multitude 
instead of bread, Exod. 16:35; Deut. 29:5, 
6; Josh. 5:12. It is nowhere said that the 
Israelites had no other food. That nu- 
merous flocks and herds accompanied the 
camp of Israel is clear from many passages. 
Certainly the daily sacrifices were offered, 
and no doubt other offerings, affording ani- 
mal food on which the priests and Levites 
subsisted, according to their offices. 

When manna was first sent, the Israel- 
ites said to each other, Man-hu? " What is 
it?" for they wist not what it was, and from 
the frequent repetition of this inquiry the 
name man or manna arose. In the valleys 
around Sinai a substance called manna is 
found, dropping from the sprigs of several 
trees, but principally from the tamarisk, in 
the month of June. It is collected by the 
Arabs, who make cakes of it, and call it 
honey of bey rouk. See Exod. 16:31. The 
338 



exudation of this manna is occasioned by 
an insect. Besides this substance and the 
manna of commerce — which is used as a 
laxative medicine, and is produced by the 
ash -trees of Southern Europe — several 
other vegetable products in Arabia, Persia, 
etc., of similar origin and qualities, are 
known by the same name. It is in vain, 
however, to seek to identify with any of 
these the manna of the Israelites, which 
was evidently a special provision for them, 
beginning and terminating with their need 
of it, Deut. 8:3, 16. It was found, not on 
trees and shrubs, but on " the face of the 
wilderness " wherever they went, and was 
different in its qualities from any now- 
known by that name, being dry enough to 
grind and bake like grain, but breeding 
worms on the 2d day. It was miraculous 
in the amount that fell, for the supply of 
millions, and all the year round; in not 
falling on the Sabbath; in falling in double 
quantities the previous day; and in re- 
maining fresh during the Sabbath. By 
these last 3 peculiarities God miraculously 
attested the sanctity of the Sabbath as da- 
ting from the creation and not from Mount 
Sinai. Moreover, a specimen of manna 
was laid up in a golden vase in the ark of 
the covenant, in memory of a substance 
which would otherwise have been wholly 
unknown to men, Heb. 9:4. 

In Psa. 78:24, 25, manna is called "an- 
gels' food " and " corn of heaven," in token 
of its excellence, and that it came directly 
from the hand of God. This great boon of 
God to the Israelites also offers many 
striking analogies illustrative of "the true 
Bread" which came down from heaven to 
rebellious and perishing man. The "hid- 
den manna," Exod. 16:33, 34, is an emblem 
of the heavenly bread of eternal life, Rev. 
2:17. Compare John 6:47-58. As a type 
of spiritual food, note that manna was 
gathered early, and day by day. Like the 
manna, Christ descends from above around 
the camp of his church in daily and abun- 
dant supplies to meet the daily recurring 
wants of every man. The people gath- 
ered on an average about 3 quarts for each 
man. They who gathered more than they 
needed shared it freely with others ; it 
could not be hoarded up: and thus, as 
Paul teaches us, 2 Cor. 8:13-15, it furnishes 
for all men a lesson against hoarding the 
earthly and perishable gifts of God, and in 
favor of freely imparting to our brethren 
in need. It ceased to fall as soon as the 
Jews reached the plenty of Canaan, Josh. 



MAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MAR 



5:12. Even Omnipotence is not wasteful, 
John 6:12. 

MANO'AH, rest, a native of Zorah, in the 
tribe of Dan, and the father of Samson, 
Judg. 13. He opposed his son's marriage 
to a Philistine woman, but acquiesced and 
attended the wedding, Judg. 14:1-10. He 
seems to have died before his son, Judg. 
16:31. In the prediction of his son's birth 
and achievements we see the Angel of the 
covenant, who appeared to Abraham, Gid- 
eon, etc., and who never slumbers nor 
sleeps, caring for his oppressed people. So 
too he appeared to Jacob, and would not 
tell his mysterious name, Gen. 32:29; Judg. 
13:18; Isa. 9:6; Luke 13:34. 

MAN'SIONS, John 14:2, rooms, places of 
abode: there is abundant provision for all 
Christ's servants in heaven. 

MAN'SLAYER. See MURDER, REFUGE. 

MAN'TLE. See Garments. In Judg. 
4:18 a tent-shawl or coverlet. In 1 Kin. 
19:13, 19; 2 Kin. 2:8, 13, 14, a large over- 
garment of sheepskin, almost the sole rai- 
ment of the prophet. Compare Zech. 13 : 4 ; 
Heb. 11:37. 

MA'ON, a dwelling, I., a town and adja- 
cent pasture-ground in the edge of the hill- 
country of Judah, Josh. 15:55, near which 
Nabal lived and David took refuge from 
Saul, 1 Sam. 23:24, 25; 25:2. Dr. Robin- 
son finds it in the ruinous place called 
Main, 8 miles south of Hebron. 

II. Founder of Beth-zur, 1 Chr. 2:45. 

MA'ONITES, called Mehunim in 2 Chr. 
26:7, an Arabian tribe, in the Septuagint 
called Midian, named with the Amalekites 
and other foes of Israel, Judg. 10:12. Their 
abode may have been near the place now 
called Maan, nearly east of Petra, on the 
Haj route from Damascus to Mecca. Uz- 
ziah defeated them. 

MAR, to injure or despoil, Ruth 4:6. 

MA'RAH, bitterness, I., a place in the wil- 
derness of Shur, or Etham, Num. 33:8, the 
5th station of the Israelites, near the Red 
Sea, 3 days' journey from the point where 
they crossed it. Its well was sweetened 
for the use of the distressed Hebrews by 
the miraculous efficacy imparted to the 
branches of a certain tree which Moses 
threw in, Exod. 15:22-25. No plant is now 
known possessed of such a quality. The 
name Amarah now marks the dry bed of a 
wintry torrent, 43 miles southeast of the 
"wells of Moses," a little south of which is 
a well called Howarah, which answers well 
to the description. Its water, after remain- 
ing a few seconds in the mouth, becomes 



exceedingly nauseous. The Arabs do not 
drink it, though their camels will. 

II. A name assumed by the afflicted Na- 
omi, Ruth 1 :2o. 

MA'RAN-A'THA, composed of two Syriac 
words, signifying " Our Lord cometh." See 
Anathema. 

MAR'BLE, a stone composed of carbon- 
ate of lime, from the common limestone of 
Palestine to the fine-grained Parian mar- 
ble, pure white, and of high polish, Song 
5:15; Rev. 18:12, or of various colors, used 
in Mosaic work, Esth. 1:6. Solomon's 
building-stones came partly from under 
and near Jerusalem, partly from Lebanon, 
1 Kin. 5:14-18; 7:10, partly from Arabia, 
etc. Herod employed a fine white marble, 
and many broken columns of it are found 
at Jerusalem. 

MARCHESH'VAN. See Month. 

MAR'CUS, A. V. Col. 4:10; Phile. 24; 

1 Pet. 5:13. Latin form for Mark, R. V. 
MARE'SHAH, possession, a town in the 

low country of Judah, Josh. 15:44; perhaps 
the place rebuilt by Laadah, 1 Chr. 4:21. 
It was fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:8, 
was the birthplace of a prophet, Eliezer, 

2 Chr. 20:37, and was warned by Micah, 
ch. 1:15. In a valley near by, Asa defeat- 
ed Zerah with an immense host of Ethiopi- 
ans, 2 Chr. 14:9-13. It probably lay on the 
western border of Judah, just southwest of 
Eleutheropolis, at a place now called Me- 
rash. 

II. Of the tribe of Judah, an early settler 
in Hebron, 1 Chr. 2:42. 

MARK, or Marcus, the writer of one of 
the 4 gospels. See Gospels. There can 
be little doubt of the correctness of the 
general opinion of learned men that he is 
the same person who is mentioned by the 
names of John and Mark in Acts 12:12, 25* 
13:5,13, and as the relative and disciple of 
Barnabas, Col. 4: 10. In his mention of the 
young man who hurried after Christ clad 
in his tunic only, he probably relates his 
own experience, Mark 14:51, 5 2 - He w * s 
the companion of Paul and Barnabas in 
their journey through Cyprus, and unto 
Perga in Pamphylia, at which last place 
he left them and returned to Jerusalem, 
much to the dissatisfaction of Paul, Acts 
13:5, etc. ; 15:37-39- Yet he labored faith- 
fully with Barnabas at Cyprus, and Paul 
mentions him, when in captivity at Rome, 
as one of those who were associated with 
him, Col. 4:10, n ; 2 Tim. 4:11; Phile. 24. 
He afterwards accompanied Peter also to 
Babylon. As he was the son of that Mary 

339 



MAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MAR 



at whose house in Jerusalem the apostles 
were wont to convene, so it is probable 
that he was particularly instructed in the 
doctrines of Christianity by Peter, who on 
that account calls him son, i Pet. 5:13. 
Compare 1 Tim. 1:2 and 2 Tim. 1:2. Tra- 
dition ascribes to him the founding of the 
church at Alexandria in Egypt, and asserts 
that the Venetians secured his remains by 
a pious stratagem, and took them to Ven- 
ice, which city claims him as its patron 
saint. 

MAR'KET, in Greek ag'ora, in Latin 
fo'rum, a large open area in many ancient 
cities, especially of Greece and Rome, hav- 
ing the public market on one side only, the 
other sides of the area being occupied by 
temples, theatres, colonnades, courts of jus- 
tice, baths, and other public structures, the 
whole square often presenting a magnifi- 
cent appearance. Here was the city ex- 
change, the focus to which converged all 
the lines of public life. In Acts 17:5 mar- 
ket-loungers, agoraioi, are mentioned ; and 
in Acts 19:38, "the law is open," is literally 
" court days, agoraioi, are held." Hither 
laborers resorted in search of employment, 
Matt. 20:3-7, an d children to pursue their 
sports, Luke 7:32. Here the ordinary as- 
semblies of the people were held; here 
philosophers and statesmen met and deba- 
ted ; here laws were promulgated and news 
announced ; hither men resorted for pleas- 
ure as well as for business, Mark 7:4. The 
most notable public men, and indeed all 
classes of citizens, here congregated ; and 
what was done here was done before the 
whole city. Hence the proud Pharisees 
desired " greetings in the market-places," 
Mark 12:38; and Paul resorted to the ago- 
ra at Athens to meet and convince the phi- 
fcsophers, Acts 17:17; and the masters of 
the damsel at Philippi exorcised by Paul 
and Silas, " drew them into the market- 
place unto the rulers," Acts 16:19. In 
Ezek. 27 " market " denotes barter or traf- 
fic, the place of traffic, and the gain thereby 
made. See Gate. 

MAR'RIAGE, the union for life of one 
man and one woman, to form "one flesh," 
is an ordinance of the Creator for the per- 
petuity and happiness of the human race, 
instituted in Paradise, Gen. 1:27, 28; 2:18- 
24, and the foundation of no small part of 
all that is valuable to human society. The 
narrative implies the unity of the man and 
his wife, indissoluble except by adultery, 
their social equality, and the subordination 
of the wife as subsequently created for a 
340 



helpmeet, 1 Cor. 11:8, 9; Eph. 5:22, 23; 
1 Tim. 2:13 — a relation aggravated in the 
fall, Gen. 3:16; 1 Cor. 14:34; 1 Tim. 2:11- 
14; 1 Pet. 3:6. By promoting parental love 
and the sense of responsibility, marriage 
most effectually promotes the health and 
happiness of children, and their careful 
education to virtue, industry, and honor, 
to right habits and ends, and to all that is 
included in the idea of home. God made 
originally but one man and one woman. 
The first polygamists on record were La- 
mech and those degenerate "sons of God," 
or worshippers of Jehovah, who " took them 
wives of all that they chose," Gen. 4:17; 
6:2. On the other hand, Noah and his 3 
sons had each but one wife ; and the same 
appears to be true of all his direct ances- 
tors back to Adam. So also was it wLh 
Job, Nahor, Lot, and at first with Abra- 
ham. See Concubine. In after times a 
plurality of wives became more common 
among the Hebrews, and the Scriptures 
afford numerous illustrations of its evil re- 
sults, Gen. 16; 30; Judg. 8:30; 2 Sam. y.$- 
5; 1 Kin. 11:1-8; 2 Chr. 11:18-21; 13:21. 
In the time of Christ there is no mention 
of polygamy as existing among the Jews, 
Matt. 19:5. 

The Israelites were forbidden to marry 
within certain specified degrees, Lev. 18; 
20; Deut. 27. These prohibitions were 
grounded on moral propriety, distinction 
from heathen practices, and social expe- 
dience. They did not exist in patriarchal 
times. Marriage with Canaanites and idol- 
aters was strictly forbidden, Exod. 34:16, 
and afterwards with any of the heathen na- 
tions around them, especially such as were 
uncircumcised, Neh. 13. By the Levirate 
law, as it is termed, if a Jew died without 
children, his nearest brother or kinsman 
was bound to marry the widow, that her 
firstborn son after this marriage might be 
reckoned the son and heir of the first hus- 
band, Gen. 38; Deut. 25:5-10; Matt. 22:23- 
26. The priests were expected to marry, 
and the priesthood was perpetuated only 
in priests' sons, Exod. 28:1, 43. The same 
general requirement to marry is apparent 
in the New Testament as to ministers of 
Christ. Nowhere is their marriage prohib- 
ited, but the contrary : Peter and others of 
the apostles and evangelists had wives, 
Matt. 8:14; Acts 21:9; 1 Cor. 7:2; 9:5. 
" Marriage is honorable in all." " A bishop 
must be the husband of one wife," 1 Tim. 
3:2, 11, and deacons likewise, 1 Tim. 3:12; 
Tit. 1:6. Aquila in his early ministry was 



MAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MAR 



accompanied by Priscilla his wife, Acts 
18:2, 18, 26. In fact, marriage was the 
general practice of the early clergy for cen- 
turies, and celibacy of the clergy was only 
fully established and enforced in the Church 
of Rome in the nth century. In the Rus- 
sian and Armenian Churches a priest must 
be married before ordination; but if his 
wife dies he cannot marry again. The Sa- 
viour set his seal to marriage as a divine 
and permanent institution, aside from all 
the civil laws which guard and regulate, 
or seek to alter or annul it; forbidding di- 
vorce except for one cause, Matt. 5:32; 
19:3-6, 9; and denouncing all breaches of 
marriage vows, even in thought, Matt. 5:28. 
Compare Heb. 13:4; Rev. 21:8. 

Jewish parents were wont to arrange 
with other parents as to the marriage of 
their children, Gen. 24:3, 4; 38:6; Exod. 
2:21, sometimes according to the previous 
choice of the son, and not without some 
regard to the consent of the daughter, Gen. 
21:21; 24; 34:3-6; Judg. 14:2,3. The par- 
ties were often betrothed to each other long 
before the marriage took place. See Be- 
trothing. A dowry was given by the 
suitor to the parents and brethren of the 
bride, or an equivalent service, Gen. 29:20; 
31:15; 34:12; Exod. 2:21; 1 Sam. 18:25; 
Hos. 3:2. In the early ages the marriage 
ceremonies were simple, Gen. 24:58, 59, 
66, 67; 29:21-23. But afterwards the nup- 
tials were often celebrated with great pomp 
and ceremony and with protracted feast- 
ing and rejoicings. It was customary for 
the bridegroom to appoint a Paranymphus, 
or groomsman, called by our Saviour "the 
friend of the bridegroom," John 3:29. A 
number of other young men also kept him 
company during the days of the wedding, 
to do him honor, as also young women 
kept company with the bride all this time. 
The companions of the bridegroom are ex- 
pressly mentioned, as in the history of Sam- 
son, Judg. 14:11, 20; Song 5:1 ; 8:13; Matt. 
9:15; also the companions of the bride, Psa. 
45:9, 14; Song 1:5; 2:7; 3:5; 8:4. The 
office of the groomsman was to direct in the 
ceremonies of the wedding. The friends 
and companions of the bride sang the epi- 
thalamium, or wedding song, at the door of 
the bride the evening before the wedding. 
The festivities of the wedding were con- 
ducted with great decorum, the young peo- 
ple of each sex being in distinct apart- 
ments and at different tables. The young 
men at Samson's wedding diverted them- 
selves in proposing riddles, and the bride- 



groom appointed the prize to those who 
could explain them. Judg. 14:14. 

The Jews affirm that before Jerusalem 
was laid in ruins the bridegroom and bride 
wore crowns at their marriage. Compare 
Isa. 61:10; Song 3:11, "Go forth, O ye 
daughters of Zion, and behold king Solo- 
mon with the crown wherewith his mother 
crowned him in the days of his espousals, 
and in the day of the gladness of his heart.' 1 
The modern Jews in some places throw 
handfuls of wheat on the newly-married 
couple, particularly on the bride, saying, 
" Increase and multiply." In other places 
they mingle pieces of money with the wheat, 
which are gathered up by the poor. The 
actual ceremony of marriage was very sim- 
ple, consisting of little more than the read- 
ing of the marriage contract, Prov. 2:17; 
Mai. 2: 14, and the nuptial blessing invoked 
by the friends, Gen. 24:60; Ruth 4:11, 12. 

The wedding festivities commonly lasted 
7 days for a maid, and 3 days for a widow. 
So Laban says to Jacob respecting Leah, 
" Fulfil her week," Gen. 29:27. The cere- 
monies of Samson's wedding continued 7 
whole days, Judg. 14:17, 18. 

The procession accompanying the bride 
from the house of her father to that of the 
bridegroom was generally one of more or 
less pomp, according to the circumstances 
of the married couple, and for this they 
often chose the night, as is still the custom 
in Syria. Hence the parable of the 10 vir- 
gins that went at midnight to meet the 
bride and bridegroom, Matt. 25. "At a 
Hindoo marriage, the procession of which 
I saw," says Mr. Ward, "the bridegroom 
came from a distance, and the bride lived 
at Serampore, to which place the bride- 
groom was to come by water. After wait- 
ing 2 or 3 hours, at length, near midnight, 
it was announced, as if in the very words 
of Scripture, ' Behold, the bridegroom com- 
eth; go ye out to meet him.' All the per- 
sons employed now lighted their lamps, 
and ran with them in their hands to fill up 
their stations in the procession; some of 
them had lost their lights, and were un- 
prepared ; but it was then too late to seek 
them, and the cavalcade moved forward to 
the house of the bride, at which place the 
company entered a large and splendidly- 
illuminated area before the house, covered 
with an awning, where a great multitude 
of friends, dressed in their best apparel, 
were seated upon mats. The bridegroom 
was carried in the arms of a friend, and 
placed in a superb seat in the midst of the 

341 



MAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MAR 



company, where he sat a short time, and 
then went into the house, the door of which 
was immediately shut and guarded by se- 
poys. I and others expostulated with the 
doorkeepers, but in vain. Never was I so 
struck with our Lord's beautiful parable 
as at this moment; 'and the door was 
shut.' " 

Christianity invests the family institution 
with peculiar sacredness ; makes true love 
its basis, and mutual preference of each 
other's happiness its rule; and even likens 
it to the ineffable union between Christ and 
his church, Eph. 5:22-33, a "mystery" — 
once hidden, but now revealed. Nowhere 
in the world is woman so honored, happy, 
and useful as in a Christian land and a 
Christian home. Believers are directed to 
marry "in the Lord," 1 Cor. 7:39. No 
doubt the restrictions laid upon the ancient 
people of God contain a lesson for all peri- 
ods, and the recorded ill results of forbid- 
den marriages among the Jews, if heeded, 
w T ould prevent the serious evils which often 
result from union between a Christian and 
a worldling. As to the mutual duties of 
husband and wife, see Eph. 5:22, 23 ; 1 Tim. 
2:11, 12; 1 Pet. 3:1-7. 

A large family was greatly desired in 
Bible times as a blessing and an honor, 
Gen. 33:5; Psa. 127:3-5; and the practice, 
too common in our day, of regarding chil- 
dren as an evil to be prevented or avoided, 
from selfish motives and even by flagitious 
means, cannot be too severely condemned. 

The Holy Spirit describes marriage as 
"honorable in all," Heb. 13:4, and desi- 
rable, unless in exceptional cases, Matt. 
19:10-12; 1 Cor. 7:8, 26. The Church of 
Rome puts dishonor upon it, and not only 
extols celibacy and virginity in the laity, 
but strictly refuses marriage to all its 
priests, bishops, etc., and in thus "forbid- 
ding to marry " fixes upon itself the name 
of anti-Christ, 1 Tim. 4:3. See Adultery, 
Divorce, Garments, etc. 

MAR'SENA, nobleman, a councillor un- 
der Ahasuerus, Esth. 1:14. 

MARS'-HILL, A. V. See Areopagus. 

MAR'THA, sister of Lazarus and Mary 
at Bethany. Though different from Mary 
in temperament, she was no less truly a 
devoted friend of Christ and beloved by 
him, John 11:5. His gentle reproof, Luke 
10:38-42, does not imply that she was a 
stranger to renewing grace. Her affec- 
tionate care for the hospitable entertain- 
ment of Christ must not be forgotten, nor 
her promptness in hasting to meet him, nor 
342 



her faith in his power, John 11 : 20-28. She 
served at the feast at Bethany after her 
brother's resurrection, John 12: 1, 2. See 
Mary, IV. 

MAR'TYR, a witness, Matt. 18:16; Luke 
24:48. In ecclesiastical history, "a wit- 
ness, by the shedding of his blood, in tes- 
tifying to the truth." Thus martyrs are 
distinguished from "confessors," properly 
so called, who underwent great afflictions 
for their confession of the truth, but with- 
out suffering death. The term " martyr " 
occurs only thrice in the New Testament,. 
Acts 22:20, simply a witness; Rev. 2:13; 
17:6. Since the time of Stephen, Acts 7: 59; 
22:20, myriads of martyrs have sealed the 
truth of Christianity by a painful death, 
which they willingly endured through faith 
rather than to deny Christ, and which they 
often eagerly desired as a special privi- 
lege. It is doubtless possible to be put to 
death as a Christian without real love for 
Christ, 1 Cor. 13:3; but in general "the 
noble army of martyrs " have borne a true 
and overwhelming testimony to the power 
and preciousness of faith in Christ; and 
their blood witnesses before God against 
their foes, especially against that apostate 
church which is "drunken with the blood 
of the martyrs of Jesus," Rev. 17:6. 

MA'RY, in Hebrew Miriam, I., " the mo- 
ther of Jesus," Acts 1:14. Her amiable 
and lovely character, and her remarkable 
history in connection with the wonders 
relating to the birth of Christ, are record- 
ed in the first 2 chapters of Matthew 
and Luke. The genealogy of the Saviour 
through her, in the line of David and Abra- 
ham, is preserved in Luke 3, to prove that 
he was born "as concerning the flesh " ac- 
cording to ancient prophecies, Luke 1:27; 
Rom. 1:3. After the return from Egypt to 
Nazareth she is but 5 times mentioned in 
the sacred history : 3 times with some ap- 
pearance of reproval on the part of Christ, 
Matt. 12:46-50; Luke 2:49, 50; John 2:4; 
once when he commended her to the care 
of John, John 19:26; and lastly, as among 
the disciples at Jerusalem after his ascen- 
sion, Acts 1 : 14. Thenceforth, throughout 
the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles, and 
the Revelation, no allusion is made to her. 
Neither Peter, whom Rome regards as the 
first pope, nor John, to whose care our Lord 
committed her, mentions her name. Man- 
ifestly the worship of Mary had not then 
commenced. The inventions of the Ro- 
mish Church in after centuries are wholly 
destitute of foundation in Scripture, and 



MAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MAS 



subversive of the gospel. One of these 
unauthorized inventions is the alleged im- 
maculate conception and spotless holiness 
of Mary. See Rom. 3:10, 23; Gal. 3:22; 
1 John 1:8; and compare also the reproofs 
above alluded to, and her own confession 
of her need of a Saviour, Luke 1:47. An- 
other unauthorized invention is her alleged 
virginity after the birth of Jesus, Matt. 1 : 25 ; 
Luke 2:7. No case can be found in Scrip- 
ture where "firstborn son" is used of an 
only child. In other passages the brethren, 
sisters, and mother of Christ are mentioned 
together, apparently as one family, Matt. 
^SS) 56; and she was known as the wife 
of Joseph probably for almost 30 years, 
John 6:42. See Brother. To adore her 
as the " queen of heaven " and the " mother 
of God," is, in the light of the Bible, blas- 
phemous idolatry; and to pray to her as 
divine, or even as a mediator with God, 
implies that she possesses the attribute of 
omnipresence, and degrades the only and 
sufficient Mediator, 1 Tim. 2:5; Heb. 4:16. 
She was "blessed" or signally favored 
"among women," as Jael was "blessed 
above women," Judg. 5:24; Luke 1:28; 
but Christ himself declares that a higher 
blessing belongs to those " that hear the 
word of God and keep it," Luke 11:27, 2 8- 
Compar Jas. 5:11. 

II. The mother of Mark the Evangelist, 
and "aunt" of Barnabas, Col. 4:10. She 
had a house in Jerusalem, where the follow- 
ers of Jesus were wont to convene. Com- 
pare Acts 2:46; 20:8. Hither Peter, when 
delivered from prison by the angel, came 
and knocked at the gate, Acts 12 : 12. Many 
such hospitable Christian homes and pla- 
ces of social prayer, even in troublous 
times, are for ever enshrined in the mem- 
ory of the people of God. 

III. The wife of Alphaeus or Clopas, and 
mother of James the Less and Joses, Matt. 
27:56, 61; Mark 15:40; Luke 24:10; John 
19:25. This last passage leaves it uncer- 
tain whether this Mary was sister to Mary 
our Lord's mother or not. Some suppose 
that 4 persons are there named : Christ's 
mother, his mother's sister, Mary of Clopas, 
and Mary Magdalene. See Mary, I., and 
James, III. She believed early on Jesus 
Christ, and accompanied him in some of 
his journeys, to minister to him, followed 
him to Calvary, and was with his mother 
at the foot of his cross. She was also pres- 
ent at his burial, prepared perfumes to em- 
balm him, and was early at his sepulchre 
on the morning of his resurrection, Matt. 



28:1; Mark 15:47; 16:1; Luke 23:55, 56; 
24:22. See Alphaeus: 

IV. The sister of Lazarus whom our 
Lord raised from the dead. Her character 
presents a beautiful companion-picture to 
that of her more active and impulsive sis- 
ter Martha. Contemplative, confiding, and 
affectionate, it was like heaven to her to sit 
at the feet of her adored Teacher and Lord, 
Luke 10:39-42. She hastened to him at 
his call, after the death of Lazarus, and fell 
at his feet, crying, " Lord, if thou hadst 
been here my brother had not died." The 
character of the 2 sisters was well contrast- 
ed at the supper in Bethany, after the res- 
urrection of Lazarus. No service was too 
humble for Martha to render, and no offer- 
ing too costly for Mary to pour out, in hon- 
or of their Saviour, John 12:1-8. If Mary 
anticipated Christ's death as near at hand, 
her anointing his feet, ver. 7 — " to prepare 
me for burial," Matt. 26:12, R. V. — shows 
the strength of her faith in his predictions, 
Matt. 27:63, 64. This occurrence should 
not be confounded with that described in 
Luke 7 : 37-50. 

V. The Magdalene, or native of Magdala 
on the Sea of Galilee, Josh. 19:38. She was 
foremost among the honorable women of 
substance who ministered unto Christ and 
his disciples, being especially devoted to 
Christ for his mercy in casting out from her 
7 evil spirits, Luke 8:2, 3. She followed 
him from Galilee to Jerusalem, witnessed 
his crucifixion, Matt. 27:55, 56, and saw 
where he was entombed, ver. 61. She was 
early at his tomb with sweet spices; and 
lingering there when the disciples had re- 
tired, she was the first to throw herself at 
the feet of the risen Saviour, Matt. 28:1-10; 
Mark 15:47; 16:1-10; Luke 24:1-12; John 
20:1, 2, 10-18. There is no evidence that 
she was ever a profligate. 

" Not she with traitorous kiss her Master stung, 
Not she denied him with unfaithful tongue ; 
She, when apostles fled, could dangers brave, 
Last at his cross and earliest at his grave." 

VI. A benevolent Jewish Christian at 
Rome, saluted in Paul's epistle, Rom. 16:6. 
The R. V. has you here, not us. 

MAS'CHIL is a term found as a title of 
13 Psalms— Psalms 32, 42, 44, 45, 52, 53, 54, 
55> 74) 78, 88, 89, 142 — and imports one that 
instructs or makes to understand. Some 
interpreters think it means an instrument 
of music, but it more probably signifies an 
instructive song, Psa. 47:7. 

MASH, a son of Aram, his posterity, and 
their home — generally thought to be near 

343 



MAS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MEA 



Mount Masius, a range on the north of 
Mesopotamia, Gen. 10:23. In 1 Chr. 1:17 
called Meshech. 

MASRE'KAH, a vineyard, the birthplace 
of an Edomite king, Gen. 36:36; 1 Chr. 
1:47. 

MAS'SA, a lifting, a son of Ishmael, 
founder of an Arabian tribe, probably to- 
wards Babylonia, Gen. 25:14; 1 Chr. 1:30. 

MAS'SAH, trial. See Meribah. 

MAS'TER, Matt. 19:16; John 13:13, 14, 
means teacher, the converse of disciple or 
pupil. It is applied to Christ over 40 times 
in the Gospels. In Mai. 2:12 " master and 
scholar" mean "caller and answerer," or 
every one. In Acts 27:11 the helmsman is 
meant. 

Scripture prescribes just and humane 
principles to regulate the conduct of mas- 
ters and employers towards those who 
serve them. A just and prompt recom- 
pense is required, severity and exaction 
of undue service are forbidden, a genuine 
concern for their happiness, health, char- 
acter, and morals is enjoined, due instruc- 
tion and right examples of virtue and piety, 
Gen. 18:19; Josh. 24:15; Eph. 6:9, and a 
recognition of them as "neighbors," Luke 
10:36, and perhaps "brethren," Phile. 16. 
See Servant. 

MAS'TERIES, strive for the, 2 Tim. 
2:5, " contend in the games." 

MAT'TAN, a gift, I., a priest of Baal, ju- 
dicially slain before his altar, under Jehoi- 
ada, 2 Kin. 11:18; 2 Chr. 23:17. — II. Jer. 

38:1. 

MATTA'NAH, a gift, Gen. 25:6, the 50th 
station of the Israelites, Num. 21:18, 19, in 
the region of the Anion. 

MATTANI'AH, gift offehovah, the origi- 
nal name of the last king of Judah. See 
Zedekiah. Also 6 Levites mentioned in 
1 Chr. 9:15, 16; 25:4; 2 Chr. 20:14; 29:13; 
Neh. 12:35; 13:13. Also 4 Israelites of the 
period of the Captivity, Ezra 10:26, 27, 
30, 37- 

MAT'THAN, Matt. 1:15, (?) MAT'THAT, 
Luke 3:24, the grandfather of Joseph. 

MAT'THEW, gift of fehovah, an apostle 
and evangelist, was son of Alphaeus, II., a 
Galilean by birth, a Jew by religion, and a 
publican by profession, Matt. 9:9; 10:3; 
Luke 6: 15. The other evangelists call him 
only Levi, which was his Hebrew name, 
Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27; but he always calls 
himself Matthew, which was probably his 
name as a publican, or officer for gather- 
ing taxes. He does not dissemble his for- 
mer profession ; thus exalting the grace of 
344 



Christ which raised him to the apostleship. 
His ordinary abode was at Capernaum, 
and his office probably on the main road, 
near the Sea of Tiberias ; here, in the midst 
of his business, he was called by Jesus to 
follow Him, Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14, which 
he did, after making a great feast in His 
honor, Luke 5:29, in referring to which he 
modestly omits his own name, Matt. 9:9-13. 
It is probable that he had a previous knowl- 
edge of the miracles and doctrine of Christ. 
He was with Christ after the resurrection, 
and with the other apostles after Christ's 
ascension, Matt. 28:16; Acts 1:13. 

For the Gospel of Matthew, see Gos- 
pel. 

MATTHI'AS, gift of God, a disciple who 
continued with our Saviour from his bap- 
tism to his ascension, Acts 1:21-26, and 
was after the ascension chosen by lot to be 
associated with the 11 apostles. We know 
nothing further of him. 

MATTITH'IAH, gift of fehovah, 1 Chr. 
9:31; 25:3, 21; Ezra 10; 43; Neh. 8:4; Luke 
3:25, 26. 

MAT'TOCK, Isa. 7:25, a single-headed 
pickaxe with a wide point. In 1 Sam. 
13:20, 21 a ploughshare; in 2 Chr. 34:6 a 
spade. 

MAUL, Prov. 25:18, called in Jer. 51:20 
a battle-axe, and in Ezek. 9:2 a slaughter 
weapon; property, a heavy mace or war- 
club. 

MAW, a stomach of ruminating ani- 
mals — tripe, Deut. 18:3. 

MAZ'ZAROTH, and MAZ'ZALOTH or 
"planets " in 2 Kin. 23:5, probably the 
signs of the zodiac, Job 38:32: " Dost thou 
lead forth the Signs in their season, and 
the Bear with her young, dost thou guide 
them?" (Conant.) 

MEAD'OW, Gen. 41:2, 18; in Job 8:ir 
" flag," properly herbage on the water 
brink. In Judg. 20:33 "open plains." 

ME'AH, one hundred, Neh. 3:1; 12:39, a 
tower on the east wall of Jerusalem, to- 
wards the north. 

MEALS. See Eating. 

MEAN, Prov. 22:29; Isa. 2:9; Acts 21:39, 
in A. V. signifies only lowly, not base. 

MEA'RAH, a cave, a Zidonian town on 
the north border of Galilee, Josh. 13:4. 

MEAS'URE. Under this head we present 
an alphabetical list of Biblical terms de- 
noting measures of weight, of capacity, dry 
and liquid, of length, and of money, with 
the equivalent Hebrew or Greek words, 
and the approximate equivalents in our 
language. 



MEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MEA 



BIBLE NAME 


. HEB. OR GR. NAME. SCRIPTURE PASSAGES. 


EQUIVALENT. 


Bath (liquid). 


Heb. bath. 


i Kin. 7 : 26, 38 ; 2 Chr. 2 : 10 ; Isa. 5 : 10. 


7 gallons. 


Bekah. 


Heb. bekah. 


Exod. 38:26. 


{4% dwts.) 28 cents. 


Bushel. 


Gr. modios. 


Matt. 5:15; Mark 4:21; Luke 11 : 33. 


About a peck. 


Cab (dry). 


Heb. qab. 


2 Kin. 6 : 25. 


1 ^quarts. 


Cor (liquid). 


Heb. kor. 


Ezek. 45: 14. 


70 gallons. 


Cubit. 


Heb. ammah. 


Gen. 6 : 15, 16 ; Exod. 25-27 ; 36-38. 


21 inches (18 to 23). 


Cubit. 


Gr. pechus. 


Matt. 6:27; John 21:8. 


18 to 23 inches. 


Cubit. 


Heb. gomed. 


Judg. 3 : 16. 


2% feet. 


(Day's) Journey 


Heb. derek. 


Gen. 30:36; Num. 10:33; 1 Kin. 19:4. 


15 to 20 miles. 


Dram, or Dane 


Heb. darkemon (gold] 


. Ezra 2 : 69 ; Neh. 7 : 70-72. 


About $5. 


Dram, or Daric 


Heb. adarkon (gold). 


1 Chr. 29:7; Ezra 8: 27. 


About $5. 


Ephah (dry). 


Heb. ephah. 


Ezek. 45:11. 


3 l A pecks. 


Ephah (liquid). 


Heb. ephah. 


Exod. 16:36; Lev. 19:36. 


7 gallons. 


Farthing. 


Gr. kodrantes. 


Matt. 5 : 26 ; Mark 12 : 42. 


Nearly 4 mills. 


Farthing. 


Gr. assarion. 


Matt. 10:29; Luke 12:6. 


iY 2 cents. 


Fathom. 


Gr. orguia. 


Acts 27 : 28. 


About 6 feet. 


Finger, or Digit 


. Heb. etsba. 


Jer. 52 : 21. 


4-5 of an inch. 


Firkin. 


Gr. metretes. 


John 2:6. 


About 8 gallons. 


Furlong. 


Gr. stadion. 


Luke 24 : 13 ; John 6 : 19 ; 11 : 18. 


Nearlv Y& of a mile. 


Gerah. 


Heb. gerah. 


Exod. 30 : 13 ; Num. 3 : 47 ; 18 : 16. 


(11 grains) 2% cents 


Half-homer. 


Heb. lethek. 


Hos. 3:2. 


Nearly 4 bushels. 


Half-shekel. 


Heb. beqa. 


Gen. 24 : 22. 


% ounce. 


Half-shekel. 


Heb. machatsith. 


Exod. 30:13, 15; 38:26. 


25 or 30 cents. 


Handbreadth. 


Heb. tephach. 


Exod. 25:25; 1 Kin. 7:26: Psa. 39:5. 


3 or 4 inches. 


Handful. 


Heb. kaph. 


Lev. 2:2; 9 : 17. 


Vz pint. 


Handful. 


Heb. qomets. 


Gen. 41 :47 ; Lev. 6: 15. 


1 gill. 


Hin (liquid). 


Heb. hin. 


Exod. 30 124; Lev. 19:36; Ezek. 46:5-14 


. 2^ quarts. 


Homer (dry). 


Heb. homer. 


Lev. 27:16; Num. 11:32; Isa. 5:10 


; About 8 bushels. 


Log (liquid). 


Heb. log. 


Lev. 14 : 10-24. [Ezek. 45 : 11-14 


. Nearly a pint. 


Measure. 


Heb. ammah. 


Jer. 51 : 13. 


See cubit. 






Heb. middah. 


Ezek. 40 : 10-35 ; 48 : 30-33. [Ezra 7 : 22 


. 145 feet ? 




' 


Heb. cor (dry). 


1 Kin. 4 : 22 ; 5 : 11 ; 2 Chr. 2 : 10 ; 27 : 5 


; About 8 bushels. 




' 


Gr. coros (dry). 


Luke 16 : 7. 


About 8 bushels. 




' 


Heb. seah (dry). 


Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 25 : 18 ; 1 Kin. 18 : 32 


1 peck. 




' 


Gr. saton (dry). 


Matt. 13:33; Luke 13: 21. 


1 peck. 




' 


Heb. lethek (dry). 


Hos. 3:2. 


Nearly 4 bushels. 




' 


Gr. choinix (dry). 


Rev. 6 : 6. 


iy 2 pints. 




' 


Heb. ephah (dry). 


Deut. 25 : 14, 15 ; Prov. 20 : 10 ; Mic. 6 : 10 


3% pecks. 




' 


Heb. bath (liquid). 


1 Kin. 7 : 26, 38 ; 2 Chr. 2 : 10 ; Isa. 5 : 10 


7 gallons. 


" 


Gr. batos (liquid). 


Luke 16 : 6. 


7 gallons. 


Measuring-line. 


Heb. middah. 


Jer. 31 :39; Zech. 2:1. 


Nearly y% of a mile. 


Mile (Roman). 


Gr. milion. 


Matt. 5:41. 


Over 9-10 of a mile. 


Mite. 


Gr. lepton. 


Mark 1 2 : 42 ; Luke 12 : 59 ; 21 : 2. 


Nearly 2 mills. 


Omer. 


Heb. omer (dry). 


Exod. 16 : 16-36. 


2 l / 2 quarts. 


Pace. 


Heb. tsa'ad. 


2 Sam. 6 : 13. 


About 30 inches. 


Penny. 


Gr. denarion. 


Matt. 18 : 28 ; 20 : 2-13 ; John 6 : 7. 


15 cents. 


Piece of Money. 


Heb. qesitah (gold). 
Heb. qesitah (silver). 


2 Kin. 5:5. 


About $8 76. 


Piece of Money. 


Gen. 33: 19; Job 42:11. 


See shekel. 


Piece of Money. 


Gr. stater (silver). 


Matt. 17:27. [Zech. 11:12, 13 


. 61 cents. 


Piece of Silver. 


Heb. keseph. 


Gen. 20 : 16 ; 37 : 28 ; 45 : 22 ; Exod. 21 : 32 


; See shekel. 


ii << ti 


Heb. qesitah. 


Josh. 24 : 32. 


" " 


" " •' ' 


Heb. rats. 


Psa. 68 : 30. 


" " 


" " " 


Heb. agorah. 


1 Sam. 2 : 36. 


« ■< 


" " " 


Gr. argurion. 


Matt. 26 : 15 ; 27 : 3-9. 


" " 


" " " 


Gr. argurion. 


Acts 19: 19. 


See penny. 


" " " 


Gr. drachme. 


Luke 15:8, 9. 


See penny. 


Pot. 


Gr. xestes. 


Mark 7:4, 8. 


Nearly a pint. 


Pound. 


Heb. maneh (weight). 
Heb. maneh (silver). 


1 Kin. 10:17. 


2^ lbs., or 3%. 


Pound. 


Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:71, 72. 


About $36. 


Pound. 


Gr. mna (weight). 


John 12:3; 19:39. 


Nearly a pound. 


Pound. 


Gr. litra (silver). 


Luke 19 : 13-25. 


About $16. 


Reed. 


Heb. qaneh. 


Ezek. 40 : 3-8 ; 4T : 8 ; 42 : 16-19. 


9 or 10 feet. 


Reed. 


Gr. calamos. 


Rev. 21 : 15, 16. 


9 or 10 feet. 


Sab.-day (jour.) 


Gr. sabbaton. 


Matt. 24 : 20 ; Acts 1 : 12. 


About % of a mile. 


Shekel. 


Heb. sheqel (weight). 


1 Sam. 17:5, 7 ; Ezek. 4 : 10 ; 45 : 12. 


About % ounce. 


Shekel. 


Heb. sheqel (silver). 


Gen. 23: 15, 16; Exod. 21 :32; 30: 13. 


55 cents (50 to 60). 


Shekel. 


Heb. sheqel (gold). 


1 Chr. 21 : 25 ; 2 Chr. 3:9. 


$9 or $10. 


Span. 


Heb. zereth. 


Exod. 28 : 16 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 4 ; Ezek. 43 : 13 


Over 9 inches. 


Talent. 


Heb. kikkar (weight). 




114 lbs. 7 oz. 


" 


Heb. kikkar (silver). 


Exod. 38 : 27 ; 1 Kin. 16 : 24 ; 20 : 39. 


About Si, 600. 


" 


Heb. keseph (silver). 


Ezra 7 : 22. 


About $1,600. 


" 


Heb. kikkar (gold). 


Exod. 25 : 39 ; 37 : 24 ; 2 Sam. 12 : 30. 


About $26,280. 


" 


Gr. talanton (weight). 


Rev. 16:21. 


About 115 lbs. 


'•' 


Gr. talanton (silver). 


Matt. 18:24; 25:15-28. 


About $1,000. 


Trit 


utc. 


Gr. didraehmon. 


Matt. 17 : 24. 


About 30 cents. 



345 



MEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MEA 



It must be borne in mind that critical 
authorities differ somewhat in their con- 
clusions from the meagre and uncertain 
data in their hands, and that nearly all the 
preceding estimates should be regarded as 
probable and approximate, rather than as 
reliably exact. 

Certain common measures of weight, 
length, and value, like the pound, the cu- 
bit, and the shekel, had, roughly speaking, 
their equivalents among all the nations 
around the Jews — the Chaldaeans, Egyp- 
tians, Greeks, and Romans ; yet many mis- 
takes would arise should one accept any of 
these as precise equivalents. 

These measures also varied within the 
bounds of each nation, from one period of 
its history to another, and in different prov- 
inces at the same period. The "shekel of 
the sanctuary " may have been a standard, 
from which the common shekel fell off. 
The cubit — the measure from the elbow to 
the end of the middle finger — seems some- 
times to have reached only to the wrist or 
to the knuckles; and it is reckoned by 
some authorities at 17 inches, by others as 
high as 23 inches ; so that we are not sure 
which is the true length in any given pas- 
sage. 

Until the Return from the Babylonian 
Captivity it is not certain that the Jews had 
any regular coinage. Trade and com- 
merce were largely carried on by barter; 
and though the metals were in common 
use from the earliest ages as a medium of 
exchange, the requisite amount was ascer- 
tained by weighing. Hence the different 
values of a given weight, e. g., a bekah, in 
silver and in gold. 

It should also be remembered that gold 
and silver have in time become so abun- 
dant that their purchasing power is now 
far less than formerly. Thus in the time 
of Christ a "penny," 16 cents, was a day's 
wages, though indeed laborers in the East 
have always been poorly paid, and ill fed 
and clothed. 

See the general table of Weights, Meas- 
ures, and Money of the Bible on the pre- 
ceding page, also the particular names of 
each, as Shekel, Talent, Bath, Ephah, 
etc., and Tables at the end of this volume. 

MEATS. "Meat" in the English Bible 
usually signifies "food," and not "flesh," 
Gen. 1:29, 30; Matt. 15:37. So in Luke 
24:41, "Have ye here any meat?" literally, 
anything to eat? So also in Rom. 14:20; 
1 Cor. 8:13. In Psa. 111:5 by "meat" is 
meant "prey" or "spoil." The " meat- 
346 



offerings " of the Jews were made of flour, 
corn, and olive oil, etc., Lev. 2. See Of- 
ferings and Sacrifices. As to the ani- 
mal food used by the Jews, see Clean and 
Food. 

It does not appear that the ancient He- 
brews were very particular about the sea- 
soning and dressing of their food. We 
find among them roast meat, boiled meat, 
and ragouts, Gen. 27:9; Exod. 16:3; the 
flesh of lambs, Amos 6:4, calves, Gen. 18:7, 
kids, Gen. 27:9, oxen, Prov. 15:17; veni- 
son and fowls, 1 Kin. 4:23. Moses for- 
bade them to seethe a kid in its mother's 
milk, Exod. 23:19; 34:26 — a precept de- 
signed to inculcate principles of humanity,, 
and perhaps to prevent them from adopt- 
ing an idolatrous custom of their heathen 
neighbors. The Jews were also forbidden 
to kill a cow and its calf in the same day- 
or a sheep, or goat, and its young one, at 
the same time. They might not cut off a 
part of a living animal to eat it, either raw 
or dressed. If any lawful beast or bird 
should die of itself or be strangled, and the 
blood not drain away, they were not al- 
lowed to taste of it. They ate of nothing 
dressed by any other than a Jew, nor did 
they ever dress their victuals with the 
kitchen implements of any but one of their 
own nation. 

The prohibition of eating blood, or ani- 
mals that are strangled, Lev. 3:17; 7:26; 
17: 10, has been always rigidly observed by 
the Jews. In the Christian Church the 
law was observed for a long time, being 
approved by the council held at Jerusalem, 
and recommended to the Gentile converts, 
Acts 15. 

At the first settling of the church there 
were many disputes concerning the use of 
meats offered to idols. Some newly con- 
verted Christians, convinced that an idol 
was nothing, and that the distinction of 
clean and unclean creatures was abolished 
by our Saviour, ate indifferently of what- 
ever was served up to them, even among 
pagans, without inquiring whether the 
meats had been offered to idols. They 
took the same liberty in buying meat sold 
in the market, not regarding whether it 
were pure or impure according to the Jews, 
or whether it had been offered to idols or 
not. But other Christians, weaker, more 
scrupulous, or less instructed, were offend- 
ed at this liberty, and thought the eating 
of meat which had been offered to idols 
was a kind of partaking in that wicked and 
sacrilegious offering. This diversity of 



MED 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MED 



opinion among the disciples called for the 
judgment of inspiration; and we find in 
several of Paul's epistles directions both 
for those who held such scruples and for 
those who were free from them. The for- 
mer, while in obedience to their own con- 
science they carefully abstained from the 
food in question, were charged to view 
with charity the conduct of those who did 
not share their scruples. The latter might 
freely buy and eat without guilt, since 
meat is in no wise injured as an article of 
food by being offered to an idol ; yet when- 
ever others would be scandalized, pained, 
or led into sin by this course, even they 
were required by the laws of Christian 
charity and prudence to abstain, Rom. 
14:20-23; 1 Cor. 8; 10:19-33; Tit. 1:15. 
This principle is of general application in 
similar cases; and many in our own day 
might well adopt the generous determina- 
tion of the self-denying apostle to partake 
of no questionable indulgence while the 
world stands, if it may be the occasion of 
sin to others. 

ME'DAD, love. See Eldad. 

ME'DAN, strife, 3d son of Abraham and 
Keturah, Gen. 25:2. He is supposed to 
have settled in Arabia, near Midian his 
brother. 

ME'DEBA, Sept. Medaba, waters of quiet, 
a town and plain of Moab, east of the Jor- 
dan, Num. 21:23-30; Deut. 2:34-36, con- 
quered by the Ammonites under Sihon, and 
afterwards by the Israelites. It lay on the 
southern border of the tribe of Reuben, 
Josh. 13:9, 16. Near it the army of David 
gained a great victory over the Ammonites 
and their allies, 1 Chr. 19:7. Long after- 
wards it fell again into the hands of the 
Moabites its ancient masters, Isa. 15:2. 
Its ruins, on a round hill 7 miles south by 
west from Hesban, still retain the name 
Madaba. 

MEDES. See Media. 

ME'DIA, called by the Hebrews Ma'dai, 
and supposed to have been peopled by the 
descendants of Madai the son of Japheth, 
Gen. 10:2, extended itself on the west and 
south of the Caspian Sea from Armenia 
and Assyria on the north and west to Far- 
sistan or Persia proper on the south, and 
included the districts now called Shirvan, 
Adzerbijan, Ghilan, and Irak Adjemi. It 
covered a territory larger than that of 
Spain, lying between 33° and 40° of north 
latitude, and was one of the most fertile 
and earliest cultivated among the king- 
doms of Asia. It had 2 grand divisions, of 



which the northwestern was called Atro- 
patene, or Lesser Media, and the southern 
Greater Media. The former corresponds 
to the modern Adzerbijan, now, as for- 
merly, a province of the Persian empire, 
an elevated region on the west of the Cas- 
pian, surrounded by high mountains of the 
Tauritic range, except towards the east, 
where the river Kur, or Cyrus, discharges 
its waters into the Caspian. The Greater 
Media corresponds principally to the mod- 
ern Irak Adjemi, or Persian Irak, together 
with Kurdistan, Luristan, and Ardelan. 

Media is one of the most ancient inde- 
pendent kingdoms of which history makes 
mention. After several centuries of conflict 
and semi-subjugation under Assyria, men- 
tioned on the disentombed Assyrian tab- 
lets, which confirm 2 Kin. 17:6; Isa. 20:1, 
the Medes united and became powerful, cul- 
tivated, and wealthy, Isa. 13:17, 18; 21:2,3; 
under Cyaxares they conquered Assyria, 
and continued an independent kingdom 
until, under Cyrus, B. C. 588, Media be- 
came united with Persia. In this way arose 
the Medo-Persian kingdom; and the "laws 
of the Medes and Persians" and their 
" Chronicles " are mentioned by the sacred 
writers together, Esth. 1:19; 10:2; Dan. 
6:8, 12, etc. Indeed, from this time onward 
the manners, customs, religion, and civili- 
zation of the Medes and Persians seem ever 
to have become more and more amalgama- 
ted. And in general we may gather from 
the ancient Zend writings that the Medes, 
Persians, and Bactrians were originally the 
same people, having in common one lan- 
guage, the Zend, and one religion, the wor- 
ship of the elements and of Ormuzd, the 
highest being, under the symbol of fire. 
The priests of this religion, the Magi, were 
intrusted with the cultivation of the sci- 
ences and the performance of the sacred 
rites. Among these, and as is supposed 
before the time of Cyrus, appeared Zer- 
dusht, or Zoroaster, as a reformer, or rath- 
er as the restorer of the ancient but degen- 
erated religion of light, whose disciples 
have maintained themselves even to the 
present day in Persia and India under the 
name of Guebres. 

Media is first mentioned in the Bible as 
the part of Assyria to which the 10 tribes 
were transported: at first, those beyond 
the Jordan, by Tiglath-pileser, 1 Chr. 5:26; 
and afterwards, about 721 B. C, the remain- 
der of Israel, by Sargon, 2 Kin. 17:6. The 
subsequent history of Media is involved in 
that of Persia. The united empire con- 

347 



MED 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MEL 



quered Babylon, according to Isaiah's pre- 
diction, Isa. 13:17; 21 : 2 ; Dan. 5 ; 6 ; Ezra 1. 
Both countries were subdued by Alexander 
of Macedon, 330 B. C, and in the next cen- 
tury became tributary to the Parthians on 
their east, in connection with whom they 
are mentioned in Acts 2:9. See Persia. 

ME'DIATOR, one who stands between 2 
parties or persons as the organ of commu- 
nication or the agent of reconciliation. So 
far as man is sensible of his own guilt and 
of the holiness and justice of God, he shrinks 
from any direct communication with a be- 
ing he has so much reason to fear. Hence 
the disposition more or less prevalent in 
all ages and in all parts of the world to 
interpose between the soul and its Judge 
some person or thing most adapted to pro- 
pitiate his favor — as a priestly order, an 
upright and devout daysman, or the smoke 
of sacrifices and the sweet savor of incense, 
Job 9:33. The Israelites evinced this feel- 
ing at Mount Sinai, Deut. 3:23-31 ; and God 
was pleased to constitute Moses a media- 
tor between Himself and them, to receive 
and transmit the law on the one hand, and 
their vows of obedience on the other. In 
this capacity he acted on various other oc- 
casions, Exod. 32 : 30-32 ; Num. 14 ; Psa. 
106:23; and was thus an agent and a type 
of Christ, Gal. 3:19, 20. The Messiah has 
been in all ages the only true Mediator be- 
tween God and man ; and without Him God 
is inaccessible and a consuming fire, John 
14:6; Acts 4:12. As the Angel of the Cove- 
nant, Christ was the channel of all commu- 
nications between heaven and earth in old 
Testament days ; and as the Mediator of the 
new covenant he does all that is needful to 
provide for a perfect reconciliation between 
God and man. He consults the honor of 
God by appearing as our Advocate with 
the blood of atonement; and through his 
sympathizing love and the agency of the 
Holy Spirit he disposes and enables us to 
return to God. The believing penitent is 
"accepted in the Beloved" — his person, his 
praises, and his prayers ; and through the 
same Mediator alone he receives pardon, 
grace, and eternal life. In this high office 
Christ stands alone, because he alone is both 
God and man, and has made the necessary 
atoning sacrifice, 1 Tim. 2:5. To join Mary 
and the saints to him in his mediatorship, 
as the Church of Rome does, implies that 
he is unable to accomplish his own pecu- 
liar work, Heb. 8:6; 9:15; 12:24. Com- 
pare Col. 2: 18. See Intercession. 
MED'ICINES. See PHYSICIANS. 

348 



MEEK'NESS, a peaceful and humble se- 
renity of spirit, not easily stirred to anger 
by wrongs or by the anger of others, Prov. 
16:32; Jas. 3:7, 8, 13. Such a spirit God 
dwells with and specially blesses, Isa. 
57:15; 66:2; Matt. 5:5. Meekness is a 
Christian grace, 1 Tim. 6:11, acquired by 
many naturally fiery spirits, as Moses. 
Exod. 2:12; Num. 12:3, and Paul, Acts 
26:10, 11; 1 Cor. 9:19, and must be gained 
by all who would be like Christ, Matt. 
11:28, 29. 

MEET, fit, suitable, or worthy, Gen. 2: 18 : 
Exod. 8:26; Matt. 3:8; Heb. 6:7. 

MEGID'DO, a town of Manasseh, though 
within the bounds of Issachar. It had been 
a royal city of the Canaanites, and they 
long retained a foothold in it, Josh. 12:21; 
17:11 ; Judg. 1:27. It lay in the southwest 
border of the plain of Esdraelon, and south 
of the Kishon, which is probably intended 
by u the waters of Megiddo," mentioned in 
the song of Deborah and Barak as the 
scene of their victory, Judg. 5:19, 21. It 
commanded a pass from the plain on the 
north to the hill-country of Samaria, and in 
the reign of Solomon was of some impor- 
tance and was fortified, 1 Kin. 4:12; 9:15. 
Here king Ahaziah died, and king Josiah 
was defeated, slain, and sorely lamented, 
2 Kin. 9:27; 23:29; 2 Chr. 35:22-25; Zech. 
12:11. Robinson identifies it with a vil- 
lage now called Leijun, the Legio of the 
Romans. Perhaps it was on the ruined 
site el-Medineh, 2 miles northwest of Lei- 
jun. 

MEHET'ABEL, less correctly Meheta- 
beel, blessed by God, I., wife of an Edom- 
ite king, Gen. 36:39; 1 Chr. 1:50. 

II. Father of Delaiah, Neh. 6:10. 

MEHI'D A, joining, a person or place as- 
sociated with the Nethinim, Ezra 2:52; 

Neh. 7:54. 

MEHO'LATHITE, i Sam. 18:19; 2 Sam. 
21 : 8. See Abel-meholah. 

MEHU'JAEL, smitten by God, Gen. 4:18. 

MEHU'NIM, plural of Maon, Ezra 2:50; 
Neh. 7:52. See Maonites. 

MEKO'NAH, a base, a town and its sub- 
urbs in the far south of Judah after the 
Captivity, Neh. 11:28. 

MEL'CHI, my king, 2 ancestors of Christ, 
Luke 3:24, 28. 

MELCHIZ'EDEK, king of righteousness, 
king of Salem, and also priest of the Most 
High God, in which capacity he blessed 
Abraham and received tithes at his hand, 
Gen. 14:18-20. Scripture tells us nothing 
of his father or mother, of his genealogy. 



MEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MEL 



his birth, or his death; he stands alone, 
without predecessor or successor, a royal 
priest by the appointment of God; and 
thus he was a type of Jesus Christ, who is 
"a priest for ever after the order of Mel- 
chizedek," and not after the order of Aaron, 
whose origin, consecration, life, and death 
are known, Psa. ,110:4; Heb. 6:20; 7. See 
Genealogy. 

It has been matter of great inquiry among 
commentators who Melchizedek really was. 
He has been variously supposed to be the 
Holy Spirit, the Son of God, an angel, 
Enoch, and Shem. But the safest and most 
probable opinion is that which considers 
him as a righteous and peaceful king, a 
worshipper and priest of the Most High 
God in the land of Canaan ; a friend of 
Abraham, and as a priest elevated above 
him. This opinion, indeed, lies upon the 
very face of the sacred record in Gen. 14 
and Heb. 7, and it is the only one which 
can be defended on any tolerable grounds 
of interpretation. See Salem. 

MEL/ITA, refuge, or honied. This name 
was anciently applied to 2 islands ; one in 
the Adriatic Sea, on the coast of Illyricum, 
now called Meleda ; the other in the Med- 
iterranean, between Sicily and Africa, now 



called Malta. That the latter is the one on 
which Paul suffered shipwreck is evident 
from the direction of the wind which blew 
him thither (see Euroclydon), and from 
the fact that he left the island in a ship of 
Alexandria, which had wintered there on 
her voyage to Italy, and after touching at 
Syracuse and Rhegium, landed at Puteoli, 
thus sailing on a direct course. The other 
Melita would be far out of the usual track 
from Alexandria to Italy; and in sailing 
from it to Rhegium, Syracuse also would be 
out of the direct course. The fact that the 
vessel was tossed all night before the ship- 
wreck in the Adriatic Sea does not militate 
against this view, because the name Adria 
was applied to the whole Ionian Sea which 
lay between Sicily and Greece. See Adria. 
Acts 27:27; 28:1. 

Malta is a rocky island 62 miles south 
of Sicily, 17 miles long and 9 broad, and 
containing nearly 100 square miles and 
100,000 inhabitants. At an early period it 
was seized by the Phoenicians ; these were 
dispossessed by the Greeks of Sicily, B. C. 
736; they by the Carthaginians, 528; and 
they in turn, 242 B. C, by the Romans, who 
held it in the time of Paul. After numer- 
ous changes it fell at length into the hands 




of the English, who since 1814 have held 
undisputed possession of it. The name of 
"St. Paul's Bay" is now borne by a small 
inlet on the north side of the island, open- 



ing towards the east, which answers well 
to the description inA.cts 27. Here Paul 
was protected by the hand of God amid 
perils on shore as well as in the sea. He 

349 



MEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MEP 



remained here 3 months, "honored with 
many honors," and wrought many miracles. 




MEL'ONS are common in the East, but 
do not differ particularly from ours. Wa- 
termelons and muskmelons grow luxuri- 
antly in Egypt in a light and sandy soil. 
They are a delicious fruit in a hot climate, 
and were among the articles of food for 
which the Hebrews pined in the desert, 
Num. 11:5. They would have found them 
abundant in the Promised Land. 

MEL'ZAR, overseer, the official title of a 
steward or tutor at the court of Nebuchad- 
nezzar, Dan. 1:11-16. 

MEMO'RIAL, Esth. 9:28; Psa. 9:6, re- 
membrance. 

MEM'PHIS, Hos. 9:6. See Noph. 

MEMU'CAN, high in dignity, a politic 
councillor of Ahasuerus, Esth. 1:14, 16, 21. 

MEN'AHEM, comforter, the 16th king of 
Israel, previously general of the army of 
Zachariah. He was at Tirzah when he 
heard of his master's murder, and imme- 
diately marching against the usurper Shal- 
lum, who had shut himself up in Samaria, 
he captured and slew him, and then as- 
cended the throne. He reigned in Sama- 
ria 10 years, 771-760 B. C, and was a tyran- 
nical and cruel idolater, as appears from 
the contemporaneous prophecies of Hosea 
and Amos. See Tiphsah. Pul, king of 
Assyria, having invaded Israel during the 
reign of Menahem, obliged him to pay a 
tribute of 1,000 talents, which Menahem 
raised by a tax on all his rich subjects of 
50 shekels a head. He seems to have died 
a natural death ; but his son and successor 
Pekahiah reigned only 2 years, and was 
the last of that dynasty, 2 Kin. 15:13-22. 
The Assyrian tablets recently discovered 
mention the house of Omri, or Khumri, as 
350 



paying tribute to Pul, or Phallukha, togeth- 
er with Tyre, Damascus, Idumsea, etc. ; 
and another tablet names Menahem 
as paying tribute to Tiglath-pileser. 

ME'NAN, A. V. Luke 3:31, an an- 
cestor of Christ. In R. V. Menna. 

ME'NE, he is numbered ; Te'kel, 
he is weighed ; Uphar'sin, and they 
are dividing ; Chaldee words super- 
naturally traced on the wall at Bel- 
shazzar's impious feast, and signifi- 
cant of his impending doom, Dan. 5. 
The astrologers could not read them, 
perhaps because they were written in 
i|/ antique Hebrew characters ; still less 
could they explain, even if they had 
dared to do it, what was so portent- 
ous. Daniel, however, received skill 
to understand and courage to declare 
their awful meaning; and the same 
night witnessed their fulfilment. Over how 
many proud heads, often found in scenes 
of ungodliness and revelling, the hand that 
has recorded their past history is even now 
preparing to record their doom. 

ME'NI, number, Isa. 65:11, margin; a 
Babylonian idol, perhaps Fortune, adored 
by some of the captive Israelites. 

MEO'NENIM, " observers of times," Deut. 
18:10, 14; 2 Kin. 21:6; in Mic. 5:12 "sooth- 
sayers." Elon-meonenim, " wizards' oak," 
was a famous tree near Shechem, Judg. 
9:37; perhaps the tree mentioned in Gen. 
12:6; 35:4; Josh. 24:26; Judg. 9:6. 

MEO'NOTHAI, my dwellings, a son of 
Othniel, 1 Chr. 4:14. 

MEPHA'ATH, splendor, a Levitical city 
of Reuben, Josh. 13:18; 21:37; 1 Chr. 6:79, 
having first belonged to the Amorites, Num. 
21:26, and afterwards to Moab, Jer. 48:21. 
It lay north of the Arnon, towards the east. 
MEPHIB'OSHETH, exterminator of the 
shame, i. e., of Baal, son of Jonathan, and 
grandson, A. V. "son," of Saul, 2 Sam. 
19:24; also called Meribbaal, 1 Chr. 8:34. 
See Eshbaal. Mephibosheth was very 
young when his father was killed in the 
battle of Gilboa, 2 Sam. 4:4, and his nurse 
was in such consternation at the news that 
she let the child fall, and from this acci- 
dent he was lame all his days. His misfor- 
tune clouded his life, though he was pa- 
tient and resigned. He took refuge in the 
mountains of Gilead. See Machir. When 
David found himself in peaceable posses- 
sion of the kingdom he sought for all that 
remained of the house of Saul , that he might 
show them kindness, in consideration of 
the friendship between him and Jonathan, 



MER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MER 



i Sam. 20:15, 42. He gave Mephibosheth 
the estate of his grandfather Saul. Of a 
part of this, however, he was 14 years 
afterwards deprived by the treachery of his 
steward Ziba, and the hasty injustice, as it 
appears, of David towards an unfortunate 
but noble and loyal prince, 2 Sam. 9; 16: 1- 
4; 19:24-30. David subsequently took 
care to exempt him from the number of the 
descendants of Saul given up to the ven- 
geance of the Gibeonites, 2 Sam. 21 : 1-14, 
mough another Mephibosheth, a son of 
Saul, was hanged, ver. 8. 

ME'RAB, increase, the eldest daughter 
of king Saul, was promised to David in 
marriage, in reward for his victory over 
Goliath ; but was given to Adriel, son of 
Barzillai the Meholathite, 1 Sam. 14:49; 
17:25; 18:2, 17, 19. Merab had 5 sons by 
him, who were delivered to the Gibeonites 
and hanged before the Lord, 2 Sam. 21:8, 9. 
The text intimates that the 5 men delivered 
to the Gibeonites were "sons" of Michal; 
but see Adriel. 

MERA'RI, sorrowful, Num. 26:57, tne 
youngest of Levi's 3 sons, born in Canaan, 
and head of a family of the Levites, Gen. 
46:11; Exod. 6:16; Num. 3:17; 1 Chr. 6:1, 
16, 19, 47. In the journey through the wil- 
derness they were charged with the frame- 
work of the tabernacle, to carry from one 
place of encampment to another and there 
set it up, Num. 4:29-33; 7:8. They had 4 
wagons and 8 oxen. Twelve cities were 
assigned to them beyond Jordan out of 
Reuben, Gad, and Zebulun, Josh. 21:7, 34- 
40; 1 Chr. 6:63, 77-81. They took part in 
bringing the ark up to Jerusalem, 1 Chr. 
15:6, and in the sanctuary service at vari- 
ous times, 1 Chr. 23:5, 6, 21-23; 26:10, 19; 
2 Chr. 29:12, 15; Ezra 8:18, 19. 

MERATHA'IM, two rebellions, a name 
of Babylon, referring either to its 2 subju- 
gations of Israel, or to its own rebellions 
against God, Jer. 50:17, 21, 23. 

MER'CHANT, Gen. 23:16; 37:25, 28; 
Matt. 13:45. The commodities of different 
countries were usually exchanged by tra- 
ders of various kinds, in caravans or " trav- 
elling companies," Isa. 21:13, which had 
their regular seasons and routes for pass- 
ing from one great mart to another. The 
Hebrew word denotes travellers, and these 
merchants prospered by wandering, as ours 
do by remaining stationary. The Hebrew 
law had rules respecting commerce, Lev. 
l 9 : 35, 36; Deut. 25:13-16; Mic. 6:10, 11. 
There is early evidence of its wide exten- 
sion, Exod. 25:3-7; Num. 31:50; Josh. 7:21. 



Solomon engaged in it largely, 1 Kin. 10: 11, 
22-29 ; 2 Chr. 8 : 17, 18, and Jerusalem had its 
port Joppa, Isa. 2:6, 16; 3:21-23; Hos. 12:7; 
Jon. 1:3. The apostle James reminds them 
to lay their plans in view of the uncertainty 
of life and their need of divine guidance, 
Jas. 4:13. Some of the maritime nations, 
as Egypt, and still more the Phoenicians, 
carried on a large traffic by sea, Isa. 23:2; 
Ezek. 27:27, 28. 

MER'CURY, a fabulous god of the an- 
cient heathen, the messenger of the celes- 
tials, and the deity that presided over learn- 
ing, eloquence, and traffic. The Greeks 
named him Hermes, interpreter of the will 
of the gods. Probably it was for this rea- 
son, and perhaps from recollecting the 
legend, which Ovid relates, of the visit of 
Jupiter and Hermes to their countrymen 
Baucis and Philemon, that the people of 
Lystra, having heard Paul preach, and hav- 
ing seen him heal a lame man, would have 
offered sacrifice to him as to their god Mer- 
cury, and to Barnabas as Jupiter, because 
of his venerable aspect, Acts 14:11, 12. 

MER'CY, the divine goodness exercised 
towards the wretched and the guilty, in 
harmony with truth and justice, Psa. 85:10. 
It is known to us only by revelation. The 
plan by which God is enabled to show sa- 
ving mercy to men, for Christ's sake, is the 
most consummate work of infinite wisdom 
and love, Exod. 20:6; 34:6, 7; Psa. 86:15, 
16; 103:17; 2 Cor. 4:6. The soul that has 
truly experienced the mercy of God will be 
merciful like him, Luke 6:36, compassion- 
ate to the wretched, Psa. 41:1, 2, and for- 
giving towards all, Matt. 5:7; 18:33. 

MER'CY-SEAT, the cover of the Ark of 
the Covenant, which see. The Hebrew 
word means a cover, and contains an allu- 
sion to the covering or forgiving of sins, 
Psa. 32:1. It was the essential part of the 
ark, and gave its name to the holy of holies 
itself, Lev. 16:2; 1 Chr. 28:11. Hence ap- 
propriately it covered from view the 2 tables 
of the law, for whose violation it offered 
forgiveness. In the New Testament it is 
designated by a Greek word meaning "the 
propitiatory," or "expiatory," Heb. 9:4, 5. 
It was approached only by the high-priest, 
and not without the blood of atonement, 
to show that the divine mercy can be grant- 
ed only through the blood of Christ, Rom. 
3:25. 

ME'RED, rebellion, son of Ezra, a Judah- 
ite, notable for having married Bithiah, a 
daughter of Pharaoh, before the Exode, 
1 Chr. 4:17, 18. 

351 



MER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MER 



MERE'MOTH, heights, I., son .of the high- 
priest Urijah, trusted and active after the 
Captivity, Ezra 8:24-30, 33; Neh. 3:4, 21; 
10:5. Perhaps the man named in Neh. 
12:15. 

II. Ezra 10:36. 

ME'RES, worthy, Esth. 1 : 13, 14. 

MER'IBAH, chiding, strife, I., a place in 
Rephidim where the Israelites, missing the 
waters of Egypt, chided Moses and tempt- 
ed Jehovah; whence it was also named 
Massah, temptation, Exod. 17:1-7; Deut. 
6:16; 9:22; 33:8; Psa. 81:7; Heb. 3:8. See 
Rephidim. In Psa. 95 : 8 the Hebrew reads, 
"as in Meribah, as in the day of Massah in 
the wilderness." 

II. A place near Kadesh-barnea, where 
38 years later a like sin was committed, 



Num. 20:1-13, in which both Moses and 
Aaron were involved, Num. 20:24; 27:14; 
Deut. 32:51 ; whence also this Meribah was 
called En -mishp at. fount of judgment. See 
Wanderings. 

MERIB'BAAL, contender with Baal, 

1 Chr. 8:34; 9:40. See Mephibosheth. 
MERO'DACH, Jer. 50:2, an idol of Baby- 
lon, identified with Bel; their chief divin- 
ity in the latter part of their history ; also 
of the Assyrians. See Babylon. 

MERO'DACH-BAL'ADAN, Belishis lord, 
a king of Babylon who sought a friendly 
alliance with Hezekiah, king of Judah, Isa. 
39:1; 2 Chr. 32:31; called Berodach in 

2 Kin. 20:12. He is named in the Khorsa- 
bad inscriptions as having been twice de- 
feated and exiled by Sennacherib. 




m0# 

lake merom, from the south, with mount hermon in the distance. 



ME'ROM, height. The "waters of Me- 
rom," Josh. 11:5, or Lake of Semechon, is 
the most northern of the 3 lakes supplied 
by the river Jordan. It is situated in the 
southern part of a valley formed by the 2 
branches of Mount Hermon. The lake is 
now called after the valley, the Lake of 
Huleh, and is 7 feet above the Mediterra- 
nean. The lake proper is perhaps 4 miles 
long and 4 broad, tapering towards the 
south, where the Jordan finds an outlet 
through the clefts and flows down 10 miles 
to the Sea of Galilee. It is very shallow, 
and a large part of it is covered with aquat- 
ic plants. Thousands of water-fowl sport 
on its surface, and its waters abound in 
fish. On the north lies the plain Ard el- 
352 



Huleh, which is a dead level for a distance 
of 8 or 9 miles. Near the upper end of 
this the 3 streams which form the Jordan 
unite. On the west side of the Jordan 
above the lake a marsh extends up north 
as far as the junction of these streams, or 
even farther ; while on the eastern side the 
land is tilled almost down to the lake. It 
is a splendid plain, and extremely fertile. 
All kinds of grain grow on it with very 
little labor, and it still merits the praise 
accorded to it by the Danite spies: "We 
have seen the land; and behold, it is very 
good, ... a place where there is no want of 
anything that is in the earth," Judg. 18:9, 
10. Its rich soil is formed by deposit, and 
it seems to be partially submerged iu the 



MER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MES 



spring. Thus the lake and valley el-Huleh 
form an immense reservoir, and unite with 
the snows of Hermon to maintain the sum- 
mer supplies of the Jordan. Near this lake 
Joshua defeated the kings of Northern Ca- 
naan, Josh, ii : 1-8. 

ME'ROZ, asylum, an unknown place in 
Galilee, cursed in the song of Deborah and 
Barak for not joining with them against 
the foes of Israel, Judg. 5:23. Compare 
Judg. 21:8-10; 1 Sam. 11:7. Probably their 
vicinity to the scene of conflict, or the 
opportunity they had of rendering some 
special assistance, rendered their refusal 
peculiarly guilty. Jael, on the contrary, 
was blessed. Sins of omission may be as 
great and as ruinous as sins of commis- 
sion. The site of Meroz may be the mod- 
ern Murussus, 4K miles north by west of 
Beth-shean. 

MER'RY, in the Bible, denotes joy and 
happiness, not jollity, 2 Chr. 7:10; Prov. 
17:22; Luke 15:32; Jas. 5:13. 

ME'SECH, Psa. 120:5, A. V. See Me- 

SHECH. 

ME'SHA, deliverance, I., son of Caleb, II., 
and founder of Ziph, in Judah, 1 Chr. 2:42. 

II. A king of Moab, rich in flocks, who 
paid an enormous tribute to Ahab, king of 
Israel — perhaps only on one occasion so 
excessive — but revolted at his death, 2 Kin. 
1:1 ; 3:4-27. Joram the son of Ahab, with 
the aid of Judah and Edom, made war upon 
him, almost exterminated his army, laid 
waste his cities, and besieged him in his 
capital. Unable to force his way through 
the besieging host, king Mesha sought the 
aid of his gods by sacrificing his own son 
to Chemosh on the city wall ; and the be- 
siegers, horror-struck at this atrocious act, 
withdrew in terror, lest some curse should 
fall on them, but despoiling the country as 
they went. 

In 1868 an ancient block of black basalt 
was found at Dibon in Moab, y/ 2 feet high, 
over 2 feet wide, and 2 feet thick, record- 
ing in Phoenician letters the exploits of 
Mesha, which he ascribes to Chemosh his 
god. He mentions the war of Moab with 
Israel, and Moab's long oppression by 
Omri, king of Israel, and alludes to many 
familiar places beyond Jordan. 

III. A different word in Hebrew, Gen. 
10:30, on the eastern frontier of Joktan in 
Arabia; probably a mountain range run- 
ning southwest from the head of the Per- 
sian Gulf. 

IV. A Benjamite, son of Shaharaim, 1 Chr. 
8:8,9. 

23 



ME'SHACH, a name probably derived 
from some Chaldaean idol. See Abed- 
nego. 

ME'SHECH, or Me'sech, Psa. 120:5, 
drawing out, or possession, the 6th son of 
Japheth, Gen. 10:2, located near Tubal at 
the northeast corner of Asia Minor, in Ibe- 
ria, and supposed by many to have been 
the father of the warlike Moschi or Musco- 
vites. Meshech traded with Tyre in "the 
persons of men and in vessels of brass," 
Ezek. 27:13; 32:26; 38:2; 39:1. 

MESHUL'LAM, associate, the name of 
numerous men of God in the later Jewish 
history. 

MESHUL'LEMETH, friend, the wife of 
Manasseh, 2 Kin. 21:19. 

MESOPOTA'MIA, between the rivers, the 
Greek name of the country between the Eu- 
phrates and the Tigris, Gen. 24:10; Deut. 
23:4, called in Arabic el-Jezirah, the island, 
in the Bible "the plain of Aram," Gen. 
25:20; 31:18; 33:18, and Aram-naharaim," 
Syria of two rivers, Psa. 60, title. See Aram, 
II. and Padan-aram. In its fullest sense, 
Mesopotamia extended from the Persian 
Gulf to Mount Taurus ; but the name usu- 
ally denotes only the tract above Babylo- 
nia, now called Diarbekr, and celebrated 
for its exuberant fertility; while the part 
below, now Irak-Arabi, is sterile and with- 
out water. Mesopotamia was included in 
the territories of the Assyrian, Babylonian, 
Persian, Macedonian, and Roman empires 
successively, and belongs now to that of 
the Turks. 

This region is associated with the earli- 
est history of the human race both before 
and after the flood. Eden was not far off; 
Ararat was near to it on the north, and the 
land of Shinar on the south. The travel- 
ler here reaches what is truly " the old 
world," and is surrounded by objects com- 
pared with which the antiquities of Greece 
and Rome are modern novelties. This 
was the home of the patriarchs who prece- 
ded Abraham — Terah, Heber, Peleg, etc., 
Gen. 11:26-29; Acts 7:2. Here Abraham 
and Sarah were born, and the wives of 
Isaac and Jacob, and most of the sons of 
Jacob, the heads of the 12 tribes, Gen. 25 : 20 ; 
28:2; 35:23-26. Mesopotamia is also men- 
tioned in Scripture as the abode of Balaam, 
and of Chushan-rishathaim the first op- 
pressor of Israel in the time of the Judges, 
Judg. 3:8-10; in the history of the wars of 
David, 2 .Sam. 10:16; and as furnishing a del- 
egation of Jews, and perhaps proselytes, to 
attend the Passover at Jerusalem, Acts 2:9. 

353 



MES 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MIC 



MESS, Gen. 43 : 34 ; 2 Sara. 1 1 : 8, a dish of 
meat. 

MES'SENGERS. See Footmen and 
Posts. In Mai. 3:1 "angel," as in Gen. 
22:15, 17, 18. See Angel of the Cove- 
nant. 

MESSI'AH, or Messi'as, anointed. The 
Jews were accustomed to anoint their kings, 
high-priests, and sometimes prophets, when 
they were set apart to their office, Lev. 4:3, 
5, 16 ; 1 Sam. 2 : 10, 35 ; and hence the phrase, 
" to anoint " for an employment, sometimes 
signifies merely a particular designation or 
choice for such an employment. Cyrus, 
who founded the empire of the Persians, 
and who set the Jews at liberty, is called, 
Isa. 45:1, " the anointed of the Lord;" and 
in Ezek. 28:14, the epithet "anointed" is 
given to the king of Tyre. The term is 
used many times in the Old Testament, 
and is always translated in the Septuagint 
Christos, anointed. See Anointing. 

But Messiah is the designation given by 
the Hebrews, eminently, to that Saviour 
and Deliverer whom they expected, and 
who was promised to them by all the proph- 
ets, and more and more distinctly foreshad- 
owed to the last. As the holy unction was 
given to kings, priests, and prophets, by 
describing the promised Saviour of the 
world under the name of Christ, Anointed, 
or Messiah, it was sufficiently evidenced 
that the qualities of king, prophet, and 
high-priest would eminently centre in him, 
Psa. 45 : 7 ; and it was foretold that he should 
exercise them not only over the Jews, but 
over all mankind, and particularly over 
those who should receive him as their Sa- 
viour. The Jews faithfully preserved the 
prophecies, many of which foretold a suf- 
fering and dying Redeemer, but are still 
slow to understand how wonderfully the 
different classes of predictions have been 
fulfilled in Jesus. See Christ. 

That Jesus Christ was the true Messiah 
of the Old Testament, the "Shiloh" of Ja- 
cob, the " Redeemer " of Job, the " Angel 
of the Covenant," is abundantly clear, Psa. 
2:2; Luke 4: 16-21; Acts 9: 22; 17:2,3; 18:5, 
28. He is named by the Hebrew word in 
John 1:45; 4:25; but usually by its Greek 
equivalent, the Christ. The time of his 
appearance was predicted in Gen. 49:10; 
Dan. 9:20, 25: Hag. 2:7; Mai. 3:1. At the 
time when the Saviour actually came, and 
then only, could these predictions meet: 
then the 70 weeks of years were ended; 
and soon after the sceptre was torn for 
ever from the hands of Judah, the only tribe 
354 



that could then claim the headship of the 
Jews; and the temple in which the Mes- 
siah was to appear was annihilated. Then 
also the genealogical lists were extant 
which proved the descent of Christ from 
the line predicted. Numerous and clear 
detached predictions respecting the line- 
age, birth, character, life, sufferings, and 
death of Christ, his resurrection, ascension, 
and kingdom, were all in him perfectly ful- 
filled. For predictions of the Messiah in 
the Old Testament see Prophecy. 

MET'ALS were found in Palestine, Deut. 
8:9, and were wrought for some uses at a 
very early period, Job 2:8. We find men- 
tion of gold, Gen. 2:11, 12; of copper and 
iron, Gen. 4:22, of silver, Gen. 13:2; 1 Chr. 
22:14; 2 9 : 4> °f tin, Num. 31:22, of lead, 
Exod. 15:10, of steel, Jer. 15:12, of bronze 
and fine brass, Rev. 1:15. Solomon em- 
ployed Phoenicians in the metal-work of 
the temple, 1 Kin. 7:13. Smelting, casting, 
hammering, soldering, polishing, overlay- 
ing, and the requisite tools for these pro- 
cesses, are mentioned. See Gold, Sil- 
ver, Iron, Brass, etc. 

METE, to measure, Exod. 16:18; Psa. 
60:6; Matt. 7:2. 

METE'YARD, Lev. 19:35, a measure. 

ME'THEG-AM'MAH, bridle of the mo- 
ther, i. e., the mother-city, Gath, 2 Sam. 
8:1; 1 Chr. 18:1. See Gath. 

METHU'SAEL, man from God, father of 
the Cainite Lamech, Gen. 4:18. 

METHU'SELAH, man of sending forth, 
Luke y.2,7, son of Enoch, and father of 
Lamech. ' He lived 969 years, a longer life 
than any other on record, and died within 
the year before the deluge, Gen. 5:21, 22, 
25-27; 1 Chr. 1:3. 

MEU'NIM, Neh. 7:52. See Maonites. 

ME'ZAHAB, waters of gold, an Edomite 
king, Gen. 36:39; 1 Chr. 1:50. 

MIB'HAR, choice, 1 Chr. 11 :38. Compare 
2 Sam. 23:36. 

MIB' SAM, fragrance, I., a son of Ishmael, 
and the tribe descended from him, Gen. 
25:13; 1 Chr. 1:29. 

II. 1 Chr. 4:25. 

MIB'ZAR, a fortress, an early Edomite 
chief, Gen. 36 : 42 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 53 ; or if a place, 
possibly Petra, Psa. 60 : 9 ; 108 : 10 ; Jer. 49 : 16. 

MI'CAH. who is like fehovah ? The same 
as Micha, Michah, Micaiah, and Micha- 
iah, A. V. 

I. An Ephraimite in the time of the 
Judges, soon after Joshua, who stole 1,100 
shekels of silver from his mother, but 
restored them, and with her consent em- 



MIC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MIC 



ployed them in establishing a private sanc- 
tuary, with 2 images to be used in the wor- 
ship of Jehovah, and with a stray Levite 
for his priest, thus violating the explicit 
commands of God forbidding the use of 
images in his worship, and prescribing one 
place for his altar and one line for his 
priests. Providence frowned on his idol- 
atrous service, and a troop of Danites 
robbed him of his priest and of all his im- 
plements of worship, Judg. 17 ; 18. It was 
a time of much confusion and lack of unity 
and system in public affairs. The account 
is supposed to have been written after the 
monarchy began, and while the tabernacle 
was at Shiloh, Judg. 18:1,31; 19:1. 

II. Son of Mephibosheth, 1 Chr. 8:34, 35; 
•9:40, 41 ; called Micha in 2 Sam. 9:12, A. V. 

III. A Kohathite priest in David's time, 
1 Chr. 23:20; less correctly called Michah 
in 1 Chr. 24:24, 25, A. V. 

IV. A Reubenite, 1 Chr. 5:5. 

V. The Morasthite, *. e., of Moresheth- 
gath, a village near Eleutheropolis, in the 
west of Judah ; the 6th in order of the lesser 
prophets. He prophesied under Jotham, 
Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, for 
about 50 years, if with some we reckon 
from near the beginning of the reign of 
Jotham to the last year of Hezekiah, B. C. 
750-698. He was nearly contemporary with 
Isaiah, and has some expressions in com- 
mon with him — compare Isa. 2 : 2 with Mic. 
4: 1, and Isa. 41 : 15 with Mic. 4: 13 — also with 
Hosea and Amos in part. His bold fidel- 
ity served as a shield to the prophet Jere- 
miah a century afterwards, Jer. 26:18, 19; 
Mic. 3:12. He wrote in an elevated and 
•vehement style, with frequent transitions. 
His figures are drawn from agricultural 
rather than pastoral life. His prophecy 
may be divided into 3 sections, each com- 
mencing with the call " Hear ye," ch. 1:2; 
3:1; 6:1. It relates to the sins and judg- 
ments of Israel and Judah, their rulers and 
false prophets, to the destruction of Sama- 
ria and Jerusalem, the return of the Jews 
from captivity, and the punishment of their 
enemies. He proclaims the coming of the 
Messiah, "whose goings forth have been 
from of old, from everlasting," as the foun- 
dation of all hope for the glorious and 
blessed future he describes, and specifies 
Bethlehem in Judah as the place where He 
should be born of woman, Mic. 5:2,3. The 
prediction was thus understood by the 
Jews, Matt. 2:5; John 7:41, 42. Compare 
also Mic. 4:5 and 5:5 with John 10:35, 36 
and Eph. 2:14. 



VI. The father of Abdon, 2 Chr. 34:20; 
called Michaiah, father of Achbor in 2 Kin. 
22:12. 

VII. A Levite of the house of Asaph, 
1 Chr. 9: 15, A. V. ; rather Micha, as in Neh. 
11:17, 22. 

MICA'IAH, who is like Jehovah? the son 
of Imlah, a faithful and fearless prophet 
of Samaria consulted by king Ahab at 
the demand of Jehoshaphat as to the issue 
of their proposed campaign against the 
Syrians. He was imprisoned to abide the 
event, which coincided with his predictions 
and probably secured his release, 1 Kin. 
22:8-38. The 400 prophets first consulted 
were unprincipled adherents of Ahab, ver. 
22, 23, worshipping his calf-symbols of Je- 
hovah, as Jehoshaphat well understood. 
Josephus states that Micaiah was the proph- 
et who foretold the slaying of another by 
a lion, 1 Kin. 20:35-43, and who rebuked 
Ahab for not putting Ben-hadad to death, 
and that he had been already imprisoned 
by the offended king. It appears from this 
narrative as from many others, that God 
enabled honest inquirers to discern be- 
tween true prophets and "lying spirits," 
who furnish to wicked men such oracles as 
they want. Ahab's conduct in this matter 
displays the amazing folly of sins against 
light. 2 Chr. 18:6-27. 

MI'CHA, who is like Jehovah? I., son of 
Mephibosheth. See Micah, II. 

II. A Levite. See Micah, VII. 

III. A Levite, Neh. 10:11. 
MI'CHAEL, who is like God? I. See 

Archangel. Nine men of this name are 
slightly mentioned in Scripture. 

MI'CHAH, 1 Chr. 24:24. See Micah, III. 

MICHA'IAH, who is like Jehovah? I., king 
Abijah's queen-mother, 2 Chr. 13:2; called 
Maachah in 2 Chr. 11:20. 

II. A prince of Judah who seconded the 
efforts of Jehoshaphat to instruct and re- 
form the people of Judah, 2 Chr. 17:7-9. 

III. See Micah, VI. 

IV. Grandson of Shaphan king Josiah's 
scribe, a young prince at the court of Je- 
hoiakim, who communicated to the king's 
counsellors the solemn warnings of Jere- 
miah, and who in vain implored king Zed- 
ekiah not to burn the prophetic roll, Jer. 
36:11-14. 

V. A Levite of the line of Asaph, Neh. 

12:35- 

VI. A priest at the rebuilding of Jerusa- 
lem, Neh. 12:41. 

MI'CHAL, who is like God? the younger 
daughter of Saul and Ahinoam, in love 

355 



MIC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MIG 



with David, and reluctantly given to him in 
marriage by Saul, after breaking his prom- 
ise to give him Merab the elder, i Sam. 
14:49, 50; 18:20-29. She saved her hus- 
band's life from assassins sent by her ty- 
rannical and unscrupulous father, by a 
stratagem which gave him time to escape, 
1 Sam. 19:14, 15. Her father then gave her 
in marriage to Phalti, 1 Sam. 25:44, from 
whom David some 14 years after recovered 
her, 2 Sam. 3:12-21. When David brought 
the ark of God to Jerusalem, she conceived 
and expressed great disgust at his pious 
joy, and the affections of the king remained 
alienated from her till her death, 2 Sam. 
6:16-25. Her hatred of unfashionable zeal 
in religion was stronger than her love of 
her husband and her God. She left no 
children. See Merab, which is perhaps 
the true reading for Michal in 2 Sam. 
21:8. 

MICH'MASH, or MICH'MAS, hidden, a 
town of Benjamin, 7 miles north by east of 
Jerusalem and 4 miles southeast of Bethel, 
Ezra 2:27; Neh. 7:31; 11:31. It was a 
strong position, and lay on the north side 
of a deep valley, Wady el-Suweinit ; for 
which reasons perhaps Sennacherib, on his 
way to Jerusalem, left his heavy equipage 
there, Isa. 10:28, 29. In this valley, a little 
west of the town, are 2 steep hills, sup- 
posed to be the ones referred to in the ac- 
count of Jonathan's achievement at "the 
passage of Michmash," 1 Sam. 13:23; 14:4- 
23. Dr. Robinson found here a village 
called Mukhmas, which appeared to be the 
remnant of a town of some size and im- 
portance. 

MICH'METHAH, hiding-place, a town on 
the northern border of Ephraim, on the 
east of Shechem, perhaps in the plain el- 
Mukhna, Josh. 16:6; 17:7. 

MICH'TAM, prefixed to Psalms 16, 56-60, 
and meaning golden, or secret, as in Psa. 
25: 14, or as some think, a writing or song , 
as in Isa. 38:9. 

MID'DLE WALL, Eph. 2:14. the sacred 
barrier between the Court of the Gentiles 
and the inner parts of the temple. 

MID'IAN, strife, the 4th son of Abraham 
and Keturah, Gen. 25:2; 1 Chr. 1:33. 

MID'IANITES. descendants of Midian, a 
nomade race in Arabia, numerous, and rich 
in flocks, herds, and camels, Isa. 60:6, and 
also active and successful in commerce, 
Num. 31:22, 50, 52; Judg. 8:21-26. The 
original and appropriate district of the 
Midianites seems to have been on the east 
side of the Elanitic branch of the Red Sea, 
356 



where the Arabian geographers place the 
city Madian. Acts 7 : 29. But they appear to 
have spread themselves northward, proba- 
bly along the desert east of Mount Seir, to 
the vicinity of the Moabites, Gen. 36:35; 
and on the west side also they covered a 
territory extending to the neighborhood of 
Mount Sinai, where the fugitive Moses 
found refuge 40 years, Exod. 2:15; 3:1; 
18:1; Num. 10:29. In Gen. 25:2,4, com- 
pared with ver. 12-18, they are distinguish- 
ed from the descendants of Ishmael, though 
elsewhere we find the two very intimately 
associated, so that they are called now by 
one name and now by the other. See Gen. 
37:25, compared with ver. 36; Judg. 7:12: 
8:22, 24. Both terms may perhaps be used 
as meaning simply Arabian merchants. 
Their capital city was called Midian, and 
its remains were to be seen in the time of 
Jerome and Eusebius. It was situated on 
the Arnon, south of the city Ar, or Are- 
opolis. 

The Midianites were idolaters, and often 
led Israel astray to worship their gods. 
They sought, with the aid of Moab, to de- 
stroy the Hebrews by Balaam's sorceries, 
by enticing them into idolatry and heaven- 
defying lusts, and by open war, Num. 22:4, 
7; 25:1-6, 16-18; 31:1-16. They also not 
unfrequently rendered the Hebrews tribu- 
tary, and oppressed them. Often when the 
Israelites had sown, and their harvest was 
nearly ready to be gathered in, the Midian- 
ites and Amalekites, children of the east- 
ern desert, came down like locusts in count- 
less swarms, with their cattle and tents and 
camels, to devour and carry off the fruits 
of the ground, and not only rob but destroy 
their owners. And often did the Jews, lack- 
ing the strength or the faith or the leader- 
ship necessary for effectual resistance, seek 
refuge in mountain-dens and caverns till 
the invaders retired. Gideon was their de- 
liverer in one such period of oppression, 
Judg. 6:7. Compare Psa. 83:10-12; Isa. 
9:4; 10:6. The modern Ishmaelites still 
follow the ancient practice, and their vio- 
lent incursions, robberies, and murders 
might be described in the same terms that 
were used with reference to their fathers 
by the historians of old. 

MID'NIGHT. See HOUR. 

MID'WIVES, Gen. 35:17; 3 8:28 - The 2 
specially named in Exod. 1:15-21 seem to 
have become heads of families among the 
Hebrews. 

MIG'DAL-EL, tower of God, a stronghold 
of Naphtali, Josh. 19:38, now found at Mej- 



MIG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MIL 



del Islim, 12 miles northwest of Lake Me- 
rom. 

MIG'DAL-GAD, tower of fortune, a town 
in the plain of Judah, supposed to be el- 
Mejdel, 2 miles east of Askelon. 

MIG'DOL, a tower, a frontier town in 
Northern Egypt, Jer. 44:1; 46:14; transla- 
ted in Ezek. 29:10; 30:6, which should read 
"from Migdol to Syene " — the northern 
and southern limits of Egypt. The He- 
brews on leaving Egypt encamped "be- 
tween Migdol and the sea," Exod. 14:2; 
Num. 2)3-7 ■ Tnis maybe a different place, 
either Jebal Ataka, southwest of Suez, Bir 
Suweis, 2 miles west of Suez, or Muktala, 
17 miles northwest. 

MIG'RON, precipice, a place in Benjamin 
in the vicinity of Ai and Gibeah, north of 
Michmash, now traced in cliffs 2 miles 
northwest of Michmash, separating Wady 
Suweinit from Deir Diwan, 1 Sam. 14:2; 
Isa. 10:28. 

MIL'CAH, queen, or advice, I., daughter 
of Haran, wife of Nahor, and mother of 
Bethuel and 7 older sons, Gen. 1 1 : 29 ; 22 : 20, 
23; 24:15, 24,47. 

II. One of the 5 daughters of Zelophe- 
had. See. 

MIL/COM, their king, 1 Kin. 11:5. See 
Moloch. 

MIL/DEW, Heb. greenness, alluding to 
the pale tinge of blasted and fungus-eaten 
leaves, Deut. 28:22; 1 Kin. 8:37; 2 Chr. 
6:28; Amos 4:9; Hag. 2:17. 

MILE. The word mile, in Matt. 5:41, is 
spoken of the Roman milliare, or mile, 
which contained 8 stadia, 1,000 paces, that 
is, about 1,618 yards, while the English 
mile contains 1,760 yards. 

MILE'TUS, not Miletum as in 2 Tim. 
4:20, A. V., an ancient city, formerly the 
metropolis of all Ionia, situated on the 
western coast of Asia Minor, south of Eph- 
esus, on the confines of Caria, just south of 
the mouth of the river Maeander. It was 
the parent of many colonies, and was cele- 
brated for a temple and oracle of Apollo 
Didymaeus, and as the birthplace of Thales, 
Anaximander, Democritus, and other fa- 
mous men. The apostle Paul, on his voy- 
age from Macedonia towards Jerusalem, 
spent a day or two here, and held an affect- 
ing interview with the Christian elders of 
Ephesus, who at his summons came nearly 
30 miles from the north to meet him, Acts 
20:15-38. He also revisited Miletus after 
his first imprisonment at Rome, 2 Tim. 
4:20. There were Christians and bishops 
there from the 5th to the 8th century ; but 



the city has long been in ruins, and its ex- 
act site can hardly be determined, so much 
is the coast altered around the mouth of 
the Maeander, the sea having receded 10 
miles ; but it. is covered in part by the place 
called Palatia, with ruins of a large theatre 
and a church. 

MILK, the natural food of childhood, is 
contrasted with the food of robust men, 
1 Cor. 3:2; Heb. 5:12, and is often alluded 
to in the Bible as a symbol of pure, simple, 
and wholesome truth, Heb. 5:12, 13; 1 Pet. 
2:2; and in connection with honey, to de- 
note fertility and plenty, Gen. 49: 12; Exod. 
3:8; 13:5; Num. 16:13; Josh. 5:6. The 
Jews and their neighbors used not only the 
milk of cows, out that of camels, sheep, and 
goats, Gen. 32:15; Deut. 32:14; Prov. 27:27. 
See Butter and Cheese. Boiling a kid 
in its mother's milk was prohibited, proba- 
bly as an idolatrous or magical rite, Exod. 
23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21. 

MILL. See Corn. In Matt. 18:6; Mark 
9:42 the Greek denotes a millstone turned 
by an ass; R. V. "a great millstone," such 
as Samson was humiliated to turn, Judg. 
16:21. 

MILLEN'NIUM, a thousand years, Rev. 
20:1-7, a period preceding the judgment- 
day and the full retributions of eternity. 
According to some, this period will be ush- 
ered in, perhaps very soon, by the visible 
coming of Christ, to raise the martyrs and 
saints from the dead and reign personally 
on the earth. But in the general belief of 
Christians it denotes an era of the univer- 
sal prevalence of the gospel in the earth, 
preceding the general resurrection and 
judgment. 

Without entering on the discussion of 
this subject we may suggest that it is ap- 
parently the design of Providence that 
prophecy shall be interpreted only by its 
fulfilment ; that the attempt to pry into the 
future to the neglect of present duties is 
fraught with evil, and that we may well 
rest in the assurance given us throughout 
the Scriptures that the work of the world's 
Redeemer and rightful King will not be 
left incomplete. 

MIL'LET, a kind of grain, of which there 
are several species cultivated in Italy, Syr- 
ia, Egypt, and India. It is used partly 
green as fodder, and partly in the ripe 
grain for bread, etc. Ezekiel, 4:9, received 
an order from the Lord to make himself 
bread with a mixture of wheat, barley, 
beans, lentiles, and millet. The variety 
called Panicum miliaceum is probably 

357 



MIL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MIN 



meant, and also the Sorghum vulgare, or 
dourrha of the Arabs — a maize-like plant 
5 feet high, with heads of small grains — of 
which Niebuhr says, " It is a kind of mil- 




SORGHUM VULGARE, OR DOURRHA. 

let, made into bread with camel's milk, oil, 
butter, etc., and is almost the only food 
eaten by the common people of Arabia 
Felix. I found it so disagreeable that I 
would willingly have preferred plain bar- 
ley bread." 

MIL/LO, fulness, I., probably a bastion 
of the citadel of Zion, at Jerusalem, men- 
tioned in the history of David and Solo- 
mon, 2 Sam. 5:9; 1 Kin. 9:15, 24; 2 Kin. 
12:20; 1 Chr. 11:8; 2 Chr. 32:5. 

II. The name of a family or of a fortress 
at Shechem ; in the latter case, the " house 
of Millo " would mean the garrison of that 
fortress, Judg. 9:6, 20, 46, 49. 

MIN'CING, Isa. 3:16, a coquettish man- 
ner of walking with short steps and a 
swaying motion. 

MIN'GLED PEO'PLE, a miscellaneous 
foreign population, sometimes hired sol- 
diers, Exod. 12:38; 1 Kin. 10:15, A. V., 
Arabia; Neh. 13:3; Ezek. 30:5. 

MI'NING, Job 28:1-17. See Metals. 

MIN'ISH, Exod. 5:19; Psa. 107:39, A. V. 
to lessen. 

MIN'ISTER, from minor, "less," the op- 
posite of master or magister, from mag-is, 
"greater;" one who acts in subordination 
to another, as a religious or a civil official. 
The word is applied to the priests and Le- 
vites, Isa. 61:6; Luke 1 : 23 ; Heb. 10:11; in 
358 



Luke 4:20 to the synagogue attendant or 
sexton; often to the sub-officials of kings. 
1 Kin. 10:5; Psa. 103:21. God makes the 
naming fire his minister, Psa. 104:4, and in 
general the word denotes any one who 
attends or waits on another, Matt. 20:26, 
28. Elisha was the "minister" of Elijah, 
1 Kin. 19:21; 1 Kin. 3:11, and Joshua the 
" minister'''' of Moses, Exod. 24:13; 33:11. 
These persons did not feel themselves de- 
graded by their stations, and in due time 
they succeeded to the office of their mas- 
ters. In like manner John Mark was min- 
ister to Paul and Barnabas, Acts 13:5. An- 
gels are ministers of God and of his people, 
Dan. 7:10; Heb. 1:14. The term is ap- 
plied to magistrates, Rom. 13:4, 6; to gos- 
pel teachers, Rom. 15:16; 1 Cor. 3:5; 4:1; 
and to teachers of error, 2 Cor. 11:15. 
Christ came to minister, not to be minis- 
tered unto, and is called a minister "of the 
circumcision," Rom. 15:8, and of the heav- 
enly sanctuary, Heb. 8:2. The distribu- 
tion of the alms of Christians was a minis- 
tration, Acts 6:1 ; 2 Cor. 9:13. The law is 
a " ministration of death " to those who do 
not keep it, and the gospel is a ministra- 
tion of the Spirit, giving life to those who 
accept it, 2 Cor. 3:7-9. 

Ministers of the gospel, like Paul, Apol- 
los, and Timothy, 1 Cor. 3:5; 1 Thess. 3:2, 
are so called as servants of Christ, Phil. 
1:1, and of his people for his sake, 2 Cor. 
4:5. They should be qualified to defend 
the truth by sound and Scriptural reason- 
ing, to solve questions of conscience and 
spiritual experience, to sympathize with 
their flocks, to counsel, instruct, inspire, 
restrain, and discipline them, to lead men 
to Christ, and to edify them in him. Hence 
they should be eminently " men of God," 
"full of faith and the Holy Ghost," "living 
epistles," and " ensamples to the flock." 
They need to excel in the right knowledge 
of God's Word, in spiritual wisdom, in 
meekness, humility, patience, self-control, 
purity, benevolence, self-denial, and all 
forms of likeness to Christ ; to be diligent 
in study and in watchful care over each 
soul for which they must give account to 
God. 

MIN'NI, a kingdom summoned to a war 
against Babylon, with Ararat and Ashke- 
naz, Jer. 51:27; supposed to denote the 
district Minyas in Armenia, on the north 
branch of the Euphrates, and west of Mount 
Ararat. 

MIN'NITH, distribution, a town of the 
Ammonites in the time of Jephthah, Judg. 



MIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MIR 



11:33, 4 or 5 miles northeast of Heshbon. 
It furnished fine wheat for the market of 
Tyre, Ezek. 27:17. 

MIN'STREL, in 1 Sam. 16:16; 18:10; 
19:9; Isa. 23:16, a player on the harp. In 
2Chr. 35:25; Eccl. 12:5 ; Jer. 9:17-20; Matt. 
9:23, flute-players and professional mourn- 
ers. See Music. 




MINT : MENTHA SILVESTRIS. 

MINT, a garden herb of the order Labi- 
atse, used anciently as now; possibly the 
" bitter-herb " sauce for the Passover, Exod. 
12:8. The Pharisees, desiring to distin- 
guish themselves by a most scrupulous and 
literal observation of the law, Deut. 14:22, 
gave tithes of mint, anise, and cummin, 
Matt. 23:23. Our Saviour does not cen- 
sure this exactness, but that while they 
were so precise in these lesser matters, 
they neglected the essential command- 
ments of the law — making their punctili- 
ousness about easy and external duties an 
excuse for disregarding their obligations to 
love God supremely, to be regenerated in 
heart, and just and beneficent in life. 

MIPH'KAD, appointed, or number, a gate 
in the wall of Zion, Neh. 3:31. 

MIR'ACLE, also called a sign, wonder, 
or mighty work, Acts 2:22; 2 Cor. 12:2; 
2 Thess. 2:9; these names signifying its 
design to certify a divine revelation in ful- 
filment of prophecy, the wonder it excites 
in beholders, and the divine power exer- 
cised in it. It is a work so superseding by 
a higher agency the established laws of na- 
ture as to evince the special interposition 
of God. A miracle is to be distinguished 
from wonders wrought by designing men 
through artful deceptions, occult sciences, 
or laws of nature unknown except to 
adepts. The miracles wrought by Christ, 



for example, were such as God only could 
perform; were wrought in public before 
numerous witnesses, both friends and foes ; 
were open to the most perfect scrutiny ; 
had an end in view worthy of divine sanc- 
tion; were attested by witnesses whose 
character and conduct establish their claim 
to our belief; and are further confirmed 
by institutions still existing, intended to 
commemorate them, and dating from the 
period of the miracles. Christ appealed to 
his mighty works as essential and undeni- 
able proofs of his divinity and Messiah- 
ship, Matt. 9:6; 11:4, 5, 23, 24; John 10:24- 
27; 15:24; 20:29, 3 1 - The deceptions of 
the magicians in Egypt, and of false proph- 
ets in ancient and in modern times, Deut. 
13:1; Matt. 24:24; 2 Thess. 2:9; Rev. 13:13, 
14, would not bear the above tests. By 
employing the agency of any man to work 
a miracle God gave the highest attestation 
to the truth he should teach and the mes- 
sage he should bring, 1 Kin. 18:38, 39; this 
is God's own seal, not to be affixed to false- 
hoods ; and though the lying wonders of 
Satan and his agents were so plausible as 
to "deceive if possible the very elect," no 
one who truly sought to know and do the 
will of God could be deluded by them. 

The chief object of miracles having been 
to authenticate the revelation God has 
made of his will, these mighty works ceased 
when the Scripture canon was completed 
and settled and Christianity was fairly es- 
tablished. Since the close of the 2 centu- 
ries from the ascension of Christ few or no 
undoubted miracles have been wrought. 
The so-called miracles narrated in early 
ecclesiastical writings are ill-authenticated, 
and often trivial and unworthy, and wheth- 
er a sufficient occasion for new miracles 
will ever arise is known only to God. 

The following list comprises most of the 
miracles on record in the Bible, not inclu- 
ding the supernatural visions and revela- 
tions of himself which God vouchsafed to 
his ancient servants, nor those numerous 
wonders of his providence which manifest 
his hand almost as indisputably as mira- 
cles' themselves. See also Prophecy. The 
Old Testament miracles are often those of 
power: New Testament miracles those of 
healing mercy. 

OLD TESTAMENT MIRACLES. 

The creation of all things, Gen. 1. 
The deluge, comprising many miracles, Gen. 
6-8. 

The destruction of Sodom, etc., Gen. 19. 
The healing of Abimelech, Gen. 20 : 17, 18. 

359 



MIR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MIR 



The burning bush, Exod. 3:2-4. 

Moses' rod made a serpent, and restored, Exod. 
4:3,4; 7:10. 

Moses' hand made leprous, and healed, Exod. 
4:6,7. 

Water turned into blood, Exod. 4:9, 30. 

The Nile turned into blood, Exod. 7 : 20. 

Frogs brought and removed, Exod. 8 :6, 13. 

Lice brought, Exod. 8 : 17. 

Flies brought and removed, Exod. 8:21-31. 

Murrain of beasts, Exod. 9 : 3-6. 

Boils and blains brought, Exod. 9: 10, n. 

Hail brought and removed, Exod. 9: 23, 33. 

Locusts brought and removed, Exod. 10:13, 

Darkness brought, Exod. 10:22. 
Firstborn destroyed, Exod. 12:29. 
The Red Sea divided, Exod. 14: 21, 22. 
Egyptians overwhelmed, Exod. 14:26-28. 
Waters of Marah sweetened, Exod. 15: 25. 
Quails and manna sent, Exod. 16. 
Water from the rock in Horeb, Exod. 17 : 6. 
Amalek vanquished, Exod. 17: 11-13. 
Pillar of cloud and fire, Num. 9: 15-23. 
Leprosy of Miriam, Num. 12 : 10. 
Destruction of Korah, etc., Num. 16 : 28-35, 
46-50. 
Aaron's rod budding, Num. 17 : 8. 
Water from the rock in Kadesh, Num. 20 : 11. 
Healing by the brazen serpent, Num. 21 : 8, 9. 
Moses' view of all Canaan, Deut. 34: 1-3. 
Balaam's ass speaks, Num. 22 : 28. 
Plague in the desert, Num. 25: 1, 9. 
Waters of Jordan divided, Josh. 3:10-17. 
Jordan restored to its course, Josh. 4: 18. 
Jericho taken, Josh. 6 : 6-20. 
Achan discovered, Josh. 7: 14-21. 
Sun and moon stand still, Josh. 10: 12-14. 
Gideon's fleece wet, Judg. 6:36-40. 
Midianites destroyed, Judg. 7 : 16-22. 
Exploits of Samson, Judg. 14-16. 
House of Dagon destroyed, Judg. 16:30. 
Dagon falls before the ark, etc., 1 Sam. 5. 
Return of the ark, 1 Sam. 6: 12. 
Thunder and rain in harvest, 1 Sam. 12 : iS. 
Jeroboam's hand withered, etc., 1 Kin. 13:4, 6. 
The altar rent, 1 Kin. 13 : 5. 
Drought caused, 1 Kin. 17:6. 
Elijah fed by ravens, 1 Kin. 17:7. 
Meal and oil supplied, 1 Kin. 17: 14-16. 
Child restored to life, 1 Kin. 17 : 22, 23. 
Sacrifice consumed by fire, 1 Kin. 18:36, 38. 
Rain brought, 1 Kin. 18:41-45. 
Men destroyed by fire, 2 Kin. 1 : 10-12. 
Waters of Jordan divided, 2 Kin. 2 : 14. 
Noxious waters healed, 2 Kin. 2 :2i, 22. 
Children torn by bears, 2 Kin. 2 : 24. 
Waters brought, 2 Kin. 3: 16-20. 
Oil supplied, 2 Kin. 4: 1-7. 
Child restored to life, 2 Kin. 4:32-35. 
Naaman healed, 2 Kin. 5: 10, 14. 
Gehazi's leprosy, 2 Kin. 5:27. 
Iron caused to swim, 2 Kin. 6 : 6. 
Syrians smitten blind, etc., 2 Kin. 6: 18, 20. 
A man restored to life, 2 Kin. 13 : 21. 
Assyrians destroyed, 2 Kin. 19 :3s. 
Hezekiah healed, 2 Kin. 20:7. 
Shadow put back, 2 Kin. 20: 11. 
Pestilence in Israel, 1 Chr. 21 : T4. 
Jonah preserved by a fish, Jon. 1 : 17 ; 2 : 10. 
360 



NEW TESTAMENT MIRACLES. 

The conception of the Virgin Mary, Matt. 1 : 18. 

The star in the east, Matt. 2 : 2. 

The Spirit like a dove, Matt. 3 : 16. 

Christ's fast and temptations, Matt. 4: 1-11. 

Many miracles of Christ, Matt. 4: 23, 24; 8 : 16 ; 
14:14,36; 15:30; Mark 1:34; Luke 6: 17-19. 

Lepers cleansed, Matt. 8: 3, 4; Luke 17: 14. 

Centurion's servant healed, Matt. 8 : 5-13. 

Peter's wife's mother healed, Matt. 8: 14. 

Tempests stilled, Matt. 8 : 23-26 ; 14 : 32. 

Devils cast out, Matt. 8 : 28-32 ; 9 : 32, 33 ; 15 : 22- 
28 ; 17 : 14-18. 

Paralytics healed, Matt. 9:2-6; Mark 2:3-12. 

Issue of blood healed, Matt. 9:20-22. 

Jairus' daughter raised to life, Matt. 9: 18, 25. 

Sight given to the blind, Matt. 9:27-30; 20:34; 
Mark 8 : 22-25 ! John 9 : 1-7. 

The dumb restored, Matt. 9 : 32, 33 ; 12 : 22 ; Mark 
7 : 33-35- 

Miracles by the disciples, Matt. 10 :i, 8. 

Multitudes fed, Matt. 14:15-21 ; 15:35-38. 

Christ walking on the sea, Matt. 14: 25-27. 

Peter walking on the sea, Matt. 14: 29. 

Christ's transfiguration, etc., Matt. 17: 1-8. 

Tribute from a fish's mouth, Matt. 17: 27. 

The fig-tree withered, Matt. 21 : 19. 

Miracles at the crucifixion, Matt. 27:51-53. 

The resurrection of Christ, and wonders attend- 
ing it, Matt. 28 : 1-7 ; Luke 24 : 6. 

Draught of fishes, Luke 5 : 4-6 ; John 21 : 6. 

Widow's son raised to life, Luke 7: 14, 15. 

Miracles before John's messengers, Luke 7: 21, 
22. 

Miracles by the seventy, Luke 10: 9, 17. 

Woman healed of infirmity, Luke 13 : 11-13. 

Dropsy cured, Luke 14: 2-4. 

Malchus' ear restored, Luke 22 : 50, 51. 

Water turned into wine, John 2 : 6-10. 

Nobleman's son healed, John 4:46-53. 

Impotent man healed, John 5 : 5-9. 

Sudden crossing of the sea, John 6: 21. 

Lazarus raised from the dead, John 11 :43, 44. 

Christ's coming to his disciples, John 20: 19, 26. 

Christ's ascension, Acts 1 :g. 

Wonders at Pentecost, Acts 2:1-11. 

Miracles by the apostles, Acts 2 : 43 ; 5 : 12. 

Lame man cured, Acts 3 : 7. 

Death of Ananias and Sapphira, Acts 5 : 5, 10. 

Many sick healed, Acts 5:15, 16. 

Apostles delivered from prison, Acts 5 : 19. 

Miracles by Stephen, Acts 6:8. 

Miracles by Philip, Acts 8 : 6, 7, 13. 

^Eneas made whole, Acts 9:34. 

Dorcas restored to life. Acts 9 : 40. 

Peter delivered from prison, Acts 12 :6-io. 

Elymas struck blind, Acts 15 : 11. 

Miracles by Paul and Barnabas, Acts 14:3. 

Lame man cured, Acts 14: 10. 

Paul's recovery after being stoned, Acts 14: 20. 

Unclean spirit cast out, Acts 16: 18. 

Paul and Silas delivered, Acts 16: 25, 26. 

Special miracles, Acts 19: 11, 12. 

Eutychus restored to life, Acts 20: 10-12. 

Viper's bite made harmless, Acts 28 : 5. 

Father of Publius, etc., healed, Acts 28:8, 9. 

MIRTAM, their rebellion, I., daughter of 
Amram and Jochebed, of the tribe of Levi, 
the sister of Moses and Aaron, probably 



MIR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MIZ 



the one who, about 12 years old, watched 
over Moses in the ark of bulrushes, Exod. 
2:4, 5; Num. 26:59. As a prophetess, Mic. 
6:4, she led the women of Israel in their 
song of worship and thanksgiving to God 
on the drowning of the Egyptians, Exod. 
15:20, 21. Her jealous murmurs against 
Moses and his Cushite wife were punished 
by a temporary leprosy, Num. 12; Deut. 
24:9, as were the sins of Gehazi and Uzziah 
against God's special servants. But she 
was forgiven and restored, and near the 
close of the wanderings of Israel died at 
Kadesh-barnea, Num. 20:1. 

II. Son of Mered and grandson of Pha- 
raoh, 1 Chr. 4:17. 

MIR'ROR. See Looking-glass. 

MIS'CHIEF, Ezek. 7:26; Acts 13:10, im- 
plies some serious harm accomplished. 

MIS'GAB, height, a place in the highlands 
of Moab, on the route of the invading Bab- 
ylonians, Jer. 48:1. Supposed to be meant 
in Isa. 25:12, A. V., "high fort." 

MISH'AEL, who is like God? I., son of 
Uzziel and cousin of Aaron, Exod. 6:22. 
He aided in the burial of Nadab and Abi- 
hu, Lev. 10:4, 5. Compare Num. 9:6. 

II. Me'shach, a fellow-captive with Dan- 
iel in Babylon. See Abednego. 

III. A supporter of Ezra, Neh. 8:4. 
MI'SHAL, entreaty, a Levitical city in 

Asher, Josh. 21 :3o, called Misheal in Josh. 
19:26, A. V., and Mashal in 1 Chr. 6:74. 
Identified in Kh. Muslih, 6 miles north by 
east of Acre. 

MISH'MA, hearing, I., 5th son of Ish- 
mael, and his posterity, a tribe northeast 
of Medina; the Bene-misma, Gen. 25:14; 
1 Chr. 1:30. — II. 1 Chr. 4:25, 26. 

MIS'REPHOTH-MAIM, burnings of wa- 
ters, a place in North Canaan to which 
Joshua pursued the host of Jabin, Josh. 
11:8; 13:6. 




THE ROMAN AS. 

MITE, Gr. "lepton," a thin copper Ro- 
man coin, in value less than 2 mills, Luke 
12:59; 21:2. See Measures and Appen- 
dix Tables. None are too poor to do some- 
thing for Christ, but mites from a miser are 
not an acceptable offering. 

MITH'CAH, sweetness, 27th station of the 
Israelites from Goshen, Num. 33:28, 29, 
perhaps Ain Ghamr, near Jebel Jerafeh. 



MITH'REDATH, given by Mithras the 
sun-god, I., treasurer of king Cyrus, who 
restored the temple utensils, Ezra 1:8. 

II. A Persian officer in Samaria, who in- 
terfered with the rebuilding of Jerusalem, 
Ezra 4:7. 




MI'TRE, the sacred turban or bonnet of 
the Jewish high-priest, made of a piece of 
fine linen many yards long, wound about 
the head, and having in front, secured with 
blue lace, a plate of pure gold on which was 
inscribed, " Holiness unto the Lord," 
Exod. 28:4, 36-38; 39:28-31. 

MITYLE'NE, the ancient capital of the 
island of Lesbos, in the iEgean Sea ; a 
" free " city and a seaport, on the east side 
of the island, 7 miles distant from Asia 
Minor. Paul touched there on his way 
from Greece to Jerusalem, Acts 20: 14. The 
island is now called by the Turks Midilli, 
and the ruins of the city still exist. 

MIXED MUL'TITUDE, Exod. 12:38; 
Num. 11:4; Neh. 13:1-3, 30, a crowd of 
people not purely Hebrews, followers of 
the camp of Israel. 

MI'ZAR, little, if a proper name, appar- 
ently a southern spur of Mount Hermon, 
which David in exile contrasts with Mount 
Zion, Psa. 42:6. Compare Psa. 68:15, 16; 
114:4-6; Isa. 2:2. 

MIZ'PAH, or Miz'peh, a watchtower, I., 
a place in Gilead, Hos. 5:1 ; so named from 
the stone-heap cast up by Jacob and Laban, 
Gen. 31:48-52, whence it was also named 
Galeed and Jegar-sahadutha, heap of wit- 
ness. It appears to have lain north of Ma- 
hanaim. 

II. Another place in Gilead farther south, 
where Jephthah resided and assembled his 
army, Judg. 10:17; 11:11,29,34. See also 
Josh. 13:26. 

III. A valley near Mount Hermon, Josh. 

36i 



MIZ 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MOA 



11:3, 8, perhaps Mutulleh, in the Ard-el- 
Huleh, on the west of Jebel Heish, or far- 
ther north in el-Buka'a. 

IV. A city of Benjamin, a central gath- 
ering-place of the tribes in the period of 
the Judges, Josh. 18:26; Judg. 20:1, 3; 21 .1, 
5, 8. It is thought by some to have been 
the Mizpah of Jephthah, who, though a 
Gileadite, was judge over Israel west of the 
Jordan also. Here Samuel sacrificed and 
judged and Israel repented, and here Saul 
was designated as king, 1 Sam. 7:5-16; 
10:17-25. It was fortified by Asa as a de- 
fence against Israel, 1 Kin. 15:22; 2 Chr. 
16:6, was the residence of the governor, 
under Nebuchadnezzar, 2 Kin. 25:23, 25; 
Jer. 40:6, and was reoccupied after the 
Captivity, Neh. 3:19. Its name indicates 
that it occupied an elevated site, and it was 
near Ramah; hence Dr. Robinson identi- 
fies it with the modern place called Neby 
Samwil, 5 miles northwest of Jerusalem — 
a prominent height 2,935 feet above the 
sea, commanding extended views in every 
directicm. Some, however, prefer Scopus, 
the prolongation of Mount Olivet 'over 
against Jerusalem" on the north. 

V. A town in the plain of Judah, Josh. 
15:38; supposed to be el-Hesy, 3 miles 
southeast of Lachish, and 16 east of Gaza. 

VI. A chief town in Moab, where David 
found a refuge for his parents, 1 Sam. 22:3; 
possibly Kir-Moab the capital. 

Some high point in the wilderness of Ju- 
dah may also have been named Mizpah, 
translated "watchtower" in 2 Chr. 20:24. 

MIZ'PAR, rather MIS'PAR, number, a 
Jew who returned from Babylon, Ezra 2:2; 
called Mispereth in Neh. y.j. 

MIZ'RAIM, or MIZRA'IM, a son of Ham, 
and father of various African races, Gen. 
10:6, 13, but particularly of the Egyptians, 
to whom his name was given. Mizraim, 
the double Egypt, is also the Hebrew word 
for Egypt in the Bible, Gen. 45:20; 46:34; 
47:6, 13; Psa. 78:51; 105:23, 38, and this 
country is still called Misr in Arabic. See 
Egypt. 

MNA'SON, remembering, a Christian 
from Cyprus, the home of Barnabas, Acts 
4:36; 13:2-5, "an old disciple," perhaps of 
Christ in person, with whom Paul lodged 
at Jerusalem on his last visit, Acts 21:16; 
an elder "given to hospitality," 1 Tim. 
3:2. 

MOAB, from the father, the son of Lot, 

born near Zoar, Gen. 19:30-38; also the 

race descended from him, and the country 

they occupied, Num. 22:3, 4; 24:17. The 

362 



Moabites were thus kinsmen of Israel, Gen. 
11:31. The "country," "land," or "field" 
of Moab lay east and southeast of the Dead 
Sea, and chiefly south of the river Arnon — 
a high plateau 3,000 feet above the Mediter- 
ranean, 50 miles long and 15 wide, broken 
by gorges running down to the Dead Sea. 
At one period, however, it extended north 
as far as the Jabbok, and for a long time 
the region beyond the Jordan opposite Jer- 
icho retained the name of "the plains of 
Moab," Num. 22:1; Deut. 1:5; 29:1; 34:6; 
Josh. 13:32. The Moabites had dispos- 
sessed a race of giants called Emim, Deut. 
2:11, and had themselves been expelled by 
the Amorites from the territory north of 
the Arnon, Num. 21:13, 26; Judg, 11:13-18, 
which was again conquered by Moses, and 
assigned to the tribe of Reuben. On the 
approach of Israel from Egypt the Moab- 
ites refused them a peaceful passage, and 
combined with the Midianites and Balaam 
against them, Num. 22-24; Deut. 2:8, 9; 
and though God spared them from con- 
quest, he excluded them and their seed 
even to the 10th generation from the pecu- 
liar privileges of his people, Deut. 23:3-6. 
They were gross idolaters, worshipping 
Chemosh and Baal-peor with obscene rites, 
Num. 25, and sometimes with human sac- 
rifices, 2 Kin. 3:27. See Moloch. At times, 
as in the days of Ruth, there was peace be- 
tween them and Israel ; but a state of hos- 
tility was far more common, as in the time 
of Eglon, Judg. 3:12-30; of Saul, 1 Sam. 
14:47; of David, 2 Sam. 8:2, 12; of Joram 
and Jeroboam, 2 Kin. 3; 13:20; 14:25. See 
Mesha. Moabitish women tempted Solo- 
mon to sin, 1 Kin. 11 :i, 7, 33. They aided 
Nebuchadnezzar against the Jews, 2 Kin. 
24:2 ; Ezek. 25:6-11 ; and after these began 
to be carried captive, appear to have re- 
gained their old possessions north of the 
Arnon, Isa. 15; 16. The Jewish prophets 
recorded many threatenings against these 
hereditary enemies of God and his people, 
Num. 24:17; Psa. 60:8; 83:6; Isa. 15; 16; 
25; 26; Jer. 25:9-21; 48; Amos 2:1-3; and 
all travellers concur in attesting the fulfil- 
ment of these predictions. Desolation and 
gloom brood over the mountains of Moab, 
and its fruitful valleys are for the most part 
untilled. Kerak, or the Belka, is under 
Turkish government, and is infested by 
migratory Arabs, Zeph. 2:8, 9. Travellers 
describe it as abounding in ruins, such as 
shattered tombs, cisterns, walls, temples, 
etc., proving that it was once densely pop- 
ulated. See " Keith on Prophecy." 



MOD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MON 



MODERA'TION, Phil. 4:5, conciliatory 
spirit. In R. V. forbearance or gentle- 
ness. 

MOLA'DAH, birth, a town in the south 
or Simeonite portion of Judah, Josh. 15:26; 
19:2; 1 Chr. 4:28, reoccupied after the Cap- 
tivity, Neh. 11:25, 26. It lay in the region 
where Abraham long sojourned, 8 miles 



southwest of Arad, and 13 east of Beer- 
sheba. It is now Kh. el-Milh. 

MOLE. In Lev. 11:30 probably a spe- 
cies of lizard or chameleon is meant. In 
ver. 29 the "weasel," and in Isa. 2:20 the 
"moles," may denote the sphalax lyphlus. 
or rat-mole, a large rodent, without exter- 
nal eyes or tail, abundant in Palestine. 




MO'LECH, or MO'LOCH, a king, called 
Milcom in 1 Kin. 11:5, 2>3', 2 Kim 23:13, 
and Malcham, or "their king," in 2 Sam. 
12:30; Jer. 49:1, 3; Zeph. 1:5. See also 
Isa. 30:33; 57:9; Amos 1:15; 7:13. It is 
the name of a heathen deity worshipped 
by the Ammonites. The Israelites also 
introduced the worship of this idol, if not 
during their wanderings in the desert, yet 
after their settlement in Palestine, 2 Kin. 
23:10; Ezek. 20:26, 31; Amos 5:25, 26. 
Among the sacrifices to Moloch were hu- 
man victims, namely, children, who were 
cast alive into the red-hot arms of his hol- 
low, brazen, calf-headed statue. See Hin- 
nom. Compare Lev. 18:21; 20:2; Deut. 
12:31; Psa. 106:37, 38; Jer. 7:31; 19:2-6; 
32:35. According to some of these passa- 
ges Moloch would seem to be closely associ- 
ated with the Moabitish Chemosh, and with 
Baal, 2 Kin. 3:27; 23:10, 13; and we find 
that the Phoenicians, whose chief god was 
Baal, and the Carthaginians their colonists, 
worshipped his image with similar horrid 
sacrifices, as the Romans did their god 
Saturn, 2 Kin. 17:16, 17 ; 21:5,6. 



MON'EY. See Measures, and Tables in 
Appendix. In early ages and among un- 
civilized races bartering, or the simple ex- 
change of one commodity for another, pre- 
ceded the use of any medium of exchange ; 
afterwards cattle have been used as money, 
also corn, salt, tobacco, sea-shells, etc. 
When gold, silver, and copper were first 
used they were not coined but weighed, 
Gen. 13:2 ; 20:16; Josh. 7:21 ; Isa. 46:6, and 
the amount agreed upon was paid over by 
weight, Gen. 23:16; 43:21; Exod. 30:24. 
Lastly they gave this metal, by public au- 
thority, a certain mark, a certain weight, 
and a certain degree of alloy, to fix its 
value, and to save buyers and sellers the 
trouble of weighing and examining the 
coins. Greek coin were probably in use 
in the 8th century B. C. Persian coins 
came later, and the golden daric, the " Sa- 
gittarius," was the first coin known to have 
been used by the Jews, Ezra 2:69; 8:27; 
Neh. 7:70-72. The first regular coinage 
among the Jews is supposed to have been 
in the time of Simon Maccabaeus, less than 
a century and a half before Christ. The 

363 



MON 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MON 



coins were the shekel, and a half, a third, 
and a quarter of a shekel. The Jewish 




COIN OF ABGARUS, FROM UR. 

coins bore an almond-rod and a vase of 
manna, but no image of any man was 
allowed. Compare Matt. 22 : 16-22. Many 
Greek and Roman coins circulated in Ju- 
daea in New Testament times. See Tables 
at the end of the volume ; also Measures, 
Mite, Penny, Shekel. 

Volney says, " The practice of weighing 
money is general in Syria, Egypt, and all 
Turkey. No piece, however effaced, is 
refused there : the merchant draws out his 
scales and weighs it, as in the days of 
Abraham, when he purchased his sepul- 
chre. In considerable payments an agent 
of exchange is sent for, who counts paras 
by thousands, rejects pieces of false money, 
and weighs all the sequins, either sepa- 
rately or together." This may serve to 
illustrate the phrase, " current money with 
the merchant," Gen. 23:16; and the refer- 
ences to " divers weights " — a large one to 
weigh the money received, and a small 
one for that paid out; and to " wicked bal- 
ances," Deut. 25:13; Amos 8:5; Mic. 6:11. 
Our Saviour alludes to a class of " exchan- 
gers," who appear to have taken money on 
deposit, and so used it that the owner might 
afterwards receive his own with interest, 
Matt. 25:27. There were also money-bro- 
kers who had stands in the outer court of 
the temple, probably to exchange foreign 
for Jewish coins, and to accommodate those 
who wished to pay the yearly half-shekel 
tax, Exod. 30: 13-15, or to present an offer- 
ing. They were expelled by the Lord of 
the temple, not only for obtruding a secular 
business within the house of prayer, but 
also for pursuing it dishonestly, Matt. 21:12, 
13; Mark 11:15-17. 

In 1 Tim. 6:10 Paul speaks of the "love 
of money" as a root of all evils; censu- 
ring not money itself, but the love of it — a 
prevailing form of human selfishness and 
covetousness. This fatal passion may in- 
fest the heart of a poor man as well as that 
of the rich, for the one may have as much 
of "the love of money" as the other. 
364 



MONTH. See below. 

MON'UMENTS, Isa. 65:4, perhaps caves 
to which priests retired for necromantic 
dreams. In the R. V., " secret places." 

MOON, Heb. pale yellow, or white, "the 
lesser light " appointed " for times and sea- 
sons," Gen. 1:14-16; Psa. 104:19. This 
beautiful and stately ruler of the night, 
Gen. 1 : 16, is one of the chief witnesses to 
mankind of the goodness, wisdom, and 
power of the Creator, Deut. 33:14; Psa. 
8:3; and as receiving all its light from the 
sun, and reflecting it on all around, it is 
a striking image of the church of Christ, 
which is illuminated by him and reflects 
his glory, Rom. 13:12; 2 Cor. 3:18. In the 
clear sky of the East the moon shines with 
peculiar brilliancy ; it was especially use- 
ful to the early races of men from their lack 
of artificial light, and their open-air pasto- 
ral life; Song 6:10; and it was worshipped 
by most nations of antiquity, either di- 
rectly, Job 31: 26, 27, with cakes of honey, 
Jer. 7:18; 44:17-25, or as an idol-goddess 
under the name of Ashtoreth, Artemis, Di- 
ana, Hecate, Meni, Mylitta, Maja, etc. The 
Hebrews were specially cautioned against 
this form of idolatry, Deut. 4:19; 17:3, and 
yet fell into it, 2 Kin. 21:3; Isa. 65:11; Jer. 
8:2; 19:13. The withdrawal of the moon's 
light, by an eclipse or by total extinguish- 
ment, symbolized divine judgments, Isa. 
13:10; Matt. 24:29; Rev. 8:12. See Luna- 
tic and New Moon. 

MONTH. The Hebrew months were lu- 
nar months, that is, from one new moon to 
another. These lunar months were each 
reckoned at 29K days ; or rather, one was 
of 30 days, the following of 29, and so on 
alternately: that which had 30 days was 
called a full or complete month ; that which 
had but 29 days was called incomplete. 
The new moon was always the beginning 
of the month, and this day they called new- 
moon day, or new month. The new moon 
may be detected about 40 hours after con- 
junction with the sun, and observers were 
stationed to watch for its appearance, and 
authoritatively announce it, Num. 10:10; 
Psa. 81:3. The Hebrews usually designa- 
ted the months only as 1st, 2d, etc.; and 
the names by which they are now known- 
some of them of Persian origin— seem to 
have been adopted by the Jews during the 
Captivity. At the exodus from Egypt, which 
occurred in April, God ordained that that 
month — the 7th of the civil year— should 
be the 1st of the sacred year, according to 
which the religious festivals were to be 



MOR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MOS 



reckoned; and from that time both these 
modes of numbering the months continued 
to be employed. 

As the Jewish months were governed by 
the moon, while ours entirely disregard it, 
the two systems cannot wholly coincide. 
It is generally agreed, however, that their 
month Nisan answers most nearly to our 
April, Iyar to our May, etc., as in the fol- 
lowing table, but often including a part of 
the preceding month, Abib in some years 
coming partly in our March : 



Hebrew Months. 


Nearly corre- 
sponding with 
our 


Months 
of the 
Sacred 
Year. 


Months 
of the 
Civil 
Year. 


Sea- 
ons. 


Abib, or Nisan, 

Exod. 12 : 2, 18. 

" 13:4- 

Esth. 3:7. 


April. 


ISt. 


7 th. 


r 
> 

H 

m 


Iyar or Zif, 
1 Kin. 6: 1. 


May. 


2d. 


8th. 




< 
■ w 

M 
> 

O 
2 


Sivan, 
Esth. 8:9. 


June. 


3d. 


9th. 


Tammuz, 
Ezek. 8: 14. 


July. 


4th. 


10th. 


Ab. 


August. 


5th. 


nth. 


Elul, 
Neh. 6:15. 


September. 


6th. 


12th. 




Ethanim, or 

Tishri, 
1 Kin. 8:2. 


October. 


7 th. 


ISt. 


tn 
> 

?3 


Marcheshvan, 

or Bui, 

1 Kin. 6 : 38. 


November. 


8th. 


2d. 


< 

> 
• < 

w 
W 

> 


3 


Chisleu, 
Zech. 7 : 1. 


December. 


9th. 


3d. 


Tebeth, 
Esth. 2:16. 


January. 


10th. 


4th. 


Shebat, 
Zech. 1 :j. 


February. 


nth. 


5th. 


Adar, 
Esth. 3 : 7. 


March. 


12th. 


6th. 





Twelve lunar months making but 3^4 
days and 8 4-5 hours, the Jewish year was 
short of the solar nearly 11 days. To re- 
cover the equinoctial point, from which 
this difference of the solar and lunar year 
would separate the new moon of the 1st 
month, the Jews 7 times in 19 years inter- 
calated a 13th month, called Ve-adar, the 
2d Adar. By this means their lunar year 
nearly equalled the solar. See Year. 

MOR'DECAI, little man, or worshipper of 
Mars, I., son of Jair, and great-grandson of 



a Benjamite named Kish, who was carried 
captive to Babylon with Jehoiachin, B. C. 
599, Esth. 2:5, 6. He was the cousin and 
guardian of Hadassah, whose wonderful 
history is related in the book of Esther, of 
which he was probably the author. See 
Esther, Haman. 

II. A man of note among those who re- 
turned to Judaea with Zerubbabel, Ezra 
2:2 ; Neh. y.j. 

MO'REH, teacher, I., the name of an 
" oak," or grove of oaks — called " the plain " 
or "plains" in the A. V.— near Shechem, 
where Abraham on entering Canaan had a 
vision of God, Gen. 12:6, 7. Compare Gen. 
35:4; Deut. 11:30; Josh. 24:26. 

II. A height on the north of the valley of 
Jezreel, a southern spur of Jebel ed-Duhy, 
facing Mount Gilboa on the southeast with 
the wide valley between. 

MO'RESHETH-GATH^ossessionofGalh, 
a town in the lowland of Judah, the home 
of Micah the prophet, Jer. 26:18; Mic. 1:1, 
13-15, probably near Mareshah and Eleu- 
theropolis. 

MORI'AH, shown by Jehovah, the hill on 
which the temple of Jerusalem was built, 
2 Chr. 3:1. See Jerusalem. It seems to 
have been the same place where Abraham 
was about to offer up Isaac, Gen. 22:1, 2, 
14, and where David interceded for his 
people at the threshing-floor of Araunah, 
2 Sam. 24:16-25; 1 Chr. 21:15-26. 

MOR'TAR, for cementing bricks and 
stones and plastering walls, Exod. 1:14; 
Lev. 14:41, 42; Ezek. 13:10, was usually 
made of clay and straw chopped fine and 
well worked; sometimes of sand, ashes, 
and lime. Bitumen was also used, as is 
now seen in the ruins of Babylon. 

MOR'TARS and pestles for separating 
grain from its husks, and for pounding 
grain, spices, etc., were often made of wood 
as well as of metal. They were employed 
by the Hebrews in preparing manna for 
use, Num. 11:8. Large iron mortars for 
pounding grain have been used by the 
Turks in the execution of criminals: but it 
is not known that the Jews ever practised 
this mode of punishment. To this day a 
favorite article of food in Syria is prepared 
by pounding meat for hours in an iron mor- 
tar, and adding grain and spice while the 
process of "braving" goes on, Prov. 27:22. 

MOR'TIFY, put to death, Rom. 8:13; Col. 
3:5- 

MOSE'RA, band, and MOSE'ROTH, bands, 
37th and 29th station of the Israelites in the 
desert, Num. 33:30, 37, 38. Compare Deut. 

365 



MOS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MOS 



10:6. It is found perhaps at et-Taiyibeh, 
on the west of the traditional Mount Hor ; 
but according to many in Wady Murrah, 
32 miles southwest of the Dead Sea, at the 
foot of Jebel Maderah, which they regard 
as the true Mount Hor. 

MO'SES, the illustrious prophet and leg- 
islator of the Hebrews, who led them from 
Egypt to the promised land. Having been 
originally imposed by a native Egyptian 
princess, the name is no doubt Egyptian in 
its origin, and Josephus gives its deriva- 
tion — from the 2 Egyptian words, mo, wa- 
ter, and use, saved. With this accords the 
Septuagint form, Mouses. The Hebrews 
by a slight change accommodated it to their 
own language, as they did also in the case 
of some other foreign words ; calling it Mo- 
she, from the verb masha, to draw. See 
Exod. 2:10. Moses was born about 1571 
B. C, the son of Amram and Jochebed, of 
the Kohathite branch of the tribe of Levi, 
and was the younger brother of Miriam and 
Aaron. His history is too extensive to per- 
mit insertion here, and in general too well 
known to need it. It is enough simply to re- 
mark that it is divided into 3 periods, each 
of 40 years, Acts 7:23, 30, 36. The first ex- 
tended from his infancy, when by the faith 
of his pious "fathers," Heb. 11:23, he was 
exposed in the Nile, and found and adopted 
by the daughter of Pharaoh, to his flight to 
Midian. During this time he lived at the 
Egyptian court, and "was learned in all 
the wisdom of the Egyptians, and was 
mighty in words and in deeds," Acts 7:22. 
This is no unmeaning praise; the "wis- 
dom" of the Egyptians, and especially of 
their priests, was then the profoundest in 
the world. The 2d period was from his 
flight till his return to Egypt, Acts 7:30, 
during the whole of which interval he ap- 
pears to have lived in Midian, it may be 
much after the manner of the Bedouin 
sheikhs of the present day. Here he mar- 
ried Zipporah (see), daughter of the wise 
and pious Jethro, and became familiar with 
life in the desert. What a contrast between 
the former period, spent amid the splendor 
and learning of a court, and this lonely no- 
madic life. Still it was in this way that the 
Angel-Jehovah, who appeared to him in 
the burning bush, prepared him to be the 
instrument of deliverance to His people 
during the 3d period of his life, which ex- 
tends from the exodus out of Egypt to his 
death on Mount Nebo. In this interval 
how much did he accomplish as the imme- 
diate agent of the Most High. 
366 



The life and institutions of the great law- 
giver and leader of Israel present one of 
the finest subjects for the pen of a Chris- 
tian historian, who is at the same time a 
competent Biblical antiquary. His insti- 
tutions breathe a spirit of freedom, purity, 
intelligence, justice, and humanity else- 
where unknown ; and above all, of supreme 
love, honor, and obedience to God. They 
moulded the character of the Hebrews, 
and transformed them from a nation of 
shepherds into a people of fixed residence 
and agricultural habits. Through that peo- 
ple, and through the Bible, the influence of 
these institutions has been extended over 
the world ; and often where the letter has 
not been observed, the spirit of them has 
been adopted. Thus it was in the laws 
established by the pilgrim fathers of New 
England ; and no small part of what is of 
most value in the institutions which they 
founded is to be ascribed to the influence 
of the Hebrew legislator. 

The name of this servant of God is per- 
petuated in numerous places in the wilder- 
ness of Sinai, and a recently discovered 
Egyptian papyrus speaks of a Mesu who 
had great influence with the " foreign peo- 
ple " of Egypt. It occurs repeatedly in 
Greek and Latin writings, and still more 
frequently in those of the Arabs and the 
rabbinical Jews. Many of their statements, 
however, are mere legends without foun- 
dation, or else distortions of the Scripture 
narrative. By the Jews he has always been 
especially honored as the most illustrious 
personage in all their annals, and as the 
founder of their whole system of laws and 
institutions. Numerous passages both in 
the Old and New Testaments show how 
exalted a position they gave him, Psa. 
103:7; 105:26; 106:16; Isa. 63:12; Jer. 15:1; 
Dan. 9:11; Matt. 8:4; John 5:45; 7:22; 
9:28; Acts 7:20-38; Rom. 10:5, 19; 2 Tim. 
3:8, 9; Heb. 3; 11:23-28; Jude 9. 

In all that he wrought and taught he 
was but the agent of the Most High; and 
yet in all his own character stands honor- 
ably revealed. He is extolled as " the man 
of God," and eminently "the servant of 
God." He "chose" the service of God 
deliberately against strong temptations to 
a worldly career. He early regarded him- 
self as the goel or redeemer of his people, 
and his judicial slaying of the Egyptian is 
so explained by Stephen, Acts 7:25. His 
despondency when called at the age of 80 
to a task which he had believed hopeless 
when 40 years old, God forgave. Though 



MOT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MOU 



naturally liable to anger and impatience, 
he so far subdued himself as to be termed 
the meekest of men, Num. 12:3; and his 
faith, humility, and forbearance, the wis- 
dom and vigor of his administration, his 
unfailing zeal and faith in God, and his 
disinterested patriotism are worthy of all 
imitation, Exod. 32:11-14; Num. 11:29. He 
did not place his sons in positions of power 
and profit. Many features of his character 
and life furnish admirable illustrations of 
the work of Christ — as the deliverer, ruler, 
and guide of his people, rejected by them, 
but bearing them on his heart, interceding 
for them as a mediator, rescuing, teaching, 
and nourishing them even to the promised 
land. All the religious institutions of Mo- 
ses pointed to Christ; and he himself, on 
the Mount of Transfiguration, 2,000 years 
after his death, paid his homage to the 
Prophet he had foretold, Deut. 18:15-19, 
beheld "that goodly mountain and Leba- 
non," Deut. 3:25, and was admitted to com- 
mune with the Saviour on the most glori- 
ous of themes, the death He should accom- 
plish at Jerusalem, Luke 9:31. 

He reached the border of the promised 
land when 120 years old, gave his fare- 
well counsels to the 12 tribes in the plains 
of Moab, Deut. 1:3, 5, and died in Mount 
Pisgah, Deut. 34:5-8. His last word and 
act, like Christ's, were a benediction, Deut. 
33:29; Luke 24:51. 

Moses was the author of the Pentateuch, 
as it is called, or the first 5 books of the 
Bible. In the composition of them he was 
probably assisted by Aaron, who kept a 
register of public transactions, Exod. 17:14; 
2 4:4, 7; 34 : 27; Num. 33:1, 2; Deut. 31:24, 
etc. Some things were added by a later 
inspired hand; as, for example, the last 
chapter of Deuteronomy. The 90th Psalm 
also is ascribed to Moses; and its noble 
and devout sentiments acquire a new sig- 
nificance if received as from his pen near 
the close of his pilgrimage. By many he 
is regarded as the author of the book of 
Job. His triumphal songs in Exod. 15; 
Deut. 32 and 33 anticipate the final and 
eternal song of Moses and the Lamb, Rev. 
15:3. His writings show the familiarity of 
an eyewitness and participant with all that 
he relates, and are confirmed in even mi- 
nute details by the extant monuments of 
Egypt. 

MOTE, a small, dry particle, Matt. 7:3-5. 

MOTH. The common moth is an insect 
destructive to woollen cloths. The egg is 
laid by a small white miller, and produces 



a small soft, shining worm, which houses 
itself in a cylinder open at both ends, 
wrought from the cloth, upon which it then 
feeds destructively; after this, by another 
transformation, it becomes a miller. Allu- 
sions to the moth, as devouring clothes, the 
wealth of Eastern homes, Jas. 5:2, and as 
a frail and feeble insect, are frequent in 
Scripture, Job 4:19; 13:28; 27:18; Psa. 
39:11; Isa. 50:9; Hos. 5:12; Matt. 6:19, 20. 
See Garments. 

The insects called in general moths, of 
which the above is only one species, are 
exceedingly numerous. The main genus, 
Lepidoptera, contains more than 1,500 spe- 
cies. Moths fly abroad only in the evening 
and night, differing in this respect from the 
tribe of butterflies, which fly only by day. 
Their larvae, or the worms from which they 
spring, are active and quick in motion, 
mostly smooth, and prey voraciously on the 
food adapted to them; the common tinea 
on cloths, others on furs, the leaves of 
plants, etc. 

MOTH'ER. The Hebrew words am and 
ab, mother and father, are simple and easy 
sounds for infant lips, like mamma and 
papa in English. See Abba. " Before the 
child shall have knowledge to cry, My fa- 
ther, and My mother," Isa. 8:4. In addi- 
tion to the usual meaning of " mother," am 
sometimes signifies in the Bible grandmo- 
ther, 1 Kin. 15:10, or some remote female 
ancestor, Gen. 3:20. It is put for a chief 
city, 2 Sam. 20:19; f° r a benefactress, Judg. 
5:7; for a nation, as in the expressive Eng- 
lish phrase, "the mother country," Isa. 
3:12; 49:23. The fond affection of a mo- 
ther is often referred to in Scripture; and 
God has employed it to illustrate his tender 
love for his people, Isa. 49: 15. Mothers are 
endowed with an all-powerful control over 
their offspring; and most men of eminence 
in the world have acknowledged their great 
indebtedness to maternal influence. When 
Buonaparte asked Madame Campan what 
the French nation most needed, she replied 
in one word, "Mothers." The divinity of 
the Hebrew religion appears in the favora- 
ble position of woman compared with that 
of the heathen women around them, Lev. 
19:3; Deut. 5:16; 1 Kin. 2:19; Prov. 15:20. 
The Christian church already owes much, 
and will owe infinitely more, to the love, 
patience, zeal, and self-devotion of mothers 
in training their children for Christ. 

MO'TIONS, Rom. 7:5, A. V., impulses. 

MOUL'DY, Josh, 9:5, 12, crumbled; mi- 
nute pieces. 

367 



MOU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MOU 



MOUNT, Jer. 6:6; 32:24; 33:4, a mound 
or embankment thrown up in besieging a 
city. 

MOUN'TAIN, or MOUNT, is often meant 
where the A. V. has "hill," denoting some- 
times a single peak, but frequently a ridge, 
as " Mount Ephraim," full of towns, 2 Chr. 
15:8, and Mount Lebanon. Mountains are 
among the most sublime and impressive of 
the Creator's works on earth, and form the 
noblest and most enduring monuments of 
great events. Most of the mountains of 
Scripture thus stand as witnesses for God — 
every view of their lofty summits, and ev- 
ery recurrence to them in thought, remind- 
ing us of the sacred facts and truths con- 
nected with them. Thus Mount Ararat is 
a standing memorial of the deluge — of 
man's sin, God's justice, and God's mercy. 
Mount Sinai asserts the terrors of the di- 
vine law. Mount Carmel summons us, like 
the prophet Elijah of old, not to " halt be- 
tween two opinions;" but if Jehovah is 
God, to love and serve him. The Mount 
of the Transfiguration still shines with the 
glory of the truths there taught, and Mounts 
Ebal and Gerizim still echo the curses and 
the blessings once so solemnly pronounced 
from them. So Mount Hor, Nebo, Leba- 
non, and Gilboa have been signalized by 
striking events ; Mount Zion, Moriah, and 
Olivet are covered with precious memo- 
ries; and the mountains about Jerusalem 
and all other " everlasting hills " are sacred 
witnesses of the eternal power and faithful- 
ness of God. 

Judaea was eminently a hilly country; 
and the sacred poets and prophets drew 
from the mountains around them many 
beautiful and sublime illustrations of di- 
vine truth. Thus a kingdom is termed a 
mountain, Psa. 30:7, especially the king- 
dom of Christ, Isa. 2:2; 11:9; Dan. 2:35. 
Thus also difficulty is a "great mountain," 
Zech. 4:7. A revolution is the "carrying 
of mountains into the midst of the sea," 
Psa. 46:3. God easily and speedily re- 
moves every obstacle — " hills melt like wax 
at the presence of the Lord," Psa. 97:5. 
The integrity of the divine nature is sure 
and lasting— "Thy righteousness is like 
the great mountains," Psa. 36:6. The eter- 
nity of God's love is pictured out by this 
comparison : " For the mountains shall de- 
part, and the hills be removed; but my 
kindness shall not depart from thee, nei- 
ther shall the covenant of my peace be re- 
moved, saith the Lord that hath mercy on 
thee," Isa. 54:10. When David wishes to 
368 



express the stability of his kingdom, he 
says, " Lord, by thy favor thou hast made 
my mountain to stand strong," Psa. 30:7. 
The security and protection afforded by 
God to his people are thus beautifully de- 
lineated : " As the mountains are round 
about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round 
about his people from henceforth, even for 
ever," Psa. 125 : 2. When the prophet would 
express his faith in God, how pure it was, 
and what confidence it inspired, far above 
any assurance which could arise from 
earthly blessing or defence, he sings, " Tru- 
ly in vain is salvation hoped for from the 
hills, and from the multitude of mountains : 
truly in the Lord our God is the salvation 
of Israel," Jer. 3:23. 

The head of a mountain is referred to in 
the Hebrew in Gen. 8:5; its ears in Josh. 
19:34; its shoulder in Deut. 33:12; its side 
in 1 Sam. 23:26; its flanks in Josh. 19:12; 
its rib in 2 Sam. 16:13; i ts thigh in Judg. 
19: 1, 18 ; its back in the word Shechem, on 
the slope of Gerizim. 

The hills of Judaea were anciently culti- 
vated to the top, with scores of terraces, 
and covered with vines, olives, figs, etc. 
Hence the expression, alluding to the vine 
of God's planting, "The hills were cov- 
ered with the shadow of it," Psa. 80:10; 
and others of the same kind. Travellers 
say it is a rare thing to pass a mountain, 
even in the wild parts of Judaea, which 
does not show that it was formerly ter- 
raced and made to flow with oil and wine, 
though it may now be desolate and bare. 
Says Paxton, " There are many districts 
that are sadly encumbered with rock, yet 
the soil among these rocks is of a very su- 
perior kind ; and were the rock somewhat 
broken up, the large pieces piled, and the 
small mixed with the soil, it might be made 
very productive. There is very striking 
proof of this in some districts, as that about 
Hebron, which abounds with rock, and yet 
is covered with the most productive vine- 
yards. As to such a rocky country being 
so spoken of in the days of the patriarchs, 
I suppose that it was in truth, at that time, 
the finest of lands; that the rock which 
now lies bare in so many places was then 
all covered with earth of the richest kind." 
MOUNT OF THE AM'ALEKITES, Judg. 
12:15, a ridge running northeast in Mount 
Ephraim, near Pirathon. 

MOUNT OF THE CONGREGA'TION, or 
assembly, Isa. 14:13, a sacred height north 
of Persia, probably el-Burj. 

MOUNT OF THE VAL'LEY, Josh. 13:19, 



MOU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MOU 



the high ground of Reuben, east of the 
north end of the Dead Sea. 

MOUN'TAIN OF THE AM'ORITES, Deut. 



i : 19, 20, a ridge running north of east from 
the desert et-Tih in the Sinaitic peninsula, 
tojebel el-Mukrah. 




MOURN'ING. The Orientals, at the 
death of their friends and relations, made 
striking demonstrations of grief and 
mourning. They wept, tore their clothes, 
smote their breasts, threw dust upon their 
heads, Josh. 7:6, and lay upon the ground, 
went barefooted, Isa. 20:2, pulled their 
hair and beards, or cut them, Ezra 9:3; 
Isa. 15:2, even made incisions on their 
breasts, or tore them with their nails, a 
practice forbidden by the Mosaic law, Lev. 
19 : 28 ; 21:5; Deut. 14:1; Jer. 16:6, 7 ; 41:5; 
48 : 3-. The time of mourning was common- 
ly 7 days, 1 Sam. 31:11-13; Job 1:20, 21; 
2:13; but it was lengthened or shortened 
according to circumstances, Zech. 12:10. 
That for Moses and Aaron was prolonged 
to 30 days, Num. 20:29; Deut. 34:8; and 
that for Jacob to 70 days, Gen. 50:3-10. 
Other mentions of mourning for the dead 
are in the cases of Sarah, Gen. 23:2, Jo- 
seph, Gen. 37: 34, 35, the Egyptians, Exod. 
12:30, Samuel, 1 Sam. 25:1, Saul, 1 Sam. 
31:13, Abner, 2 Sam. 3:31, 39) Lazarus, 
John 11, and Stephen, Acts 8:2. 

During the time of their mourning the 
near relations of the deceased continued 
sitting in their houses, and fasted, 2 Sam. 
12:16, or ate on the ground. The food 
they took was thought unclean, and even 
themselves were judged impure. "Their 
sacrifices shall be unto them as the bread 
of mourners ; all that eat thereof shall be 
polluted," Hos. 9:4. Their faces were cov- 
ered, and in all that time they could not 

24 



apply themselves to any occupation, nor 
read the book of the law, nor offer their 
usual prayers. They did not dress them- 
selves, nor make their beds, nor uncover 
their heads, nor shave themselves, nor cut 
their nails, nor go into the bath, nor salute 
anybody. Nobody spoke to them unless 
they spoke first, Job 2 : 1 1-13. Their friends 
commonly went to visit and comfort them, 
John 11:19, 39, bringing them food, 2 Sam. 
3:31-35; Jer. 16:7. They also went up to 
the roof, or upon the platform of their 
houses, to bewail their misfortune : " They 
shall gird themselves with sackcloth; on 
the tops of their houses, and in their streets, 
every one shall howl, weeping abundant- 
ly," Isa. 15:3; Jer. 48:38. The high-priests 
and also the Nazarites were exempted from 
the customary mourning, as being exclu- 
sively devoted to God and his service, Lev. 
10:2-6; 21:10, 11; Num. 6:7; Ezek. 24:16- 
18; and so were the ordinary priests, ex- 
cept on the death of their nearest relatives, 
Lev. 21:1-4. The mourning dress among 
the Hebrews was not fixed either by law 
or custom. We only find in Scripture that 
they used to tear their garments, a custom 
still observed ; but now they tear a small 
part merely, and for form's sake, 2 Sam. 
13:19; 2 Chr. 34:27; Ezra 9:3; Job 2:12; 
Joel 2:13. Anciently, in times of mourn- 
ing, they clothed themselves in sackcloth, 
or hair-cloth, that is, in clothes of coarse 
brown or black stuff, 2 Sam. 3:31; 1 Kin. 
21:27; Esth. 4:1; Psa. 35:13; 69:11. 

369 



MOU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MOU 



They hired women to weep and wail, 
and also persons to play on instruments, 
at the funerals of the rich or distinguished, 
Jer. 9:17. In Matt. 9:23 we observe a com- 
pany of minstrels or players on the flute at 
the funeral of a girl of 12 years of age. All 
that met a funeral procession were accus- 
tomed to join them for a time, to accom- 
pany them on their way, sometimes relie- 
ving the bearers of the bier, and mingling 
their tears with those of the mourners, 
Rom. 12:15. 




MOURNING AT A GRAVE. 

The custom of hiring women to weep 
and wail has come down to modern times. 
For example, the governor of Nablus had 
died the very morning of Dr. Jowett's ar- 
rival, and a numerous body of " cunning 
women" were filling the whole city with 
their cries, "taking up a wailing," with the 
design, as of old, to make the eyes of all 
the inhabitants " run down with tears, and 
their eyelids gush out with waters," Jer. 
9: 17, 18. For this good service they would 
the next morning wait upon the govern- 
ment and the principal persons to receive 
some trifling fee. 

Some of the Jewish forms of mourning 
are the appropriate and universal language 
of grief; others, to our modern and occi- 
dental taste, savor of extravagance. None 
of these were enjoined by their religion, 
which rather restricted than encouraged 
370 



them, Lev. 10:6; 19:27; 21:1-11; Num. 
6:7; Deut. 14:1. They were the estab- 
lished customs of the times. Sorrow finds 
some relief in reversing all the usages of 
ordinary life. Christianity, however, mod- 
erates and assuages our grief, shows us a 
Father's hand holding the rod, and the 
dark valley itself penetrated by the heav- 
enly light into which it emerges, 1 Cor. 
i5 : 53-55; 1 Thess. 4:14-18; Rev. 7:13-17; 
14:13. 

Instances of mourning over calamities, 
private or public, are frequent : such as 
those of Job, ch. 1 and 2; Israel, Exod. 
33:4; Judg. 20:26; and the Ninevites, 
Jon. 3:5. 

Penitential mourning is also often 
referred to, accompanied with fasting, 
Matt. 9:15. See 1 Sam. 7:6; Lev. 23:27; 
Joel 2: 12-17; Zech. 12:10, 11 ; Acts 27:9. 
See Wall. 

MOUSE. See below. 
MOUTH is sometimes used in Scrip- 
ture for speaker, Exod. 4:16; Jer. 15:19. 
God spoke with Moses "mouth to 
mouth," Num. 12:8, that is, condescend- 
ingly and clearly. The law was to be 
"in the mouth" of the Hebrews, Exod. 
13:9, often rehearsed and talked of. 
"The rod of his mouth," Isa 11:4, and 
the sharp sword, Rev. 1 : 16, denote the 
power of Christ's word to convict, con- 
trol, and judge; compare Isa. 49:2; 
Heb. 4:12. The Hebrew word for 
mouth is often translated "command," 
Gen. 45:21; Job 39:27; Eccl. 8:2; and 
the unclean spirits out of the mouth of 
the dragon, Rev. 16:14, are the ready 
executors of his commands. 
MOWING, rather reaping with a sickle, 
as the gathering and storing of a hay-crop 
seems not to have been a Hebrew custom, 
owing to the climate, Psa. 72:6; 106:20; 
129:6,7; Prov. 27:25; Isa. 15:6; Amos 7:1. 
MO'ZAH, spring-head, Josh. 18: 26, a town 
in the border of Benjamin, 4^ miles north- 
east of Jerusalem. 

MUF'FLER, Isa. 3:19, a flowing out-door 

veil - . • j u- a 

MOUSE, in the Scriptures, is used chiefly 

of the field-mouse, but probably includes 
various species of these animals, many va- 
rieties of which are now found in Palestine. 
Moses, Lev. 19:29, declared it to be un- 
clean, yet it was sometimes eaten ; and Isa- 
iah, 66:17, reproaches the Jews with this 
practice. The hamster and the dormouse, 
as well as the jerboa, are sometimes used 
for food by the modern Arabs. Mice made 



MUL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MUR 



great havoc in the fields of the Philistines, 
after that people had taken the ark of the 
Lord, which induced them to send it back 
with mice and emerods of gold, i Sam. 5:6, 



^%^- 



H, 




LONG-TAILED FIELD-MOUSE: MUS SYLVATICUS 

•9, 11; 6:4, 5. The field-mice are equally 
prevalent in those regions at the present 
day, and the grain crops of Hamath are 
at times nearly destroyed by them. 

MUL'BERRY-TREE. The Hebrew word 
signifies weeping, and indicates some tree 
which distils balsam or gum. The partic- 
ular species is not known, though some 
think the poplar, or aspen, is intended, 
2 Sam. 5:23, 24; 1 Chr. 14: 14, 15. 

MULE, a mixed animal, the offspring of 
a horse and an ass. A mule is smaller than 
a horse, and has long ears, though not so 
long as those of an ass. It is a remarka- 
bly hardy, patient, obstinate, sure-footed 
animal, lives twice as long as a horse, and 
is much more easily and cheaply fed. Mules 
are much used in Spain and South Amer- 
ica for transporting goods across the moun- 
tains. So also in the Alps they are used 
by travellers among the mountains, where 
a horse would hardly be able to pass with 
safety. There is no probability that the 
Jews bred mules, because it was forbidden 
to couple creatures of different species, 
Lev. 19:19. But they were not forbidden 
to obtain them from abroad and use them, 
1 Kin. 10:25; 2 Chr. 9:23, 24; Neh. 7:68; 
Ezek. 27:14. Thus we may observe, espe- 
cially after David's time, that mules, male 
and female, were common among the He- 
brews ; formerly they used only male and 
female asses, 2 Sam. 13:29; 18:9; 1 Kin. 
1:33,38,44; 10:25; 18:5; Esth. 8:10, 14. 

In Gen. 36:24 Anah is said to have 
found "mules" in the desert; but the He- 
brew word means hot springs. See Anah. 



Another Hebrew word translated " mule " 
in Esth. 8:10, 14, A. V., is rendered "drom- 
edary "in 1 Kin. 4:28, and "swift beast" in 
Mic. 1 : 13, probably meaning swift horses. 
MUNI'TIONS, fortifications, Isa. 
33:16, a rocky fortress or acropolis; 
the strong tower of the righteous 
is impregnable and inaccessible to 
their foes. Strongholds were often 
on elevated ground, and at all ac- 
cessible points were defended by 
one or two walls, 2 Chr. 32:5; Jer. 
51:58, with battlements and towers, 
2 Chr. 14:7; 26:15; Zeph. 1:16, and 
very strong gates, with watchtowers, 
2 Sam. 13:34; 18:24, 33', Isa - 45 : 2 - 
See War. 

MUP'PIM, flights or darkness, Gen. 
46:21, a descendant of Benjamin, 
called also Shupham, Shuppim, and 
Shephupham, Num. 26:39; 1 Chr. 
7:7, 12; 8:5. 
MUR'DER, the designed and malevolent 
taking of human life, was by the original 
appointment of God a crime to be punished 
by death. Cain, the first murderer, ac- 
knowledged it as such, Gen. 4:14. The 
ground for the death-penalty for murder is 
the eminent dignity and sacredness of man 
as a child of God, Gen. 9:5, 6. Even an ox 
that gored a man was to be put to death, and 
his owner also if negligent, Exod. 21 : 28-31. 
Like the Sabbath and marriage, it is a pri- 
meval and universal institution for man- 
kind, and all nations have so recognized it, 
Acts 28:4. The Mosaic code reenacted it, 
Lev. 24: 17 ; and while providing for the un- 
intentional homicide a safe retreat, declares 
that deliberate murder, proved by at least 
2 witnesses, Num. 35:19-30; Deut. 19:15, 
must be punished by death, from which 
neither the city of refuge nor the altar of 
God could shield the criminal, Exod. 21:12- 
14; Num. 35:9-34; Deut. 19:1-13; 1 Kin. 
2:5, 6, 28-34. The killing of a burglar in 
the act was not a crime if it occurred in the 
night, Exod. 22:2, 3. See Blood-avex- 
ger, Refuge. Death was usually inflict- 
ed by stoning, and kings themselves often 
saw to the execution of the death-penalty, 
2 Sam. 1:15, 16; 13:39; 14:7-11; 1 Kin. 
2:31, 34. If a corpse were found in the 
open fields and the murderer could not be 
discovered, the town nearest to the spot 
was obliged to purge itself by a solemn 
ceremony, lest it should become liable to 
the judgments of God, Deut. 21:1-9. In 
various ways God is represented as spe- 
cially abhorring this crime and securing 

371 



MUR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MUS 



its punishment, Deut. 32:43; 2 Sam. 21:1; 
Psa. 9:12; 55:23; Hos. 1:4; Rev. 22:15. 
Our Saviour instructs us that one may be 
guilty in the sight of God of murder in the 
heart without any overt act, Matt. 5:21, 22; 

1 John 3:15. Nothing is said specially in 
the law respecting self-murder, and only 
the cases of Saul, Ahithophel, and Judas 
are described in the Bible, 1 Sam. 31:4; 

2 Sam. 17:23; Acts 1:18. Of all murders, 
that of the soul is incomparably the most 
awful, John 8:44, and many even draw 
others with them into the second death. 

MUR'RAIN, a special mortality wrought 
by miraculous agency among the cattle 
of the Egyptians, while those of the He- 
brews in the same region were unharmed, 
Exod. 9:3-6. The same word is translated 
"plagues" in Hos. 13:14. 

MU'SHI, withdrawn, the 2d son of Me- 
rari, Exod. 6:19; Num. 3:20, 33; 26:58; 
1 Chr. 23:21, 23; 24:26, 30. 




SACKBUT: ASSYRIAN BAS-RELIEF. 

MU'SIC. The ancient Hebrews had a 
great fondness for music, which they used 
in their religious services, in their public 
and private rejoicings, at their weddings 
and feasts, Isa. 5:12; Amos6:5; Luke 15:25, 
and even in their mournings, Exod. 32:17, 
18; 2 Chr. 35:25; Lam. 2:7. We have in 
Scripture canticles of joy, of thanksgiving, 
of praise, of mourning; also mournful ele- 
gies or songs, as those of David on the 
death of Saul and Abner, and the lamenta- 
tions of Jeremiah on the destruction of Je- 
rusalem; so, too, songs of victory, triumph, 
and gratulation, as that which Moses sang 
after passing the Red Sea, that of Deborah 
and Barak, and others. The people of God 
went up to Jerusalem thrice a year, cheered 
on their way with songs of joy, Psalms 84; 
122 ; Isa. 30:29. The book of Psalms com- 
prises a wonderful variety of inspired pie- 
ces for music, and is an inexhaustible treas- 
ure for the devout in all ages. 
372 



Music is perhaps the most ancient of the 
fine arts, Job 21:12. Jubal, who lived be- 
fore the deluge, was the " father " of those 
who played on the harp and the organ, 
Gen. 4:21. Laban complains that his son- 
in-law Jacob had left him without giving 
him an opportunity of sending his family 
away "with mirth and with songs, with 
tabret and with harp," Gen. 31 : 26, 27. Mo- 
ses, having passed through the Red Sea, 
composed a song, and sang it with the Is- 
raelitish men, while Miriam, his sister, sang 
it responsively, with dancing and playing 
on instruments, at the head of the women, 
Exod. 15:20, 21. He caused silver trum- 
pets to be made, to be sounded at solemn 
sacrifices and on religious festivals. Da- 
vid, who had great skill in music, soothed 
the perturbed spirit of Saul by playing on 
the harp, 1 Sam. 16:16, 23; and when he 
was himself established on the throne — 
seeing that the Levites were not employed 
as formerly in carrying the boards, veils, 
and vessels of the tabernacle, its abode 
being fixed at Jerusalem — appointed a 
great part of them to sing and to play on 
instruments in the temple, 1 Chr. 25. Da- 
vid brought the ark to Jerusalem with 
triumphant and joyful music, 1 Chr. 13:8; 
15:16-28; and in the same manner Solo- 
mon was proclaimed king, 1 Kin. 1:39, 40. 
Both David and he had singing men and 
singing women, 2 Sam. 19:35; Eccl. 2:8; 
and Solomon's songs were 1,005, x Kin. 
4:32. The Old Testament prophets also 
sought the soothing aid of music in their 
services, 1 Sam. 10:5, 10; 2 Kin. 3:15; 
1 Chr. 25:1, 3, 5. 

Asaph, Heman, and Jeduthun were chiefs 
of the music of the tabernacle under Da- 
vid, and of the temple under Solomon. 
Asaph had 4 sons, Jeduthun 6, and Heman 
14. These 24 Levites, sons of the 3 great 
masters of the temple music, were at the 
head of 24 bands of musicians, which served 
in the temple by turns. Their number 
there was always great, but especially at 
the chief solemnities, 1 Chr. 23:5. They 
were ranged in order about the altar of 
burnt sacrifices. As the whole business 
of their lives was to learn and to practise 
music, it must be supposed that they un- 
derstood it well, whether it were vocal or 
instrumental, 2 Chr. 29:25. 

In the temple service female musicians 
were employed as well as male ; they gen- 
erally were daughters of the Levites. Ez- 
ra, in his enumeration of those whom he 
brought back with him from the Captivity, 



MUS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MUS 



reckons 200 singing men and singing wo- 
men, 2 Sam. 6:5; 19:35; Ezra 2:65; Neh. 
7:67. 

As to the nature of their music we can 
judge of it only by conjecture, because it 
has been long lost. Probably it was a 
unison of several voices, of which all sang 
together the same melody, each according 
to his strength and skill, without musical 
counterpoint, or those different parts and 
combinations which constitute harmony in 
our music. Probably, also, the voices were 
generally accompanied by instrumental 
music. If we may draw any conclusions 
in favor of their music from its effects, its 
magnificence, its majesty, and the lofty sen- 
timents contained in their songs, we must 
allow it great excellence. It is supposed 
that the temple musicians were sometimes 
divided into 2 or more separate choirs, 
which, with a general chorus, sang in turn 
responsive to each other, each a small por- 
tion of the Psalm. The structure of the 
Hebrew Psalms is eminently adapted to 
this mode of singing, and very delightful 
and solemn effects might thus be produced. 
Compare Psalms 24, 136, 148, 150. 

Numerous musical instruments are men- 
tioned in Scripture, but it has been found 
impossible to affix their names with cer- 
tainty to specific instruments now in use. 
By a comparison, however, of the instru- 
ments probably held in common by the 
Jews with the Greeks, Romans, and Egyp- 
tians, a degree of probability as to most of 
them has been secured. They were of 3 
kinds : 




I. Stringed instruments — neginoth : 

1. Kinnor, "the harp," Gen. 4:21 ; 31:27. 

Frequently mentioned in Scripture, and 

probably a kind of lyre. 



2. Nebel, "the psaltery," 1 Sam. 10:5. 
It appears to have been the name of vari- 
ous large instruments of the harp kind. 

3. Asor, signifying 10-stringed. In Psa. 
92:3 it apparently denotes an instrument 
distinct from the nebel ; but elsewhere it 
seems to be simply a description of the 
nebel as 10-stringed. See Psa. 33:2; 
144:9. 

4. Gittith. It occurs in the titles of 
Psalms 8, 81, 84, etc. From the name it is 
supposed that David brought it from Gath. 
Others conclude that it is a general name 
for a stringed instrument. 

5. Minnim, strings, Psa. 150:4. Proba- 
bly a general name for stringed instru- 
ments. In Psa. 45:8, for "whereby," etc., 
read, " the stringed instruments made thee 
glad." 

6. Sabbeca, "sackbut," Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 
15. A kind of lyre, of 4 or more strings. 

7. Pesanterin, "psaltery," occurs Dan. 
y.j, and is supposed to represent the ne- 
bel. 

8. Machalath. Found in the titles of 
Psalms 53 and 88 ; supposed to be a lute or 
guitar. Machol, translated "dance " in the 
A. V., was probably a kind of pipe, Exod. 
15:20; Psa. 150:3-5. 

See also illustrations in Harp. 




1 1 . Wind instruments : 

9. Keren, "horn," or cornet, Josh. 6:5; 
1 Chr. 25:5; Psa. 150:4. 

10. Shophar, "trumpet," Num. 10:10. 
Used in summoning the host, etc., Exod. 
19:13; Num. 10:10; Judg.3:27; 7:8; 2 Sam. 
6:15, synonymously with keren. 

373 



MUS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MYR 



ii. Chatzozerah, the straight trumpet, 
Num. 10:1-10; Psa. 98:6. 

12. Jobel, or Keren Jobel, horn of ju- 
bilee, or signal trumpet, Josh. 6:4. Proba- 
bly the same with 9 and 10. 

13. Chalil, "pipe" or "flute." The 
word means bored through, 1 Sam. 10:5; 

1 Kin. 1:40; Isa. 5:12; 30:29; Jer. 48:36. 

14. Mashrokitha, Dan. 3:5, etc. Prob- 
ably the Chaldaean name for the flute with 

2 reeds. 

15. Ugab, "organ" in our version, Gen. 
4:21; Job 21:12; 30:31; Psa. 150:4. It 
means a double or manifold pipe ; proba- 
bly the same as the syrinx or Pan's pipe; 
or perhaps resembling the bagpipe, num- 
bered 16 in the cut. See Dulcimer. 




III. Instruments which gave out sound 
on being struck. 

17. Toph, Gen. 31:27, the tambourine 
and all instruments of the drum kind, 
Exod. 15:20; Job 21:12; Psa. 68:25; I sa - 
24:8. 

18. Paamon, "bells," Exod. 28:33; 39:25. 
Attached to the hem of the high-priest's 
garment. 

19. Tzeltzelim, " cymbals," 2 Sam. 
6:5; 1 Chr. 16:5; Psa. 150:5. A word fre- 
quently occurring. There were proba- 
bly 2 kinds, hand-cymbals and finger-cym- 
bals. 

20. Shalishim, 1 Sam. 18:6. In our ver- 
sion " instruments of music." Margin, 
" three-stringed instruments." Most wri- 
ters identify it with the triangle. 

21. Menaaneim, "cymbals," 2 Sam. 6:5, 
A. V. " cornets." Probably the sistrum. 
The Hebrew word means to shake. The 
sistrum was generally about 16 or 18 inches 
long, occasionally inlaid with silver, and 

374 




being held upright, was shaken, the bars 
moving to and fro in the frame. 

Further particulars concerning some of 
these may be found under the names they 
severally bear in our English Bible. In 
Dan. 6:18, for "instruments of music" we 
should perhaps read " concubines." 

MUS'TARD. A species of this annual 
shrub, Sinapis nigra, is found in Palestine, 
growing to the height of 7 to 9 feet, and 
with a stem more than an inch thick. Prof. 
Hacket, while examining a field of these 
plants, saw a bird of the air come and lodge 
in the branches before him, Matt. 13:31, 32; 
Mark 4:31,32. "A grain of mustard" was 
used proverbially to denote anything ex- 
tremely small, Matt. 17:20. 

MUTH-LAB'BEN, in the title of Psalm 9, 
is of unknown signification. 

MUZ'ZLE. See Threshing. 

MY'RA, balsams, a town of Lycia, where 
Paul embarked, on his way from Caesarea 
to Rome, on board a ship of Alexandria, 
Acts 27:5. It is now called by the Turks 
Dembra. 




myrrh: balsamodendron myrrha. 

MYRRH, bitter, a precious gum yielded 
by a tree common in Abyssinia and Ara- 



MYR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MYS 



bia, which is about 8 or 9 feet high, its 
wood hard and its trunk thorny. It was of 
several kinds, and of various degrees of 
excellence. The best was an ingredient 
in the holy ointment, Exod. 30:23. It was 
also employed in perfumes, Esth. 2:12; 
Psa. 45:8; Song 4:6; 5:5, 13; and in em- 
balming, to preserve the body from cor- 
ruption, John 19:39. The magi who came 
from the East to worship Christ offered 
him myrrh, Matt. 2:11. 

In Mark 15:23 is mentioned "wine min- 
gled with myrrh," which was offered to 
Jesus previous to his crucifixion, and in- 
tended to deaden the anguish of his suffer- 
ings. It was a custom among the Hebrews 
to give such stupefying liquors to persons 
who were about to be capitally punished, 
Prov. 31:6. Some have thought that the 
myrrhed wine of Mark is not the same as 
the "vinegar mingled with gall" of Matt. 
27:34. They suppose the myrrhed wine 
was given to our Lord from a sentiment of 
sympathy, to prevent him from feeling too 
sensibly the pain of his sufferings; while 
the potation mingled with gall, of which he 
would not drink, was given from cruelty. 
But the other explanation is the more prob- 
able. See Gall. 

Another word so translated in Gen. 37 : 25 ; 
43 : 11, is thought to be the ladanwn of com- 
merce, a resinous, aromatic, and narcotic 
gum, from a low tree called the "rock- 
rose," or Cistus creticus. 




myrtle: myrtus communis. 

MYR'TLE, a beautiful and delightfully 
fragrant evergreen-tree, growing wild 
throughout the southern parts of Europe, 
the north of Africa, and the temperate 
parts of Asia, principally on the seacoast. 
The leaves are of a rich and polished 
green, the flowers white, with sometimes a 



tinge of red externally, and the berries are 
of the size of a small pea, violet or whi- 
tish, sweetish, and with the aromatic fla- 
vor which distinguishes the whole plant. 
These are used for spices in the Levant. 
It furnishes a useful tonic medicine, and 
was among the Jews an emblem of justice. 
It is mentioned in Neh. 8:15; Isa. 41:19; 
55:13; Zech. 1 :8, 10, 11. 

MYS'IA, a province in the northwest cor- 
ner of Asia Minor, bounded north by the 
Propontis, west by the iEgean Sea, south 
by Lydia, and east by Bithynia. Paul 
traversed this country on his first journey 
to Europe, Acts 16:7, 8. 

MYS'TERY means strictly a secret, and 
is so used when spoken of the heathen 
" mysteries " or secret rites, which were 
full of abominations. In the Scriptures the 
word often denotes those revealed truths 
of religion which, without a revelation from 
God, would have remained unknown to 
man, Matt. 13: 11. Our Saviour says to his 
disciples that they are peculiarly happy, 
because God has revealed to them " the 
mysteries of the kingdom of heaven," Matt. 
16:17; 11:25; Luke 10:21-24. P au l ex- 
plains the word in Eph. 3 : 1-6 ; and often 
speaks of the mystery of the gospel, of the 
mystery of the cross of Christ, of the mys- 
tery of Christ which was unknown to for- 
mer ages, of the mystery of the incarna- 
tion, the resurrection, etc., Rom. 11:25; 
1 Cor. 2:7-10; 4:1-3; 13:2; 15:51; Eph. 
3:4-6; Col. 2:2; 1 Tim. 3:9, 16. The union 
of Christ and his church, illustrated by mar- 
riage, is a mystery, Eph. 5:31, 32. These 
are in one sense mysteries, not only be- 
cause they included some things which 
stretch beyond all human thought, and oth- 
ers which would never have been known 
if the Son of God and his Holy Spirit had 
not revealed them, but also because they 
were not opened indifferently to every one, 
according to the advice of Christ to his 
apostles, " Give not that which is holy unto 
the dogs, neither cast ye your pearls before 
swine," 1 Cor. 2:14. In one place mystery 
seems to denote the whole cycle of God's 
secret plan in the administration of the 
gospel, gradually unfolded even to the end, 
Rev. 10:7; 11: 15. 

Mystery signifies also an allegory, that 
is, a mode of information under which par- 
tial instruction is given, a partial discovery 
is made, but there is still a cover of some 
kind, which the person who desires to 
know the whole must endeavor to remove. 
So the mystery of the 7 stars, Rev. 1:20, 

375 



NAA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NAB 



is an allegory representing the 7 Asiatic 
churches under the symbol of 7 burning 
lamps. So the mystery, " Babylon the 
Great," is an allegorical representation of 
the spiritual Babylon, idolatry, spiritual 
fornication, etc., " I will tell thee the mys- 
tery of the woman," that is, I will explain 
to thee the allegory of this figure, Rev. 
I 7 : 5> 7- The "mystery of iniquity" in 
2 Thess. 2:7,8, is the wicked principle af- 
terwards developed in Antichrist. 

Christianity is a revelation, a " manifes- 
tation of the truth," 2 Cor. 4:2, and has no 
"mysteries" for a priestly few, no secret 
doctrines to be withheld from public teach- 
ing. And while it is impossible for the 
finite ever to comprehend the infinite, yet 
much spiritual truth is revealed only to 
those who live nearest to God and study 
his Word most devoutly. 



N. 

NA'AM, pleasantness, a son of Caleb, 
1 Chr. 4:15. 

NA'AMAH, pleasant, L, a descendant of 
Cain, Gen. 4:22. 

II. An Ammonite wife of Solomon, mo- 
ther of Rehoboam, 1 Kin. 14:21, 31; 2 Chr. 
12:13. Compare 1 Kin. 11 :i. 

III. A town of Western Judah, Josh. 
15:41; probably Naaneh, 8 miles east of 
Yebna. 

IV. Some unknown region of Arabia, 
the home of Zophar, Job 2:11; 1 1 : 1 ; 20:1. 

NA'AMAN, pieasa?itness, I., a grandson 
of Benjamin, Gen. 46:21; Num. 26:40; ap- 
parently called Uzzi in 1 Chr. 7:7. 

II. The valiant and highly-esteemed gen- 
eral of Ben-hadad II., king of Damascene 
Syria in the time of Joram king of Israel. 
He was afflicted with the leprosy; but was 
miraculously cured on washing 7 times in 
the Jordan, Lev. 14:7, according to the di- 
rection of Elisha, 2 Kin. 5. He had found 
all his honor and power valueless, and all 
physicians of no avail for his cure; was led 
to renounce his pride and avail himself of 
the simple remedy prescribed, and being 
cured, was grateful not only to the prophet, 
but to the prophet's God. He frankly 
yielded to the evidence which proved that 
Jehovah was the living and true God; and 
took home with him 2 mule-loads of earth 
for an altar to the Lord, Exod. 20 : 24. With 
respect to his attending Ben-hadad while 
in the temple of Rimmon, the prophet gave 
him no precise rule, but dismissed him in 
376 



peace, discerning, we may suppose, a grow- 
ing fear and love of God which would pre- 
serve him from all even outward homage 
to the idol. See Gehazi. It is an unde- 
signed confirmation of the authenticity of 
Scripture that Luke, "the physician," is 
the only evangelist who refers to this mir- 
acle of healing, Luke 4:23-27. A hospital 
for lepers occupies the professed site of 
Naaman's house at Damascus. 

NA'ARAH, a girl, wife of Ashur, of the 
tribe of Judah, 1 Chr. 4:5, 6. 

NA'ARAI, youthful, an officer high in 
David's army, 1 Chr. 11:37; called Paarai, 
2 Sam. 23:35. 

NA'ARAN, juvenile, in Josh. 16:7, Na'- 
arath, a town of Ephraim, towards the 
east border, 1 Chr. 7:28. Probably Kh. el- 
Aujah, 6 miles north of Jericho, overlook- 
ing the Jordan valley. 

NA'ASHON, Exod. 6:23, in the A. V. Na- 
as'son, Matt. 1:4; Luke 3:32. See Nah- 

SHON. 

NA'BAL, foolish, a descendant of Caleb, 
owner of a large property in lands and 
flocks, at Maon and Carmel in the south 
of Judah. He was under great obligations 
to David for protecting him from the rob- 
bers of the desert; and yet in the very 
hour most suggestive of a grateful gener- 
osity he churlishly refused David's modest 
request, quite in harmony with the unwrit- 
ten law of the times, of provisions for his 
needy troop. Indignant at this ingratitude 
and inhospitality, David was soon on his 
way to put him and his men to the sword. 
Happily, the discreet intervention of Abi- 
gail convinced David that vengeance did 
not belong to him, and averted this catas- 
trophe. Ten days after the Lord smote 
him, and he died, 1 Sam. 25. See Abigail. 
The story is one of those that give us a 
glimpse of Hebrew private life. 

NA'BOTH, fruits or eminence, an Israel- 
ite at Jezreel, who declined selling his an- 
cestral vineyard to Ahab, the idolatrous 
king of Israel, Lev. 25:23, 24; and was in 
consequence murdered, on a false charge 
of blasphemy contrived by Jezebel the 
queen. Ahab took immediate possession 
of the coveted vineyard — perhaps as being 
legally forfeited to the government, con- 
struing blasphemy as treason; or it may 
be that the heirs, his children having per- 
ished with him, were deterred from assert- 
ing their claim by a dread of the unscrupu- 
lous arts of Jezebel. Elijah, however, did 
not fear to denounce against the king and 
queen the vengeance of One " higher than 




JERUSALEM FROM THE MOUNT OF OLIVES. 



NAC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NAH 



thev," i Kin. 21; 2 Kin. 9:24-26, 36; Eccl. 
5:8: 

NA'CHON, prepared, a threshing-floor of 
Chidon, adjoining the home of Obed-edom, 
near which Uzzah was slain — a place hence 
called Perez-uzzah, 2 Sam. 6:6; 1 Chr. 13:9. 

NA'CHOR. See Nahor. 

NA'DAB, liberal, I., the eldest son of 
Aaron and Elisheba, Exod. 6 : 23 ; Num. 3 : 2, 
anointed to the priesthood, Exod. 28: 1. He 
was chosen to await the descent of Moses 
from his long interview with Jehovah on 
Sinai, Exod. 24:1. He and Abihu used un- 
consecrated and forbidden fire in burning 
incense, Lev. 6:12; 10:1, 2; Num. 3:4; 
26:61, and were slain for their presump- 
tion. Nadab left no children, 1 Chr. 24:2. 
See Abihu. 

II. Son of Jeroboam I. king of Israel. 
He succeeded his father, B. C. 954, and 
reigned less than 2 years, being assassina- 
ted while besieging Gibbethon, then in the 
hands of the Philistines, by Baasha, of the 
tribe of Issachar, who usurped his king- 
dom. Nadab did evil in the sight of the 
Lord; and with him perished his children 
and the race of Jeroboam, as God had fore- 
told by Ahijah, 1 Kin. 14:5-11; 15:25-30. 
Compare 1 Kin. 16:9-15 as to retribution 
on Baasha's posterity at the same place. 

III. Son of Shammai, tribe of Judah, 
1 Chr. 2:28, 30. 

IV. Son of Jehiel, a Benjamite, founder 
of Gibeon, 1 Chr. 8:30; 9:36. 

NAG'GE, in R. V. NAG'GAI, brightness, 
a son of David, and an ancestor of Jesus, 
Luke 3:25; possibly the man called Nea- 
riah in 1 Chr. 3:22, 23. 

NA'HALAL, and NA'HALOL, pasture, a 
Levitical town of Zebulun, Josh. 19:15; 
21:35, from which the Canaanites were not 
at once wholly excluded, Judg. 1 : 30 ; traced 
at Malul, 8*4 miles west of Mount Tabor. 

NAHA'LIEL, torrent of God, 51st station 
of the Israelites, Num. 21:19, a wady join- 
ing the Arnon from the north. 

NA'HARI, or NAHARA'I, snoring, 2 Sam. 
23 : 37; 1 Chr. 11:39, Joab's armor-bearer. 

NA'HASH, serpent, I., a powerful and 
brutal king of the Ammonites, who be- 
sieged Jabesh-gilead and offered its citi- 
zens barbarous terms of capitulation, but 
was defeated by Saul, who came to their 
relief, 1 Sam. 11 ; 12:12. He, or his son of 
the same name, befriended David, as did 
Shobi son of Nahash, 2 Sam. 10:2; 17:27- 
29. See Hanun. 

II. Apparently the husband of a woman 
who bore him Abigail and Zeruiah, and 



was afterwards the wife of Jesse, 2 Sam. 
17:25; 1 Chr. 2: 16. 

NA'HATH, rest, I., an Edomite prince, 
Gen. 36:13, 17. 

II. A Levite, ancestor of Samuel, 1 Chr. 
6:26; called Tohu and Toah in 1 Sam. 1:1; 
1 Chr. 6:34. 

III. A Levite under Hezekiah, 2 Chr. 

NA'HOR, Heb. NA'CHOR, snorting, I., 
son of Serug, and father of Terah, Gen. 
11:22-25; Luke 3:34. He lived 148 years. 

II. Son of Terah, and brother of Abra- 
ham and Haran. He married Milcah his 
niece in Ur of the Chaldees, Gen. 11 :26, 29, 
but transferred his residence to Haran, 
Gen. 24:10; 27:43. He had 12 sons, 8 by 
his wife, and 4 by his secondary wife Reu- 
mah, and among them Bethuel, the father 
of Rebekah, Gen. 22:20-24. He seems to 
have been a worshipper of the true God, 
Gen. 24:3,4; 27:2; 31:53. 

NAH'SHON, sorcerer. See Naashon. 
He was the son of Amminadab and one of 
our Lord's ancestors, Matt. 1:4; Luke 3:32; 
chief of the tribe of Judah in the desert, 
Num. 1:7; 2:3; 7:12; 10:14; and brother- 
in-law of Aaron, Exod. 6:23; Ruth 4:18-20; 
1 Chr. 2 : 10-12. He died in the wilderness, 
Num. 26:64, 65. His son Salmon married 
Rahab. 

NA'HUM, consolation, the 7th of the 12 
minor prophets. The circumstances of 
Nahum's life are unknown, except that he 
was a native of Elkosh, which probably 
was a village in Galilee. His prophecy 
consists of 3 chapters, which form one dis- 
course, in which he foretells the destruc- 
tion of Nineveh in so powerful and vivid a 
manner that he might seem to have been 
on the very spot. The native elegance, 
fire, and sublimity of his style are univer- 
sally admired. 

Opinions are divided as to the time in 
which Nahum prophesied. The best inter- 
preters adopt Jerome's opinion, that he 
prophesied in the time of Hezekiah, after 
the war of Sennacherib in Egypt, men- 
tioned by Berosus. Compare Isa. 20:6 and 
Nah. 3:8. Nahum speaks of the taking of 
No-amon, of the haughtiness of Rabsha- 
keh, and of the defeat of Sennacherib as 
things that were past. He implies that the 
tribe of Judah were still in their own coun- 
try, and that they there celebrated their 
festivals. He notices also the captivity 
and dispersion of the 10 tribes. Isaiah and 
Micah were his contemporaries. Nineveh 
perished about 100 years later, 606 B. C, 

377 



NAI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NAO 



and its exhumed remains well accord with 
his description of it. 

NAILS or spikes were used by the Ro- 
man soldiers to secure the Saviour to the 
cross, John 20:25; Col. 2:14. The "nail" 
with which Jael killed Sisera was rather a 
tent-pin, such as is driven into the ground 
in order to fasten the cords of the tent, 
Exod. 27:19; Judg. 4:21, 22. Sometimes 
the Hebrew word is used for the wooden 
pins or iron spikes firmly inwrought into 
the walls of a building, Ezra 9:8; Ezek. 
15:3. The word implies fixedness, Isa. 
22:23, 2 5> an d a firm support, Zech. 10:4. 
Another Hebrew word describes the gold- 
en and ornamental nails of the temple, etc., 
2 Chr. 3:9; Eccl. 12:11; Isa. 41:7; Jer. 10:4. 

HA'IN, green pastures, where Christ per- 
formed one of his chief miracles, in raising 
to life a widow's only son, Luke 7:11-17, 
was a small village in Galilee beautifully 
situated on the northwest slope of Jebel el- 
Duhy, "the hill Moreh," 4 miles west by 
south of Mount Tabor, and looking west 
over the plain of Esdraelon. It is now a 
petty hamlet of some 20 poor dwellings, 
amid extensive ruins, and is called Nein, 
The tombs are still found in the suburbs, 
and the traveller may trace with some 
probability the path by which Christ ap- 
proached it. 

NAI'OTH, dwellings, the abode of Sam- 
uel and his pupils in a " school of the proph- 
ets," 1 Sam. 19:18-24; 20:1. It appears to 
have been a suburb of Ramah ; and David, 
having sought refuge there with Samuel, 
was pursued by Saul. 

NA'KED, in the literal sense, Gen. 2:25; 
Job 1:21; Eccl. 5:15; so Hades and all se- 
cret things are wholly uncovered before 
God, Job 26:6; Heb. 4:13. It often means 
no more than "not fully dressed." So in 
John 21:7 Peter had on only his inner gar- 
ment or tunic. See Garments. So prob- 
ably in 1 Sam. 19:24; Isa. 20:2; Mic. 1:8; 
Acts 19:16. Sometimes poorness and in- 
sufficiency of clothing are meant, as in Jas. 
2:15. So in Isa. 58:7; 2 Cor. 11:27. A 
nation is said to be " naked " when stripped 
of its defences, wealth, etc., Gen. 42:9; 
Exod. 32 : 25 ; 2 Chr. 28 : 19 ; Jer. 49 : 10. 

"Nakedness" in the Bible denotes not 
only shameful exposure, but all sin, espe- 
cially idolatry, Exod. 32:25; Ezek. 16:36. 
To "uncover the nakedness" denotes an 
unlawful or incestuous union, Lev. 20:19. 

NAMES among the Hebrews were fre- 
quently significant, Gen. 2:19 — sometimes 
of a personal or family trait, and some- 
378 



times of circumstances attending the birth 
of a child ; and were given by one or both 
the parents, either at birth or at circumcis- 
ion, sometimes with the counsel of friends, 
Ruth 4:17; Luke 1:59. In many cases they 
were divinely suggested, with a prophetic 
meaning, Isa. 7:14; 8:3; Hos. 1:4, 6, 9; 
Matt. 1:21; Luke 1:13, 60, 63; or changed 
later in life for a like cause, as were Abram, 
Sarai, Jacob, and many others; often, too, 
they were assumed afterwards to commem- 
orate some striking occurrence in one's 
history. Compare the cases of Ishmael, 
Esau and Jacob, Moses, Ichabod, etc., Gen. 
16:11; 17:5; 25:25, 26; Exod. 2:10; 1 Sam. 
4:21. Compound names were frequent; 
and often a part of the name of God, jah, 
el, jeho, etc, was employed, as in Elie- 
zer, Exod. 18:4, Samuel, Josiah, Adonijah. 
Sometimes a whole phrase was formed into 
a name, as Elioenai, to Jehovah are mine 
eyes, 1 Chr. 4:36. Names of idols were 
often made part of a child's name, as that 
of Baal ; or children took the parent's name, 
with the prefix of Ben or Bar, for son, or 
Bath, meaning daughter. The New Tes- 
tament names are chiefly ancient and fam- 
ily names perpetuated, Luke 1:61. The 
men of the East change their names for 
slight causes ; and hence many persons oc- 
cur in the Bible bearing 2 or more names, 
Ruth 1:20; 2 Sam. 23:8; John 1:42; Acts 
4:36. Kings often changed the names of 
those to whom they gave offices, Dan. 1 :6, 7 ; 
hence the honor and privilege implied in a 
" new name," Rev. 2:17; 3:12. Many slight 
inflections of the same Hebrew name give 
it a very different appearance to an Eng- 
lish, eye, as Geshem and Gashmu, Neh. 
6:1, 6. A Hebrew name was sometimes 
transferred to the Greek with but little 
change: thus Elijah became Elias. But 
sometimes it was exchanged for the Greek 
word of the same meaning, though very 
different in form; Thomas became Didy- 
mus, and Tabitha, Dorcas. 

The "name " of God is put for God him- 
self, or for his perfections, Exod. 34:6; 
Psa. 8:1; 20:1 ; John 17:26. See Jehovah. 
The apostles wrought miracles by Christ's 
power, Acts 3:6; 4:10; and they baptized 
into the name of the Trinity, into a living 
union with the Father, the Son, and the 
Spiriti Matt. 28:19. To "raise up the 
name of the dead" is explained in Ruth 4; 
while to "put out" one's name means to 
extinguish his family, Psa. 9:5. 

NAO'MI, my delight — contrasted with 
Mara, bitter, Ruth 1:20, 21— wife of Elime- 



NAP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NAT 



lech, of Bethlehem, where she was highly 
esteemed, ver. 19. The family removed to 
Moab in a time of famine, where her hus- 
band and her 2 sons, Mahlon and Chilion, 
died, leaving with her their young Moabite 
widows, Orpah and Ruth. On returning 
to Judah she put to the test her 2 daugh- 
ters-in-law, and though both loved her, 
only Ruth loved God and chose the better 
part. See Ruth. 

NA'PHISH, or NE'PHISH, refreshed, nth 
son of Ishmael, Gen. 25:15; 1 Chr. 1:31; 
5 : 19-23. His posterity were a pastoral 
people, somewhere on the southeast of 
Hermon. 

NAPH'TALI, my wrestling, the 6th son 
of Jacob, and the 2d by Bilhah, Rachel's 
handmaid, the name implying Rachel's 
earnest prayer for him, Gen. 30:7, 8. We 
know but few particulars of the life of 
Naphtali. His sons were 4, Gen. 46:24; 
Exod. 1:4; 1 Chr. 7:13. The patriarch 
Jacob, when he gave his blessing, said, 
" Naphtali is a hind let loose ; he giveth 
goodly words," graceful and eloquent, Gen. 
49:21. See Hind. 

The tribe of Naphtali, called Nephthalim 
in Matt. 4: 15, A. V., were very numerous at 
the exodus, standing midway in numbers 
and in position in the camp with Dan and 
Asher, Num. 1 :43; 2:25-31. Their territory 
in the Holy Land, called " the west and the 
south," A. V., literally " the sea and the 
circuit," Deut. 33:23; Josh. 19:32-39, was in 
a rich and fertile portion of Northern Pal- 
estine, having Asher on the west, the Upper 
Jordan and a large part of the Sea of Tibe- 
rias on the east, and running north into the 
Lebanon range, some lower offshoots of 
which prolonged to the south formed the 
"mountains of Naphtali," Josh. 19:32-39; 
20:7. They were the first to suffer from 
hostile approach through the Lebanon val- 
ley. They attended in force at the corona- 
tion of David, 1 Chr. 12:34, and are men- 
tioned with honor in the wars of the Judges, 
Judg. 1:33; 5:18; 6:35; 7:23, as much re- 
duced by the Syrians, 1 Kin. 15:20, and as 
among the first captives to Assyria, 2 Kin. 
15:29; Isa. 9:1. Barak was their most no- 
table leader, Judg 4:6-16. Our Saviour 
spent much time in the southern part of 
this region, Matt. 4:13-15; Mark 2:1-12, 
partially fulfilling Isa. 9:1, 2. 

NAPHTU'HIM, Gen. 10:13; 1 Chr. 1:11; 
possibly to be traced in the ancient Mem- 
phites, who had a divinity named Phtah, 
see Noph ; or in Naphata, at the great 
bend of the Nile in Meroe, now Soudan. 



NAP'KIN, probably a linen band used 
either as a turban or a girdle, Luke 19:20; 
John 11:44; 20:7; translated "handker- 
chief" in Acts 19:12. 

NARCIS'SUS, daffodil, a Roman, many 
of whose household Paul salutes as Chris- 
tians, Rom. 16: 11. 

NA'THAN, given, I., a Hebrew prophet, 
a friend and counsellor of David. He as- 
sisted the king in organizing public wor- 
ship and the temple service, 2 Chr. 29:25, 
and approved his purpose of building a 
temple to the Lord, but by divine direction 
transferred its accomplishment to Solo- 
mon, 2 Sam. 7:1-17. By a fine parable, 
pointedly applied, he convicted David of 
his guilt in respect to Uriah and Bathshe- 
ba, 2 Sam. 12; Psa. 51 ; and his bold fidel- 
ity here seems to have been appreciated 
by David (see Nathan, II.), and is worthy 
of everlasting remembrance. Solomon was 
probably educated under his care, 2 Sam. 
12:25, and was effectually aided by him 
in his peaceful succession to the throne, 
1 Kin. 1. He wrote some memorials, long 
since lost, of both David and Solomon, 
i Chr. 29:29. From 2 Chr. 9:29 he seems 
to have lived through a large part of Solo- 
mon's reign, and if so must have been 
much younger than David. Two of his 
sons were high officers at Solomon's court, 
1 Kin. 4:5. 

II. A son of David, said to be by Bath- 
sheba, 1 Chr. 3:5; 14:4; Zech. 12:12; an 
ancestor of Christ, Luke 3:31. See Gene- 
alogy. 

III. A Syrian of Zobah, 2 Sam. 23:36. 

IV. A descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 2:36. 

V. A friend of Ezra, sent for Levites and 
Nethinim for the restored temple, Ezra 8 : 16. 
Perhaps not the son of Bani, who had mar- 
ried a foreign wife, Ezra 10:39. 

NATHAN'AEL, the gift of God, a disci- 
ple of Christ, probably the same as Bar- 
tholomew, which see. He was a native 
of Cana in Galilee, John 21 :2, and was one 
of the first to recognize the Messiah, who 
at their first interview manifested his per- 
fect acquaintance with Nathanael's secret 
heart and Messianic hopes, John 1:45-51. 
He was introduced by Philip to Jesus, who 
on seeing him pronounced that remarka- 
ble eulogy which has rendered his name 
almost another word for sincerity : " Behold 
an Israelite indeed, in whom is no guile." 
He saw Christ at the Sea of Tiberias after 
his resurrection, John 21:2, witnessed the 
ascension, and returned with the other 
apostles to Jerusalem, Acts 1:4, 12, 13. 

379 



NAT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NAZ 



NA'TION, used in the Bible in its ordi- 
nary sense, but in some passages implying 
not only foreigners as distinct from the 
Jews, but heathen, as in Psa. 9:17, 20; Isa. 
9:1; 36:18; 37:12. The term nation some- 
times denotes the inhabitants of a country, 
Deut. 4:34, the country itself, Exod. 34:10, 
one's fellow-countrymen, Acts 26:4, or the 
founder of a people, Gen. 25:23. In Phil. 
2:15 read "generation," as in R. V. 

NA'TURE and NAT'URAL point to the 
origin, birth, and native character of a per- 
son or thing, Rom. 2:27; Gal. 2:15; 4:8; 
sometimes as merely animal, Rom. 1:26, 
27; 1 Cor. 11:14; 2 Pet. 2:12; Jude 10; and 
sometimes as distinguished from spiritual 
and regenerate, 1 Cor. 2:14; 15:44, 46; 
Eph. 2:3. 

NAUGHT, worthless, 2 Kin. 2:19; Prov. 
20:14; Jer. 24:2. Naugh'ty, wicked, Prov. 



6:12. Naugh'tiness, wickedness, 1 Sam. 
17:28; Jas. 1 :2i. 

NA'UM, Luke 3:25, A. V. See Nahum. 

NA'VEL, Job 40:16; Ezek. 16:4; used 
figuratively in Prov. 3:8. In Song 7:2 per- 
haps a bodice or similar vestment. 

NAZARENE', Matt. 2:23; Acts 24:5, and 
OF NAZ'ARETH, elsewhere, as in Matt. 
21:11; Mark 1:24; 14:67; 16:6; Luke 4:34: 
Acts 2:22. The prophets foretold, Psa. 22 : 7, 
8 ; Isa. 53 : 2, that the Messiah should be de- 
spised and rejected of men ; and this epi- 
thet, which was at first simply a designation 
of his residence, but afterwards came to 
be used as a term of reproach, showed the 
truth of these predictions, John 19:19; Acts 
22 : 28. He is called Netser, the Heb. root 
of Nazareth, in Isa. 11 :i. Nazareth was a 
small city in the north part of Palestine. 
See Galilee and Nazareth. 




MODERN NAZARETH. SEEN FROM THE SOUTH. 



NAZ'ARETH, from the Heb. Netser, a 
sprout, the early home of the Saviour, com- 
pare Isa. 11: 1, a city of Lower Galilee, 
about 65 miles north of Jerusalem, in the 
territory of the tribe of Zebulun. It was 
situated on the side of a hill overlooking 
from the northwest a rich and beautiful 
valley, surrounded by hills, with a narrow 
outlet towards the south, opening on the 
plain of Esdraelon. At the mouth of this 
ravine the monks profess to show the place 
where the men of the city were about to 
cast Jesus from the precipice, Luke 4:29. 
3S0 



Nazareth is nearly 6 miles west-northwest 
of Mount Tabor, and nearly half way from 
the Jordan to the Mediterranean. It is 
called " the city of Jesus," because it was 
his residence during the first 30 years of 
his life, Matt. 2:23; Luke 1:26; 2:39, 51; 
4:16. He visited it during his public min- 
istry, but did not perform many miracles 
there because of the unbelief of the people. 
Matt. 13:54-58; Luke 4:16. It is not even 
named in the Old Testament, nor by Jose- 
phus, and appears to have been a small 
city of no very high repute, John 1:46. 



NAZ 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NAZ 



The modern town, en-Nasirah, is a seclu- 
ded village of 5,000 inhabitants, Greek and 
Latin Christians and Mohammedans. It 
lies 1,144 f eet above the level of the sea, 
and is one of the pleasantest towns in Syria. 
Its houses are of stone, 2 stories high, with 
fiat roofs. It contains a mosque, an old 
synagogue of the 6th century, a large Fran- 
ciscan monastery on the site of a church of 
the Crusaders, a Maronite church, a Greek 
church, an English church, a hospital, and 
an orphanage. East of the town is a per- 
ennial fountain where our Lord must often 
have slaked his thirst. See Wells. The 
house of Joseph, a bull of Leo X. affirms, 
was transported through the air to Loretto 
in the 13th century; but he failed to ex- 
plain the change of the material from the 
light limestone of Nazareth to the dark red 
stone of the Loretto house. The tradition- 
ary " Mount of the Precipitation " is nearly 
2 miles from the town, too remote to have 
answered the purpose of the enraged Naz- 
arenes, while there were several precipi- 
tous spots close at hand where the fall is 
still from 30 to 50 feet. 

From the summit of the hill on the east- 
ern slope of which Nazareth lies is a truly 
magnificent prospect. Towards the north 
the eye glances over the countless hills of 
Galilee, and reposes on the majestic and 
snow-crowned Hermon. On the east the 
Jordan valley may be traced, and beyond 
it the dim heights of ancient Bashan. To- 
wards the south spreads the broad and 
beautiful plain of Esdraelon, with the bold 
outline of Mount Tabor and parts of Little 
Hermon and Gilboa visible on its eastern 
border, and the hills of Samaria on the 
south, while Carmel rises on the west of 
the plain and dips his feet in the blue wa- 
ters of the Mediterranean. Says Dr. Rob- 
inson in his " Biblical Researches in Pales- 
tine," " I remained for some hours upon 
this spot lost in the contemplation of the 
wide prospect and of the events connected 
with the scenes around. In the village be- 
low the Saviour of the world had passed 
his childhood ; and although we have few 
particulars of his life during those early 
years, yet there are certain features of na- 
ture which meet our eyes now just as they 
once met his. He must often have visited 
the fountain near which we had pitched our 
tent, his feet must frequently have wan- 
dered over the adjacent hills, and his eyes 
have doubtless gazed upon the splendid 
prospect from this very spot. Here the 
Prince of peace looked down upon the 



great plain where the din of battles so oft 
had rolled and the garments of the war- 
rior been dyed in blood; and he looked 
out, too, upon that sea over which the swift 
ships were to bear the tidings of his salva- 
tion to nations and to continents then un- 
known. How has the moral aspect of 
things been changed! Battles and blood- 
shed have indeed not ceased to desolate 
this unhappy country, and gross darkness 
now covers the people; but from this re- 
gion a light went forth which has enlight- 
ened the world and unveiled new climes; 
and now the rays of that light begin to be 
reflected back from distant isles and con- 
tinents to illuminate anew the darkened 
land where it first sprang up." 

NAZ'ARITE, rather NAZ'IRITE, separa- 
ted, i. e., unto God, compare Gen. 49:26; 
Lev. 22:2; Deut. 33:16; or crowned, Num. 
6:5, 7; 1 Sam. 1:11; Judg. 13:4-14; Lam. 
4:7; under the ancient Hebrew law a man 
or woman engaged by a vow to abstain 
from all intoxicating liquors, and from the 
fruit of the vine in any form; to let the 
hair grow; not to enter any house polluted 
by having a dead body in it, nor to be 
present at any funeral. If by accident any 
one died in their presence they recom- 
menced the whole of their consecration and 
Nazariteship. This vow generally lasted 8 
days, sometimes a month, and sometimes 
during their whole lives. When the time 
of Nazariteship expired the person brought 
a number of sacrifices and offerings to 
the temple — the burnt-offering, sin-offer- 
ing, and peace-offering, 20 cakes anointed 
with oil, the customary meat and drink 
offering, Num. 28, and a free-will offering; 
the priest then cut off his hair and burned 
it, after which he was free from his vow, 
Num.6; Amos 2:11, 12. Perpetual Naza- 
rites were consecrated as such by their 
parents from their birth, as was proposed 
by the mother of Samuel, 1 Sam. 1 : 11, and 
continued all their lives in this state, nei- 
ther drinking wine nor cutting their hair. 
Such were Samson and John the Baptist, 
Judg. 13:4, 5; Luke 1:15; 7:33. Nazarite- 
ship was a symbolical recognition of the 
obligation to keep soul and body holy unto 
the Lord, Rom. 12:1. 

As the cost of the offerings required at 
the expiration of the term of Nazariteship 
was very considerable for the poor, they 
were often relieved by persons not Naza- 
rites, who assumed these charges for them 
for the sake of performing an act of piety 
and charity. Paul availed himself of this 

38i 



NEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



XEB 



custom to disarm the jealous)- of those who 
represented him as hostile to the faith of 
their fathers. He took 4 Christian Jews 
whose vow of Xazariteship was accom- 
plished, assumed the expense of their offer- 
ings, and with them went through the cus- 
tomary services and purifications at the 
temple, Acts 21:20-26. There is also in 
Acts iS: 18 an unexplained allusion to some 
similar vow made by Paul himself, or per- 
haps by Aquila, probably in view of some 
danger escaped or some blessing received. 

NE'AH, descent, a town in Zebulun, Josh. 
19:13; now Kh. Nejeimiyeh, 11 or 12 miles 
north of Mount Tabor. 

NEAP'OLIS, new city, a maritime city 
of Macedonia, near the borders of Thrace, 
whither Paul came from the isle of Samo- 
thracia on his 1st visit to Europe, Acts 
16: 11. From Xeapolis he went to Philippi. 
He also touched it twice on his 2d visit, 
Acts 20:1, 6. It is now the Turkish Ka- 
valla, on a promontory, with Mount Sym- 
bolum in the rear. 

NEARI'AH, servant of Jehovah, I., 1 Chr. 
4:4i-43—n. 1 Chr. 3:22, 23. 

NE'BAI, fruitful, Neh. 10:19. 

NEBA'IOTH, and NEBA'JOTH, heights, 
the firstborn son of Ishmael, Gen. 25:13, 
whose posterity occupied the pasture- 
grounds of Arabia Deserta, Isa. 60:7, and 
ultimately possessed themselves of Edom. 
They are thought to have been the Xaba- 
theans of profane history. See Idum.ea. 

NEBAL'LAT, secret folly, Xeh. 11:34, a 
town on the border of Benjamin and Dan; 
now Beit Xebala, 3 miles northeast of 
Lydda. 

NE'BAT, aspect, father of king Jeroboam, 
of the tribe of Ephraim. living at Zereda, 
1 Kin. 11:26; 2 Chr. 9:29. 

NE'BO, prophet, I., a town in the vicinity 
of Bethel and Ai, Ezra 2:29; 10:43; Xeh. 

7:33- 

II. A city of Reuben, Xum. 32:38, taken 
by the Moabites, who held it in the time of 
Jeremiah, Isa. 15:2; Jer. 48:1, 22. 

III. A mountain of Moab, whence Moses 
had a view of the promised land, and where 
he died. It is a summit of the range Aba- 
rim, "over against Jericho," Deut.32:49; 34. 
Jebel Xebbah, 3 miles southwest of Hesh- 
bon, and 7 or 8 miles east of the mouth of 
the Jordan, best answers the Scriptural 
demands, though not a prominent height. 
It has several rounded summits, about 2,700 
feet above the sea. Israel encamped " be- 
fore," i. e., on the east of Xebo, before cross- 
ing the Jordan. 

382 



IV. An idol of the Babylonians, Isa. 46: 1. 
In the astrological mythology of the Baby- 
lonians this idol probably represented the 




NEBO : ASSYRIAN ; BRITISH MUSEUM. 

god and planet Mercury. It was also wor- 
shipped by the ancient Arabians. The ex- 
tensive prevalence of this worship among 
the Chaldaeans and Assyrians is evident 
from the many compound proper names 
occurring in the Scriptures of which this 
word forms part ; as Xebuchadnezzar, Xe- 
buzar-adan, Xebushasban, Jer, 39:9, 13; 
48:1, and also in the classics, as Xaboned, 
Xabonassar, Xabopolassar, etc. 

NEBUCHADNEZ'ZAR, or rather, as in 
Jeremiah and Ezekiel, NEBUCHADREZ'- 
ZAR, Nebo his protector, the son and suc- 
cessor of Xabopolassar, who was the first 
who reigned over Chaldsea after the down- 
fall of Assyria. The son succeeded to the 
kingdom of Chaldsea about 604 B. C. He 
had been some time before associated in 
the kingdom, and was sent to recover Car- 
chemish, which had been wrested from the 
empire by Xecho king of Egypt. Having 
been successful, he marched against the 
governor of Phoenicia, and Jehoiakim king 
of Judah, tributary to Xecho king of Egypt. 



NEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NEB 



He took Jehoiakim and put him in chains 
to carry him captive to Babylon ; but after- 
wards he left him in Judaea, on condition 
of his paying a large annual tribute. He 
took away several persons from Jerusalem ; 
among others, Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, 
and Azariah, all of the royal family, whom 
the king of Babylon caused to be carefully 
educated in the language and learning of 
the Chaldaeans, that they might be em- 
ployed at court, 2 Kin. 24:1; 2 Chr. 36:6; 
Dan. 1:1. 

Nabopolassar dying, Nebuchadnezzar, 
who was then either in Egypt or Judaea, 
hastened to Babylon, leaving to his gener- 
als the care of bringing to Chaldaea the 
captives taken in Syria, Judaea, Phoenicia, 
and Egypt; for, according to Berosus, he 
had subdued all these countries. He dis- 
tributed these captives into several colo- 
nies, and in the temple of Belus he depos- 
ited the sacred vessels of the temple of 
Jerusalem, and other rich spoils. Jehoia- 
kim king of Judah continued 3 years in 
fealty to Nebuchadnezzar, and then revolt- 
ed ; but after 3 or 4 years he was besieged 
and taken in Jerusalem, put to death, and 
his body thrown to the birds of the air, 
according to the predictions of Jeremiah, 
ch. 22. 

His successor, Jehoiachin, or Jeconiah, 
king of Judah, having revolted against 
Nebuchadnezzar, was besieged in Jerusa- 
lem, forced to surrender, and taken, with 
his chief officers, captive to Babylon ; also 
his mother, his wives, and the best work- 
men of Jerusalem, to the number of 10,000 
men. Among the captives were Kish, the an- 
cestor of Mordecai, and Ezekiel, the proph- 
et, Esth. 2:6. Nebuchadnezzar also took 
all the vessels of gold which Solomon made 
for the temple and the king's treasury, and 
set up Mattaniah, Jeconiah's uncle by the 
father's side, whom he named Zedekiah. 
Zedekiah continued faithful to Nebuchad- 
nezzar 9 years, at the end of which time he 
rebelled, and confederated with the neigh- 
boring princes. The king of Babylon came 
into Judaea, reduced the chief places of the 
country, and besieged Jerusalem ; but Pha- 
raoh-hophra coming out of Egypt to assist 
Zedekiah, Nebuchadnezzar went to meet 
him, and forced him to retire to his own 
country, Jer. 37:5, 8; Ezek. 17:15. This 
done, he resumed the siege of Jerusalem, 
which continued more than a year. In the 
nth year of Zedekiah, B. C. 588, the city 
was taken, and Zedekiah, being seized, 
Jer. 39:5, was brought to Nebuchadnezzar, 



who was then at Riblah in Hamath. The 
king of Babylon condemned him to die, 
caused his children to be put to death in 
his presence, and then bored out his eyes; 
loaded him with chains, and sent him to 
Babylon, 2 Kin. 24; 25; 2 Chr. 36. 

During the reign of Nebuchadnezzar the 
city of Babylon and the kingdom of Baby- 
lonia attained their highest pitch of splen- 
dor. He conquered Phoenicia, bringing to 
a close a long siege of Tyre, and ravaged 
Egypt, Jer. 46:1-26; Ezek. 29:2-20; 30:6. 
He constructed great reservoirs, canals, 
and palaces, and fortified Babylon with 
triple walls. The bricks now found in 
scores of places through that region all 
bear his name. He took great pains in 
adorning Babylon ; and this w r as one great 
object of his pride. " Is not this," said he, 
"great Babylon, that I have built for the 
house of my kingdom, by the might of my 
power, and for the honor of my majesty?" 
But God vanquished his pride, afflicting 
him with that strange form of madness 
called zoanthropy, under which a man 
thinks himself changed to some beast, and 
acts accordingly. For 7 years, apparently, 
Dan. 4:16, he thus suffered, till he learned 
wisdom and was restored, according to the 
predictions of Daniel. See Dan. 1-4. An 
inscription found among the ruins on the 
Tigris, and now in the East India House 
at London, gives an account of the various 
works of Nebuchadnezzar at Babylon and 
Borsippa. Abruptly breaking off, the rec- 
ord says the king's heart was hardened 
against the Chaldee astrologers. " He 
would grant no benefactions for religious 
purposes. He intermitted the worship of 
Merodach, and put an end to the sacrifice 
of victims. He labored under the effects 
of enchantment.''' 1 Nebuchadnezzar is sup- 
posed to have died B. C. 562, after a reign 
of about 43 years. He was a devoted wor- 
shipper of Bel-Merodach, whose gilded im- 
age in the plain of Dura was 60 cubits high, 
with its pedestal. Many things show the 
cruelty and violence of his nature. His 
2d queen, Nitocris, mentioned by Herodo- 
tus, was an Egyptian woman. 

One of the famous structures ascribed to 
Nebuchadnezzar, and in which no doubt 
he took much pride, was the famous " hang- 
ing gardens," which he is said to have 
erected to gratify the longing of his first 
queen Amuhia for elevated groves such as 
she was accustomed to in her native Me- 
dia. This could only be done, in a coun- 
try so level as Babylonia, by constructing 

383 



NEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NEC 



an artificial mountain; and accordingly 
the king caused one to be made, 400 feet 
square and over 75 feet high. The succes- 
sive terraces were supported on ranges of 
regular piers, covered by large stones, on 
which were placed thick layers of matting 
and of bitumen and 2 courses of stones, 
which were again covered with a solid 
coating of lead. On such a platform an- 
other similar, but smaller, was built, etc. 
The various terraces were then covered 
with earth, and furnished with trees, shrub- 
bery, and flowers. The whole was watered 
from the Euphrates, which flowed at its 
base, by machinery within the mound. 
These gardens occupied but a small por- 
tion of the prodigious area of the palace, 
the Avail inclosing the whole being 6 miles 
in circumference. Within this were 2 other 
walls and a great tower, besides the palace 
buildings, courts, gardens, etc. All the 
gates were of brass, which agrees with the 
language used by Isaiah in predicting the 
capture of Babylon by Cyrus, Isa. 45:12. 
The ruins of the hanging gardens are be- 
lieved to be found amid the vast irregular 
mound called Kasr, on the east side of the 
Euphrates, 800 yards by 600 at its base. 
The bricks taken from this mound are of 
fine quality, and are all stamped with the 
name of Nebuchadnezzar. 

Another labor of this monarch was that, 
the ruins of which are now called Birs- 
Nimrud, about 8 miles southwest of the 
above structure. See Babel. The re- 
searches of Sir Henry Rawlinson have 
shown that this was built by Nebuchad- 
nezzar on the platform of a ruinous edifice 
of more ancient days. It had 7 terraces. 
On the top was the sanctum and observa- 
tory of the temple, now a vitrified mass. 
Each story was dedicated to a different 
planet, and stained with the color appro- 
priated to that planet in their astrological 
system. The lowest, in honor of Saturn, 
was black; that of Jupiter was orange, that 
of Mars red, that of the Sun yellow, that of 
Venus green, and that of Mercury blue. 
The temple was white, probably for the 
moon. In the corners of this long-ruined 
edifice, recently explored, were found cyl- 
inders with arrow-headed inscriptions, in 
the name of Nebuchadnezzar, which inform 
us that the building was named " The Sta- 
ges of the Seven Spheres of Borsippa," 
that it had been in a dilapidated condition, 
and that, moved by Merodach his god, he 
had reconstructed it with bricks enriched 
with lapis lazuli, " without changing its site 
384 



or destroying its foundation platform." 
This restoration is also stated to have ta- 
ken place 504 years after its first erection 
in that form by Tiglath-pileser I., 1100 B. C. 
If not actually on the site of the tower of 
Babel mentioned in the Bible, and the tem- 
ple of Belus described by Herodotus, this 
building would seem to have been erected 
on the same general plan. Every brick 
yet taken from it bears the impress of Neb- 
uchadnezzar. Borsippa appears to have 
been a suburb of ancient Babylon. 

NEBUSHAS'BAN, adorer of Nebo, the 
Rab-saris or chief chamberlain of the king 
of Babylon, like Ashpenaz, Dan. 1:3; he 
sent officials to release Jeremiah from pris- 
on, Jer. 39:3, 13. Compare 2 Kin. 18:17. 

NEBUZAR'-ADAN, " chief of the execu- 
tioners " under king Nebuchadnezzar, and 
his agent in the sacking and destruction of 
Jerusalem, 2 Kin. 25:8-21; Jer. 39:8-10. 
He greatly befriended Jeremiah by the 
king's direction, Jer. 39:11; 40:1-5. Sev- 
eral years later he carried away 745 addi- 
tional captives, Jer. 52:12-30. 

NE'CHO, or Pharaoh-necho, an Egyp- 
tian king, mentioned not only in Scripture, 
but by Herodotus, who says that he was 
son of Psammetichus, king of Egypt, and 
that, having succeeded him in the king- 
dom, he raised great armies, and sent out 
great fleets, as well on the Mediterranean 
as the Red Sea; that he expended a vast 
sum and many thousand lives in a fruitless 
effort to unite the Nile and the Red Sea by 
a canal ; and that he was the first to send a 
ship wholly around Africa. Josiah king of 
Judah being tributary to the king of Baby- 
lon, opposed Necho on his 1st expedition 
against Nebuchadnezzar, and gave him 
battle at Megiddo, where he received the 
wound of which he died, and Necho pressed 
forward without making any long stay in 
Palestine. On his return from the Euphra- 
tes, where he had taken and garrisoned the 
city of Carchemish, B. C. 610, he halted in 
Riblah in Syria, and sending for Jehoahaz, 
king of the Jews, he deposed him, loaded 
him with chains, and sent him into Egypt. 
Then coming to Jerusalem, he set up Elia- 
kim, or Jehoiakim, Josiah's firstborn, in his 
place, and exacted the payment of 100 tal- 
ents of silver and 1 talent of gold. The 
accompanying cut, from the great " Tomb 
of the Kings " in Egypt, explored by Bel- 
zoni, is believed to represent 4 Jewish hos- 
tages or captives of distinction presented 
before Pharaoh-necho. One of them may 
be meant for Jehoahaz. They were colored 



NEC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



NEH 




white; and with them were 4 red, 4 black, 
and 4 others white, supposed to represent 
Babylonians, Ethiopians, etc. They were 
led before the king, seated on his throne, 
by one of the hawk-headed figures so fre- 
quent on Egyptian monuments. Jeremiah, 
46:2, tells us that Carchemish was retaken 
by the army of the king of Babylon, in the 
4th year of Jehoiakim king of Judah; so 
that Necho did not retain his conquests 
in Syria more than 4 years, 2 Kin. 23 : 29 to 
24:7: 2 Chr. 35:20 to 36:6. 

NECK. The phrases to " harden the 
neck," Prov. 29:1, and to be "stiff-necked," 
like a headstrong brute, illustrate the wil- 
ful obstinacy of sinners against the instruc- 
tions and commands of God. The yoke of 
sin is of iron, Deut. 28:48, but that of Christ 
is easy, Matt. 11:29. "To lay down the 
neck" is to hazard one's life, Rom. 16:4. 
Conquerors of ancient days sometimes put 
their feet on the prostrate necks of princes 
in token of their subjugation, trampling 
them in the dust. This is often shown in 
Egyptian and Assyrian monuments. Their 
mischief sometimes returned upon their 
own heads, Josh. 10:24; Psa. 18:40. 

NECROMANCER, one who pretended to 
discover unknown and future events by 
summoning and interrogating the dead, 
Deut. 18:10, 11 ; 2 Kin. 21:6; 2 Chr. 33:6, a 
crime punishable by stoning to death, Lev. 
19:31; 20:27. See Sorcerer. No good 
reason can be given for believing that such 
pretended communications with departed 
spirits are less offensive to God now than 
in the time of Moses, Isa. 8:19; 29:4. 

25 



NEE'DLE, Matt. 19:24. See Camel. 
"Needlework" in Judg. 5:30 denotes em- 
broidery. 

NEES'ING, translated sneezing in 2 Kin. 
4:35 ; used in Job 41 : 18 to describe the vio- 
lent breathing of the enraged leviathan, or 
crocodile. 

NEGI'NAH, or NEGI'NATH, in title of 
Psa. 61, and NEGI'NOTH, Hab. 3 : 19, a gen- 
eral name of stringed instruments used by 
the Hebrews, or the music or song for 
them, 1 Sam. 18:6; Psa. 68:25, translated 
"song" in Job 30:9; Psa. 77:6; Lam. 3:14. 
Psalms 4, 6, 54, 55, 67, and 76 are addressed 
to the chief musician with Neginoth. See 
Music. 

NEHEMI'AH, consoled by Jehovah, I., the 
son of Hachaliah, brother of Hanani, of the 
tribe of Judah, Neh. 1:1, 2; 2:3; 3:7, pos- 
sibly of the royal family. He was born at 
Babylon during the captivity, and sustained 
the office of cup-bearer to the Persian king 
Artaxerxes Longimanus, at Susa. Touched 
by the calamitous state of the colony of 
Jews which had formerly returned to Jeru- 
salem, he laid their case before God in 
penitent and importunate prayer, and at 
length besought the king of Persia to per- 
mit him to go to Jerusalem and aid in re- 
building it. He was accordingly sent 
thither as governor in the 20th year of Ar- 
taxerxes, about 444 B. C. He directed his 
attention chiefly to the great but essential 
task of rebuilding the walls of the city. 
The enmity of the Samaritans, under which 
the colony had formerly suffered, was now 
increased; and under Sanballat, the gov- 

385 



NEH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NEP 



ernor of the country, they cast all possible 
hindrances, by artifice and slander, in the 
Avay of the Jews. The}'- even went so far 
as to attack the laborers at their work, so 
that Nehemiah had to cause them to labor 
with arms in their hands ; yet in one year 
their task was completed. In this great 
work, and in his whole administration, his 
pious zeal and disinterestedness, courage, 
and liberality, his love for the people and 
city of God, and his prayerful reliance on 
divine aid were crowned with success. He 
had the cooperation of faithful friends, es- 
pecially of Ezra, Neh. 8:1,9, 13; 12:36, and 
instituted many excellent civil improve- 
ments. About 432 B. C, though perhaps 
not for the first time, he returned to his 
post at the court of Babylon, Neh. 2:6: 
5:14; 13:6; but after a few years was re- 
called to Jerusalem to reform certain grow- 
ing irregularities — neglect of the temple 
service, breaches of the Sabbath, marria- 
ges with the heathen, etc. He required of 
those Jews who had married heathen wives 
that they should either abandon them or 
else themselves quit the country. This 
voluntary exile of a number of discontent- 
ed priests may have given occasion to the 
building of the temple on Mount Gerizim 
and the establishment of the Samaritan 
worship. See Sanballat. The repaired 
temple and walls were solemnly rededica- 
ted, and he suppressed usury and exaction 
from the poor, fed the destitute, provided 
for the temple service, and was in all things 
a model for rulers. 

The book of Nehemiah contains the 
history of all these transactions, written by 
himself near the close of his long life, B. C. 
400.? It is a sort of a continuation of the 
book of Ezra, and was called by some of 
the fathers the Second book of Ezra. Some 
portions of it, as ch. 8 and 9 and 12:1-26, 
appear to be compilations from public reg- 
isters, etc. The mention of Jaddua as 
high-priest and of some late names of the 
line of David, ch. 12:10-22, may perhaps 
have been made by some subsequent in- 
spired writer. The book contains much 
information as to the topography of Jeru- 
salem, the genealogy of prominent He- 
brews, and the trades and customs of the 
people. With it the historical books of the 
Old Testament close. 

II. One who returned to Jerusalem with 
Zerubbabel, Ezra 2:2; Neh. 7:7. 

III. Son of Azbuk, a Judahite, who helped 
to rebuild Jerusalem, Neh. 3: 16. 

NEHI'LOTH, perforated, supposed to 
386 



mean flutes or wind instruments; found 
only in the title of the 5th Psalm, which 
was perhaps to be sung with this accom- 
paniment only. 

NE'HUM, consoled, Neh. 7:7; rather Re- 
hum, which see, as in Ezra 2:2. 

NEHUSH'TA, copper, wife of Jehoiakim 
and mother of the young king Jeconiah, 
with whom she was probably associated in 
the government, as she is in the reproaches 
of Jeremiah, 2 Kin. 24:8; Jer. 13:18; 29:2. 
NEHUSH'TAN, brazen, or of copper, a 
name given in contempt to the brazen ser- 
pent that Moses had set up in the wilder- 
ness, Num. 21:8, and which had been pre- 
served by the Israelites to that time. The 
superstitious people having made an idol 
of this serpent, Hezekiah caused it to be 
broken — a mere piece of brass, 2 Kin. 18:4. 
Memorials, relics, and other outward aids 
to devotion which men rely upon often have 
the opposite effect; the visible emblem 
hides the Saviour it ought to reveal, John 
3:14-16. 

NEI'EL, abode of God, Josh. 19:27, a 
town of Asher towards the mouth of the 
Kishon; traced at Tell en-Nahl, 4 miles 
east of Haifa. 

NEIGH'BOR. At the time of our Saviour 
the Pharisees had restrained the meaning 
of the word " neighbor " to those of their 
own nation, or to their own friends, hold- 
ing that to hate their enemy was not for- 
bidden by the law, Matt. 5:43. But our 
Saviour informed them that the whdle 
world were neighbors, that they ought not 
to do to another what they would not have 
done to themselves, and that this charity 
extended even to enemies. See the beau- 
tiful parable of the good Samaritan, the real 
neighbor to the distressed, Luke 10:29-37. 

NE'KEB, the caver)i, a town in Naphtali ; 
now Kh. Seiyadeh, 4 miles south by west 
from Tiberias. 

NE.KO' DA, famous, I., the head of a fam- 
ily that returned from Babylon, Ezra 2:48; 
Neh. 7:50. 

II. Ezra 2:60; Neh. 7:62. 

NEMU'EL, day of God, I., son of Sime- 
on, Num. 26:12; 1 Chr. 4:24; called Jem- 
uel in Gen. 46:10; Exod. 6:15. 

II. A Reubenite, brother of Dathan and 
Abiram, Num. 26:9. 

NE'PHEG, sprout, I., son of Izhar, Exod. 
6:2i.—II. A son of David, 2 Sam. 5:14, 15; 
1 Chr. 3:7 ; 14:6. 

NEPH'EWS.Judg. 12:14; Job 18:19; Isa. 
14:22; 1 Tim. 5:4, A. V., means grandchil- 
dren. 



NEP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NET 



NE'PHISH, i Chr. 1:31; 5:19. See Na- 

PHISH. 

NEPH'THALIM, A. V., Matt. 4:13, 15; 
Rev. 7:6. See Naphtali. 

NEPHTO'AH, opening, a flowing spring 
near the border of Judah and Benjamin, 
Josh. 15:8, 9; 18:14-16; probably Lifta, a 
village and fountain 2}^ miles northwest of 
Jerusalem. 

NER, light, son of Jehiel, 1 Chr. 8:29, 30, 
compared with 9:35, 36, father of Kish, ver. 
39, and grandfather of Saul, 1 Chr. 8:33; 
9:39. He also had a brother named Kish, 
1 Chr. 9:36. Jehiel seems to have been the 
founder of Gibeon. 

NE'REUS, a Christian at Rome, Rom. 
16:15. 

NER' GAL,, great hero, a prominent idol 
of the Babylonians and Assyrians, wor- 
shipped by the Cuthite heathen who were 
transplanted into Palestine, 2 Kin. 17:30. 
This idol probably represented the planet 
Mars, which was ever the emblem of blood- 
shed. Mars is named by the Zabians and 
Arabians ill-luck, misfortune. He was rep- 
resented as holding in one hand a drawn 
sword, and in the other, by the hair, a hu- 
man head just cut off; his garments were 
blood-red, as the light of the planet is also 
reddish. 

NER'GAL-SHARE'ZER, Nergal prince 
of fire, I., a chief officer under Nebuchad- 
nezzar, Jer. 39:3. 

II. The rab-mag or chief of the magi- 
cians, supposed to be Neriglissar men- 
tioned by Berosus, who killed his brother- 
in-law Evil-merodach, king of Babylon, 
B- C. 559, and was succeeded by his son 
Laborosoarchod, B. C. 556. 

NE'RI, an ancestor of Christ, Luke 3:27, 
28. See Neriah. 

NERI'AH, Jehovah my lamp, the father 
of Seraiah and Baruch, Jer. 32: 12 ; 36:8, 14, 
32; 43:6; 45:1; 51:59. 

NE'RO, the infamous Roman Caesar be- 
fore whom Paul appeared, Acts 25:1:; 
28:16, and under whom he became a mar- 
tyr. He is not mentioned by name except 
in the note appended to 2 Timothy, but is 
referred to in Phil. 1:12, 13; 4:22. During 
his reign Rome was almost destroyed by 
a fire which continued more than a week 
and consumed many public buildings, tem- 
ples, monuments, libraries, works of art, 
and human lives; and such was his char- 
acter that the charge that he caused the fire 
for the sake of rebuilding the city in finer 
style is generally believed. Nero himself 
charged the crime upon the Christians, and 



instituted a merciless persecution against 
them, A. D. 64. Some were sewed up in 
the skins of animals and thrown into the 
arena to be torn in pieces by dogs ; others 
were wrapped in cloths dipped in pitch, 
fastened to stakes, and set on fire as night- 
torches. He perished by his own hand, 
A. D. 68. 

NEST, a symbol of security and comfort, 
Job 29:18. Scripture writers notice the 
adaptation of the thick foliage of the cedar 
for birds' nests, Ezek. 31:3-6; of the flat 
branches of the fir-tree for storks, Psa. 
104:17, and the hollows in the rocks for the 
blue rock-dove, still found around the Dead 
Sea, Jer. 48:28; also the fondness of the 
swallow and sparrow for human habita- 
tions, Psa. 84:3. The eagle's nest on lofty 
cliffs, Job 39:27, 28; Obad. 4, pointed a 
a reproof of pride and ambition, Jer. 49 : 16 ; 
Hab. 2:9. The Kenite's nest was "in a 
rock," Num. 24:21, 22. See Sela. The 
prohibition of taking a mother-bird with 
her young, Maimonides says, was designed 
to save the whole nest, since the eggs and 
newly-fledged birds could not lawfully be 
eaten. 

NETHAN'EEL, given by God, the name 
of 9 or 10 men mentioned in Num. 1:8; 
1 Chr. 2:14; 15:24; 24:6; 26:4; 2 Chr. 17:7; 
35:9; Ezra 10:22; Neh. 12:21, 36. 

NETHANI' AH, given by Jehovah, I., 1 Chr. 
25:2, 12. — II. 2 Chr. 17:8. — III. Jer. 36:14. — 
IV. Jer. 41. 

NETH'ER, lower; as the lower stone of 
a handmill, Deut. 24:6; the foot of Sinai, 
Exod. 19:17; the regions of the dead, Ezek. 
32:18. 

NETH'INIM, or NETHI'NIM, given or 
consecrated, a term first applied to the Le- 
vites, who were "given" to the priests, to 
serve them in holy things, Num. 3:9; 8:19; 
but after the settlement in Canaan to ser- 
vants dedicated to the service of the tab- 
ernacle and temple, to perform the most 
laborious offices, as carrying of wood and 
water, Num. 31:47. The Gibeonites were 
destined to this station, Josh. 9:21-27; after- 
wards other Canaanites who surrendered 
themselves and whose lives were spared. 
Many of them appear to have been first 
assigned to David, Solomon, and other 
princes, and by them transferred to the 
temple service, 1 Kin. 9:20, 21; Ezra 2:58, 
70; 8:20; Neh. 11:3. It is probable that 
they became proselytes, Exod. 12 :48 ; Deut. 
29:11; Neh. 10:28, and that many of them 
could cordially unite with David in saying, 
" I had rather be a doorkeeper in the house 

387 



NET 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NIC 



of my God than to dwell in the tents of 
wickedness," Psa. 84:10. The Nethinim 
were carried into captivity with the tribe 
of Judah, and great numbers were placed 
not far from the Caspian Sea, whence Ezra 
brought 220 of them into Judaea, Ezra 8: 17. 
They probably lodged within the precincts 
of the temple, and helped to fortify Ophel 
on its south side, Neh. 3 : 26, 31 ; 11:21. 

NETO'PHAH, dropping, a town of Judah, 
the home of many Levites, singers, 1 Chr. 
9:16; 27:13,15; Ezra 2: 22; Neh. 7: 26; 12:28. 
The Netophathites are called " sons " of 
Salma, who was probably the founder of 
the town, 1 Chr. 2:54. See 2 Sam. 23:28, 
29; 2 Kin. 25:23; Jer. 40:8. 

NETS are often referred to in Scripture, 
Prov. 1:17; Eccl. 7:26; Isa. 19:8, 9; Hab. 
1 : 15, 16, particularly in connection with the 
first disciples of Christ, Matt. 13:47-50; 
Luke 5:1-10. Before the invention of fire- 
arms nets were much used in hunting and 
fowling, and possibly in catching men, as 
robbers, etc., Job 19:6; Psa. 140:5; Mic. 
7:2. Among the ancient Romans there 
was a gladiatorial game in which one man 
was armed with sword and shield, and his 
antagonist with a net, by casting which he 
strove to entangle the other so that he 
might easily despatch him with his dagger. 
Drag-nets were used in fishing, Isa. 19:8; 
Hab. 1:14-17; John 21:6-11. The apostles 
were to be fishers of men, Matt. 4:18-22. 
In Luke 5:6 read, " their nets were break- 
ing," as in R. V. 

NET'TLE, a well-known stinging plant, 
growing in neglected grounds, Isa. 34:13; 
Hos. 9:6. A different Hebrew word in 
Job 30:7; Prov. 24:31 ; Zeph. 2:9, seems to 
indicate a larger species, or perhaps the 
charlock or wild mustard. 

NEW MOON. The new moon was the 
commencement of each of the Hebrew 
months. See Month. The Hebrews had 
a particular veneration for the first day of 
every month, for which Moses appointed 
peculiar sacrifices, Num. 28:11-15; but he 
gave no orders that it should be kept as a 
holy day, nor can it be proved that the an- 
cients observed it as such; it was a festi- 
val of merely voluntary devotion. It ap- 
pears that at the time of Saul they made 
on this day a sort of family entertainment ; 
since David ought then to have been at the 
king's table, and Saul took his absence 
amiss, 1 Sam. 20:5, 18. Moses implies that, 
besides the national sacrifices then regu- 
larly offered, every private person had his 
particular sacrifices of devotion, Num. 
388 



10:10. The beginning of the month was 
proclaimed by sound of trumpet, Psa. 81 13, 
and the offering of solemn sacrifices. But 
the most celebrated new moon was that at 
the beginning of the civil year, or the first 
day of the month Tishri, Lev. 23:24. This 
was a sacred festival, on which no servile 
labor was performed, Amos 8 : 5. See Trum- 
pet. In the kingdom of the 10 tribes it 
seems to have been a custom of the people 
to visit the prophets at the new moons for 
the purpose of carrying them presents and 
hearing their instructions, 2 Kin. 4 : 23. Eze- 
kiel says, 45 : 17 (see also 1 Chr. 23 : 31 ; 2 Chr. 
8 : 13), that the burnt-offerings offered on the 
day of the new moon were to be provided 
at the king's expense. The observance of 
this festival was discontinued soon after 
the establishment of Christianity, Gal. 4:9, 
10; Col. 2:16, though the Jews take some 
notice of the day even now. 

NEW YEAR. See Trumpet. 

NEZI'AH, illustrious, Ezra 2:54; Neh. 
7:56; the father of Nethinim who returned 
from Babylon. 

NE'ZIB, a garrison, Josh. 15:43, a city of 
Judah, in the lower hill region; now Beit 
Nusib, S l A miles northwest of Hebron. 

NIB'HAZ, barker, according to the Rab- 
bins a dog-shaped or dog-headed divinity 
of Babylon, brought into Samaria by the 
Avites, 2 Kin. 17:31. 

NIB'SHAN, furnace, Josh. 15:62, a town 
in Judah towards En-gedi, from Bethlehem. 

NICA'NOR, victor, one of the first 7 dea- 
cons who were chosen and appointed at 
Jerusalem soon after the pentecostal de- 
scent of the Holy Ghost, Acts 6:1-6. 

NICODE'MUS, conqueror of the people , a 
member of the Jewish Sanhedrin, at first a 
Pharisee, and afterwards a disciple of Je- 
sus. He was early convinced that Christ 
came from God, but was not ready at once 
to rank himself among His followers. In 
John 3:1-20 he first appears as a timid in- 
quirer after the truth, learning the great 
doctrines of regeneration and atonement. 
In John 7:45-52 we see him cautiously de- 
fending the Saviour before the Sanhedrin. 
At last, in the trying scene of the crucifix- 
ion, he avowed himself a believer, and 
came with Joseph of Arimathaea to pay the 
last duties to the body of Christ, which they 
took down from the cross, embalmed, and 
laid in the sepulchre, John 19:39. He is 
named only by John, who knew the high- 
priest. As a "teacher " he belonged to the 
learned class. His coming to Christ at 
night may have suggested our Lord's words 



NIC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NIL 



in John 3: 19-21. Many are deterred by the 
fear of man from coming to the Saviour at 
all. 

NICOLA'ITANS, heretical persons or 
teachers, mentioned in Rev. 2:6, 15. Com- 
pare 2 Pet. 2:12, 19; Jude 4, 7, 8, 11, 12. 
Some suppose them to have been followers 
of Nicolas the deacon, but there is no good 
evidence that he ever became a heretic. 

NICOLAS, conqueror of the people, a 
proselyte of Antioch, that is, one converted 
from paganism to the religion of the Jews. 
He afterwards embraced Christianity, and 
was among the most zealous of the first 
Christians, so that he was chosen one of 
the first 7 deacons of the church at Jerusa- 
lem, Acts 6:5. 

NICOP'OLIS, city of victory, a city where 
Paul spent probably the last winter of his 
life, having previously written to Titus in 
Crete to meet him there, Tit. 3:12. He is 
supposed to refer to the Nicopolis in Epi- 
rus, which stood near the mouth of the 
Ambracian Gulf, opposite to Actium, and 
which was built by Augustus in honor of 
his decisive victory over Antony, B. C. 31. 
Its extensive ruins, amid wide desolation, 
attest its former magnificence. 

NI'GER, black, Acts 13:1, the surname of 
Symeon, a teacher in the church at Anti- 
och. 

NIGHT. The ancient Hebrews began 
their artificial day at sunset, and ended it 
the next sunset, so that the night preceded 
the day. This usage may probably be 
traced to the terms employed in describing 
the creation, Gen. 1:5, 8, 13, etc., "The 
evening and the morning were the first 
day." The Hebrews allowed 12 hours to 
the night and 12 to the day; but these 
hours were not equal, except at the equi- 
nox. At other times, when the hours of 
the night were long, those of the day were 
short, as in winter ; and when the hours of 
night were short, as at midsummer, the 
hours of day were long in proportion. See 
Hour. 

The nights are sometimes extremely cold 
in Syria when the days are very hot ; and 
travellers in the deserts and among the 
mountains near Palestine refer to their own 
sufferings from these opposite extremes, in 
illustration of Jacob's words in Gen. 31:40, 
" In the day the drought consumed me, and 
the frost by night ; and my sleep departed 
from mine eyes." The twilight in tropical 
regions is very short, Gen. 15:17; Job 24:15; 
Ezek. 12:6, 7, 12. 

Night is a time of danger, Judg. 7:19; 



Job 24:14; Psa. 91 :5, and a symbol of igno- 
rance, Mic. 3:6, adversity, Isa. 21:12, and 
death, John 9:4. In heaven there are none 
of these evils, Rev. 22:5. They who work 
deeds of darkness are children of night, 
Prov. 7:9; 1 Thess. 5:5-7. The life of the 
Christian on earth is but a night before the 
endless day, Rom. 13:12. 




THE SCREECH OWL: STRIX FLAMMEA. 

NIGHT-HAWK, an unclean bird, Lev. 
11:16; Deut. 14:15. Its name seems to in- 
dicate voracity, and is therefore thought 
by many to point out the white Syrian owl, 
the Strix flammea, a more powerful bird 
than the night-hawk, and exceedingly vo- 
racious ; it sometimes attacks sleeping chil- 
dren. 

NILE, blue, the celebrated river of Egypt. 
It takes this name only after the junction 
of the 2 great streams of which it is com- 
posed, the Bahr el-Abiad, or White River, 
which flows from the Lake Victoria Nyan- 
za 30 south of the equator, Lake Albert 
Nyanza 100 miles west, and Lake Tangan- 
yika, still farther south, and runs northeast 
till it is joined by the other branch, the 
Bahr el-Azrek, or Blue River, which rises 
in Abyssinia, and after a large circuit to 
the southeast and southwest, in which it 
passes through the Lake of Dembea, flows 
northwards to join the White River. This 
Abyssinian branch, the chief source of the 
alluvial soil that enriches Egypt, has in 
modern times been regarded as the real 
Nile, although the White River is much the 
larger and longer, and was in ancient times 
considered as the true Nile. The junction 
takes place at Khartoum, the capital of 
Soudan, about lat. 160 north. From this 
point the Nile flows always in a northerly 
direction, with the exception of one large 

389 



NIL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NIL 



bend to the west. About 1,300 miles from 
the sea it receives its last branch, the At- 
bara, or Tacazze, a large stream from Abys- 
sinia, and having passed through Nubia, it 
enters Egypt at the cataracts near S3 r ene, 
or Essuan, which are formed by a chain of 
rock stretching east and west. There are 
here 3 falls ; after which the river pursues 
its course in still and silent majesty through 
the whole length of the land of Egypt, 500 
miles. Its average breadth is about 700 
yards. In Lower Egypt it divides into 
several branches and forms the celebrated 
Delta; for which see under Egypt. See 
also a view of the river in Amon. Its en- 
tire length is at least 2,500 miles in a 
straight line. 

In the Bible the Nile is called the Shihor 
in Hebrew, and named as the extreme 
western boundary of the promised land, 
Josh. 13:3; 1 Chr. 13:5; Jer. 2:18; also " the 
river" and its branches, Psa. 78:44; Isa. 
7:18; 19:6; Ezek. 29:3; 30:12; the "river 
of Egypt," Gen. 15:18, and "of Ethiopia," 
Heb. Cush, Isa. 18:1. 

As rain very seldom falls, even in win- 
ter, in Southern Egypt, Zech. 14:17, 18, and 
usually only slight and infrequent showers 
in Lower Egypt, the whole physical and 
political existence of Egypt may be said to 
depend on the Nile ; since without this riv- 
er, and even without its regular annual in- 
undations, the whole land would be but a 
desert. These inundations, so mysterious 
in the view of ancient ignorance and su- 
perstition, are caused by the regular peri- 
odical rains in the countries farther south, 
around the sources of the Nile, in March 
and later. The river begins to rise in 
Egypt about the middle of June, and con- 
tinues to increase through the month of 
July. In August it overflows its banks, 
and reaches its highest point September 
20th ; and the country is then mostly cov- 
ered with its waters, Jer. 46 : 7, 8 ; Amos 8:8; 
9:5; Nah. 3:8. In the beginning of Octo- 
ber the inundation still continues ; and it 
is only towards the end of this month that 
the stream returns within its banks. From 
the middle of August till towards the end 
of October the whole land of Egypt resem- 
bles a great lake or sea, in which the towns 
and cities appear as islands connected by 
dykes. 

The cause of the fertility which the Nile 
imparts lies not only in its thus watering 
the land, but also in the thick slimy mud 
which its waters bring down and deposit 
on the soil of Egypt. It is like a coat of 
390 



rich manure; and the seed being immedi- 
ately sown upon it, without digging or 
ploughing, springs up rapidly, grows with 
luxuriance, and ripens into abundance. 
See Egypt. 

It must not, however, be supposed that 
the Nile spreads itself over every spot of 
land, and waters it sufficiently without arti- 
ficial aid. Niebuhr justly remarks, " Some 
descriptions of Egypt would lead us to 
think that the Nile when it swells lays the 
whole province under water. The lands 
immediately adjoining to the banks of the 
river are indeed laid under water, but the 
natural inequality of the ground hinders it 
from overflowing the interior country. A 
great part of the lands would therefore 
remain barren were not canals and reser- 
voirs formed to receive water from the river 
when at its greatest height, which is thus 
conveyed everywhere through the fields, 
and reserved for watering them when occa- 
sion requires." In order to raise the water 
to grounds which lie higher, machines have 
been used in Egypt from time immemorial. 
These are chiefly wheels to which buckets 
are attached. One kind is turned by oxen ; 
another smaller kind by men seated and 
pushing the lower spokes from them with 
their feet, while they pull the upper spokes 
towards them with their hands, Deut. 
11:10-12. 

As the inundations of the Nile are of so 
much importance to the whole land, struc- 
tures have been erected on which the be- 
ginning and progress of its rise might be 
observed. These are called Nilometers, 
that is, " Nile measures." At present there 
is one 1,000 years old and half in ruins on 
the little island opposite Cairo ; it is under 
the care of the government, and according 
to it the beginning and subsequent pro- 
gress of the rise of the Nile were carefully 
observed and proclaimed by authority. If 
the inundation reached the height of 22 
Paris feet, a rich harvest was expected, be- 
cause then all the fields had received the 
requisite irrigation. If it fell short of this 
height, and in proportion as it thus fell 
short, the land was threatened with want 
and famine, of which some horrible exam- 
ples occur in Egyptian history. Should 
the rise of the water exceed 28 Paris feet a 
famine was in like manner feared. The 
annual rise of the river also varies exceed- 
inglv in different parts of its course, being 
20 feet greater where the river is narrow 
than in Lower Egypt. The channel is 
thought to be gradually filling up, and 



NIM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NIN 



many of the ancient outlets at the Delta 
are dry in summer and almost obliterated. 
The drying up of the waters of Egypt 
would involve its destruction as a habita- 
ble land to the same extent; and this fact 
is recognized in the prophetic denuncia- 
tions of this remarkable country, Isa. 11:15; 
19:1-10; Ezek. 29:10; 30:12. 

The water of the Nile, although during 
a great part of the year turbid, from the 
effects of the rains above, yet furnishes, 
when purified by settling, the softest and 
sweetest water for drinking. Its excel- 
lence is acknowledged by all travellers. 
The Egyptians are full of its praises, and 
even worshipped the river as a god. 

The Hebrews sometimes gave both to 
the Euphrates and the Nile the name of 
"sea," Isa. 19:5; Nah. 3:8. In this they 
are borne out by Arabic writers, and also 
by the common people of Egypt, who to 
this day commonly speak of the Nile as 
"the sea.' ; It was formerly celebrated for 
its fish. Compare Num. 11:5; Isa. 19:8. 
In its waters were likewise found the croc- 
odile or leviathan, and the hippopotamus 
or behemoth. See Egypt and Sihor. 

In excavating in the Nile valley a piece 
of glazed pottery was found at such a depth 
that Bunsen declared it must have been 
dropped there 11,000 or 13,000 years B. C. ; 
but such estimates have been proved utter- 
ly unreliable. Champollion concedes that 
no Egyptian monument is older than 2,200 
B. C. 

The Nile is rendered famous by the his- 
tory of Joseph, of the 7 years of plenty and 
7 years of famine, Gen. 41, the story of the 
infant Moses, Exod. 2, of 2 of the 10 plagues 
of Egypt, Exod. 7:17, 18; 8:1-3, and the 
predictions in Isa. 11:11-15; 19:4-8. Our 
Saviour in his infancy may have looked on 
its waters at Heliopolis. 

NIM'RAH, Num. 32:3, plural NIM'RIM, 
sweet waters, now Nimrin, 3 miles east of 
the Jordan, above Jericho. See Beth- 
nimrah. There is also a Nimrim on the 
southeast shore of the Dead Sea, referred 
to, some think, injer. 48:34. 

NIM'RIM. See Beth-nimrah. 

NIM'ROD, rebellion, impiety, a son of 
Cush and grandson of Ham, proverbial 
from the earliest times as a mighty hunter 
and warrior, Gen. 10:8-10; 1 Chr. 1:10. He 
seems to have feared neither God nor man, 
to have gathered around him a host of 
adventurers, and extended his conquests 
from Ethiopia into the land of Shinar, where 
he founded or fortified Babel, Erech, Ac- 



cad, and Calneh. The R. V. and many 
authorities render Gen. 10:11, "out of that 
land Shinar) he went to Assyria, and build- 
ed Nineveh, Rehoboth, Calah, and Resen ;" 
he also founded Nineveh and the Assyrian 
empire, though this is usually understood 
to have been done by Asshur when ex- 
pelled by Nimrod from the land of Shinar, 




nimrod: from the palace of khorsabad. 

Mic. 5:6. Nimrod is supposed to have be- 
gun the tower of Babel ; and his name is 
still preserved by a vast ruinous mound on 
the site of ancient Babylon. See Babel. 

NIM'SHI, saved, the grandfather of Jehu, 
2 Kin. 9:2, 14, often called his father, being 
perhaps more known than Jehoshaphat, 
ver. 20; 1 Kin. 19:16; 2 Chr. 22:7. 

NIN'EVEH, dwelling of Ni'nus, the me- 
tropolis of ancient Assyria, called by the 
Greeks and Romans "the great Ninus;" 
situated on the east bank of the Tigris, op- 
posite the modern Mosul. Its origin is 
traced to the times near the flood. See 
Nimrod. For nearly 15 centuries after- 
wards it is not mentioned, though Assyria 
is named prophetically in Num. 24:22-24; 
Psa. 83:8. In the books of Jonah and Na- 
hum it is described as an immense city, 3 
days' journey in circuit, containing more 

391 



NIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NIN 




WINGED AND HUMAN-HEAD LION, FROM THE RUINS OF NINEVEH 



than 120,000 young children, possibly inclu- 
ding others equally untaught, indicating a 
population of half a million or more. It 
contained "much cattle" and numerous 
parks, gardens, groves, etc. Its inhabi- 
tants were wealthy, warlike, and far ad- 
vanced in civilization. It had numerous 
strongholds with gates and bars, and had 
multiplied its merchants above the stars; 
its crowned princes were as locusts, and 
its captains as grasshoppers. With this 
description agrees that of the historian 
Diodorus Siculus, who says Nineveh was 
21 miles long, 9 broad, and 54 miles in cir- 
cumference ; he adds, perhaps with some 
exaggeration, that its walls were 100 feet 
high, and so broad that 3 chariots could 
drive upon them abreast ; and that it had 
1,500 towers, each 200 feet high. 

Nineveh had long been the mistress of 
the East; but for her great luxury and 
wickedness the prophet Jonah was sent, 
more than 800 years before Christ, to warn 
the Ninevites of her speedy destruction. 
See also Isa. 14:24, 25. Their timely re- 
pentance delayed for a time the fall of the 
city; but about 753 B. C, the period of the 
foundation of Rome, it was taken by the 
Medes under Arbaces; and nearly a cen- 
tury and a half later, according to the pre- 
dictions of Nahum, ch. 1-3, and Zephani- 
ah 2:13, it was a 2d time taken by Cyax- 
ares the Mede and Nabopolassar of Baby- 
lon, after which writers mention it but sel- 
392 



dom, and as an unimportant place. It was 
probably destroyed between the days of 
Zephaniah and Ezekiel, about 606 B. C, 
partly by fire, as secular history relates, 
confirming both the prediction of Nahum 
and the testimony of modern explorers, 
Nah. 3:13, 15. The last mention of it as 
an inhabited city is in Zeph. 2: 13. So com- 
plete was its destruction that for ages its 
site has been well nigh lost, and infidels 
have even denied that the Nineveh of the 
Bible ever existed. The mounds which 
were the "grave" of its ruins, Nah. 1:14, 
were so covered with soil as to seem like 
natural hills. But since 1843 Layard, Bot- 
ta, George Smith, and others have been 
exploring its remains, so long undisturbed. 
The mounds chiefly explored lie at 3 cor- 
ners of a trapezium about 18 miles long and 
12 miles wide, and nearly 60 in circumfer- 
ence, thus confirming the ancient accounts 
of its vast extent. Directly opposite Mosul 
is a continuous line of earthworks, 8 miles 
in circuit and 40 feet high, marking the 
course of an ancient wall with occasional 
elevations on the site of towers or gates, 
and with two large and notable mounds, 
Koyunjik and Nebi Yunus. Koyunjik is 
1,300 yards long and 500 yards wide where 
widest, and 95 feet high where highest. 
Nebi Yunus, near by on the south, is 
smaller; Khorsabad is 13 miles northeast 
of Koyunjik, Nimrud 18 miles south, and 
Keramles 15 miles southeast. The recent 



NIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NIN 




excavations disclose temples and 
palaces guarded by huge winged 
bulls and lions with human heads. 
The apartments of these buildings 
are lined with slabs of stone covered 
with sculptures in bas-relief, and 
inscriptions in arrow-headed char- 
acters which have been in part de- 
ciphered; compare Ezek. 4:1; and 
these scupltured memorials of the 
history, and customs of the Assyri- 
ans, together with the various arti- 
cles made of glass, wood, ivory, and 
metals, now brought to light after a 
burial of 24 centuries, furnish inval- 
uable aid in the interpretation of 
Scripture, and most signally confirm 
its truth. Our surprise is equal to 
our gratification when we behold the 
actual Assyrian account of events 
recorded in Kings and Chronicles. 
Not only do we find mention made 
of Jehu, Menahem, Hezekiah, Omri, 
Hazael, etc., and of various cities in 
Judaea and Syria, but we discover 
Sennacherib's own account of his 
invasion of Palestine, and of the 
amount of tribute which king Heze- 
kiah was forced to pay him; also 
pictures representing his capture of 
Lachish, 2 Kin. 18:14, and his offn 
cers, perhaps the railing Rab-shakeh 
himself, presenting Jewish captives 
to the king, etc. (See cut and details 
in Sennacherib.) These mural tab- 
lets also furnish a graphic comment 
on the language of the prophet Eze- 
kiel ; and as he was a captive in the 
region of Nineveh, he had no doubt 
heard of and had probably seen 
these very " chambers of imagery," 
as well as the objects they repre- 
sent. We there find reproduced to 
our view the men and scenes he de- 
scribes in chap. 23; 26:7-12: "cap- 
tains and rulers clothed most gor- 
geously," "portrayed with vermil- 
ion," " girded with girdles upon their 
loins," " in dyed attire." The " ver- 
milion" or red color is quite preva- 
lent among the various brilliant col- 
ors with which these tablets were 
painted, Ezek. 23:14, 15; Nah. 2:3. 
Here are " horsemen riding upon 
horses," "princes to look to" in re- 
spect to warlike vigor and courage; 
and their horses of high spirit, noble 
form and attitudes, and decked with 
showy trappings. (See the accom- 
393 



NIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



NIS 




WARRIOR AND HORSES, FROM THE MOUND OF KHORSABAD, NINEVEH. 



panying cut.) Here, in fine, are the idols, 
kings, and warriors of Nineveh in various 
scenes of worship, hunting, and war ; for- 
tresses attacked and taken ; heaps of heads 
of the slain, 2 Kin. 10:8; prisoners led in 
triumph, impaled, flayed, and otherwise 
tortured, and sometimes actually held by 
cords attached to hooks which pierce the 
nose or the lips, 2 Kin. 19:28; Isa. 37:29, 
and having their eyes put out by the point 
of a spear, 2 Kin. 25:7. For other cuts see 



Nisroch, Sennachkrib, Shalmaneser, 
and War. 

The Christian world is under great obli- 
gations to Layard, Botta, and Smith for 
their enterprising explorations, and to 
Rawlinson and Hincks for their literary 
investigations of these remains. To the 
student of the Bible especially these bur- 
ied treasures are of the highest value, and 
we may well rejoice not only in this new 
accumulation of evidence to the truth of 




the history and prophecies of Scripture, 
but in the additional light thus thrown on 
its meaning. How impressive too the 
warning which these newly-found memo- 
rials of a city once so vast and powerful 
bring to us in these latter days and in 
394 



lands then unknown, to beware of the lux- 
ury, pride, and ungodliness that caused 
her ruin. 

NI' S AN, flowery, a Hebrew month, near- 
ly answering to our April, but varying 
somewhat from year to year, according to 



NIS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



NOA 



the course of the moon. It was the 7th 
month of the civil year, but was made the 
1st month of the sacred year at the coming 
out of Egypt, Exod. 12:2. By Moses it is 
called Abib, Exod. 13:4. The name Nisan 
is found only after the time of Ezra and 
the return from the captivity of Babylon, 
JNTeh. 2:1; Esth. 3:7. See Month. 




NIS'ROCH, a god of the Assyrians, in 
whose temple and in the very act of idola- 
try Sennacherib was slain by his own sons, 
2 Kin. 19:37. According to the etymology 
the name would signify "the great eagle;" 
and the earlier Assyrian sculptures recent- 
ly exhumed at Nineveh have many repre- 
sentations of an idol in human form, but 
with the head of an eagle, as shown above. 
Among the ancient Arabs also the eagle 
occurs as an idol. According to some, the 
true reading for Nisroch is Assarach, which 
would identify him with Asshur. The ac- 
companying cut, representing a winged 




figure in a circle, armed with a bow, is fre- 
quently met on the walls of ancient Nine- 
veh in scenes of worship, and is believed 
to be an emblem of Asshur, the supreme 
divinity of the Assyrians. 



NI'TRE, not the substance used in ma- 
king gunpowder, but natron, a mineral 
alkali composed of an impure carbonate of 
soda. It effervesces with vinegar, Prov. 
25:20, and is still used in washing, Jer. 
2:22. Combined with oil it makes a hard 
soap. It is found deposited in or floating 
upon certain lakes west of the Delta of 
Egypt, and on the shore of the Dead 
Sea. 

NO, or NO-AMON. See Amon and 
Egypt. 

NOADI'AH, met by Jehovah, I., a Levite, 
Ezra 8:33. 

II. A prophetess who tried to put Nehe- 
miah in fear, Neh. 6:14. Compare Ezek. 
13:17. 

NO'AH, rest, comfort, the name of the 
celebrated patriarch, the 10th from Adam, 
who was preserved by Jehovah with his 
family, by means of the ark, through the 
deluge, and thus became the 2d founder 
of the human race. The history of Noah 
and the deluge is contained in Genesis, 
ch. 5-9. He was the son of Lamech, and 
grandson of Methuselah ; was born A. M. 
1056, and lived 600 years before the deluge 
and 350 after, dying 2 years before Abram 
was born, in all 950 years, only 126 years 
less than the entire period from Adam to 
Abram. His name may have been given 
to him by his parents in the hope that he 
would be the promised " seed of the wo- 
man " that should " bruise the serpent's 
head." He was in the line of the patri- 
archs who feared God, and was himself a 
just man, Ezek. 14:14, 20, and a "preacher 
of righteousness," 1 Pet. 3:19, 20; 2 Pet. 
2:5. His efforts to reform the degenerate 
world, continued as some suppose for 120 
years, produced little effect, Matt. 24:37; 
the flood did not "find faith upon the 
earth." Noah, however, was an example 
of real faith : he believed the warning of 
God, was moved by fear, and pursued the 
necessary course of action, Heb. 11:7. His 
first care on coming out from the ark was 
to worship the Lord with sacrifices of all 
the fitting animals, and God covenanted 
anew with him and with mankind, in con- 
nection with the rainbow, and gave him 
His blessing. Little more is recorded of 
him except his falling into intoxication, a 
sad instance of the shame and misfortune 
into which wine is apt to lead. The chil- 
dren of his three sons peopled the whole 
world — the posterity of Japheth chiefly oc- 
cupying Europe, those of Shem Asia, and 
those of Ham Africa. 

395 



NOA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NOP 



Numerous traces of traditions respecting 
Noah have been found all over the world. 
Among the most accurate is that embodied 
in the legend of the Greeks respecting 
Deucalion and Pyrrha. We may also men- 
tion the medals struck at Apamea in Phry- 
gia, in the time of the Roman emperor 
Pertinax, and bearing the name NOE, an 
ark, a man and a woman, a raven, and a 
dove with an olive-branch in its mouth. 




COIN OF APAMEA, IN PHRVGIA. 

The cut represents another Apamean me- 
morial of the deluge. See Ark. Legends 
respecting the deluge have been found also 
among the Hindoos, Persians, Chinese, 
Polynesians, Mexicans, from none of which 
the Bible history could be derived, while 
they all may have originated from the true 
history in Genesis. Christ sets his seal to 
its truth, Matt. 24:37; Luke 17:26. See 
also 2 Pet. 3:3-13. 

NO'AH, commotion, a daughter of Ze- 
lophehad, Num. 26:33; Josh. 17:3. 

NOB, an elevation, a city of priests, in 
Benjamin, on a hill near Jerusalem; its in- 
habitants, including 85 priests, were once 
put to the sword by command of Saul, for 
their hospitality to David, 1 Sam. 21:1; 
22:9-23. The tabernacle and ark, with the 
showbread, seem to have been there at 
that time. It was reinhabited after the 
Captivity, Neh. 11:31-35. It lay south of 
Gibeah, perhaps on the height es-Sumah, 
from which Mount Zion can be seen, Isa. 
10:28-32. 

NO'BAH, a barking, I., Num. 32:42, an 
Israelite chief of the tribe of Manasseh, 
who led in the conquest of Kenath and its 
villages, east of the Jordan. 

II. Judg. 8:11, Kenath, the abode of No- 
bah I., probably traced in Kunawat, a town 
in the Ledjah. 

NO'BLEMAN, John 4:46-53, A. V., one 
belonging to a royal court, in this case that 
of Herod Antipas. 

NOD, flight, or wandering , the region 
396 



east of Eden to which Cain was exiled, 
Gen. 4: 16. 

NO'DAB, nobility, a large pastoral Arab 
tribe, defeated by the Reubenites, 1 Chr. 

5 :I 9~22. 

NO'E, in the A. V., Matt. 24:37, 38; Luke 
3:36; 17:26,27. See Noah. 

NO'GAH, a flash, a son of David, 1 Chr. 

y-i\ 14:6. 

NO'HAH, rest, a son of Benjamin, and 
head of a family, 1 Chr. 8:2. 

NOI'SOME, Psa. 91:3; Ezek 14:15, 21, 
hurtful. 

NON, 1 Chr. 7:27, A. V. See Nun. 

NOON, Gen. 43:16; an emblem of pros- 
perity, Amos 8:9; Zeph. 2:4. 

NOPH, sometimes called also in Hebrew 
Moph, Hos. 9:6, the ancient city of Mem- 
phis in Egypt. It was situated on the 
west side of the Nile, just within the val- 
ley of Upper Egypt, and near the apex of 
the Delta where Lower Egypt begins to 
widen, an admirable site for a capital. A 
few scanty remains of it have recently been 
exhumed some 10 miles south of Old Cairo. 
It is said to have been founded by Menes, 
the Mizraim of Gen. 10:6, some 2,200 B. C, 
and its structures were second to those of 
Thebes alone. Its principal temple was 
that of Phthah, the Egyptian Vulcan. 

Memphis was the residence of the an- 
cient kings of Egypt till the times of the 
Ptolemies, who commonly resided at Alex- 
andria. Here, it is believed, Joseph was a 
prisoner and a ruler, and here Moses stood 
before Pharaoh. The prophets foretell the 
miseries Memphis was to suffer from the 
kings of Chaldaea and Persia: and threaten 
the Israelites who should retire into Egypt, 
or should have recourse to the Egyptians, 
that thejr should perish in that country, Isa. 
19:13; Jer. 2:16; 44:1; 46:14, 19; Ezek. 
30:13, 16. In this city they fed and wor- 
shipped the sacred bull Apis, the embodi- 
ment of their false god Osiris; and Ezekiel 
says that the Lord will destroy the idols of 
Memphis. Ezek. 30:13, 16. The city be- 
came tributary to the Babylonians, then the 
Persians, Macedonians, Romans, etc. It 
retained much of its splendor till it was 
conquered by the Arabians in the 18th or 
19th year of the Hegira, A. D. 641 ; after 
which it was superseded as the metropolis 
of Egypt by Fostat, now Old Cairo, in the 
construction of which its materials were 
employed. Some 5 miles away stand the 
Sphinx and the pyramids at Ghizeh. still 
over 30 in number, " which kings built for 
themselves," and which Ewald thinks are 



NOP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NUR 



meant by "desolate places" in Job 3:14; 
but the magnificent city that stretched 
along for many miles between them and 
the river has almost wholly disappeared. 

NO'PHAH, height, Num. 21:30, a town of 
Moab, near Heshbon and Medeba. 

NORTH, Job 37:9; Prov. 25:23, or "the 
left hand," Gen. 14:15; Job 23:9. See 
East. The Babylonians and Assyrians 
invaded Israel by a northern route, in or- 
der to avoid the desert, Jer. 1:14; 46:6, 24; 
Zeph. 2:13. "Fair weather," says Job, or 
golden weather, " cometh out of the north," 
Job 37:22. This is as true in Syria and 
Arabia now as it was 3,000 years ago. 

NOSE. Several expressions in Scrip- 
ture grew out of the fact that anger often 
shows itself by distended nostrils, hard 
breathing, and in animals by snorting, 
2 Sam. 22:9; Job 39:20; Psa. 18:8; Jer. 
8:16. Gold rings hung in the cartilage of 
the nose or the left nostril were favorite 
ornaments of Eastern women, Gen. 24:22, 
47; Prov. 11:22; Isa. 3:21; Ezek. 16:12, as 
they still are. Rings were inserted in the 
noses of animals to guide and control them ; 
and according to the recently-discovered 
tablets at Nineveh captives among the As- 
syrians were sometimes treated in the same 
way, 2 Kin. 19:28; Job 41:2; Ezek. 38:4. 
See Nineveh. 

NOVICE, or neophite, one recently con- 
verted and received to the Christian Church, 

1 Tim. 3:6. 

NUM'BER, Isa. 65:11. See Gad, III. 

NUM'BERS were designated by the He- 
brews by the letters of the alphabet, some 
of which were much alike, and thus mis- 
takes often occurred. Compare 2 Kin. 
24:8 with 2 Chr. 36:9, and 1 Kin. 4:26 with 

2 Chr. 9:25; also 2 Sam. 24:13 with 1 Chr. 
21 : 12 ; 2 Kin. 8 : 26 with 2 Chr. 22 : 2 ; 2 Sam. 
24:9 with 1 Chr. 21:5. 

To a certain extent a special significance 
belonged to some of the numbers. Thus 
seven, the symbol of perfection, very often 
occurs — as in the 7 days of the week, the 7 
altars of Balak, the 7 times of Nebuchad- 
nezzar; the 7-fold candlestick and offer- 
ings, Exod. 25:37; Lev. 13; the 7 beati- 
tudes, Matt. 5; Psa. 119:164; the Magda- 
lene's 7 devils, Luke 8:2; compare Matt. 
12:45; the 7-headed dragon, Rev. 12:3; the 
7 last plagues, Rev. 15:1; the 7 deacons, 
Acts 6; and the 7 spirits before the throne. 

Three is a symbol of the Trinity, Rev. 
1:4:4:8. It appears in Isaiah's thrice holy, 
ch. 6:3; in the customary division of an 
army, Judg. 7:16, 20; 9:43; 1 Sam. 11: 11; 



the 3 great feasts, Exod. 23:14-17; Deut. 
16:16; and the triple blessing, Num. 6:23- 
26; 2 Cor. 13:14. 

Ten, the basis of the decimal system, 
suggested by the 10 fingers, appears in the 
10 commandments, the measures of the 
tabernacle, Exod. 26:27; 1 Kin. 6; 7, and 
the ritual service, Exod. 12:3; Lev. 16:29; 
in the tithes, Gen. 14:20, the 10 plagues of 
Egypt. 

Twelve appears in the number of the 
tribes and of the apostles, the 12 breast- 
plate-jewels, and the 12 gates of the New 
Jerusalem. 

Forty also frequently occurs, as in the 
40 days' rain of the deluge, the Israelites' 
40 years in the desert, Moses' 40 years in 
Midian, and 40 days in Mount Sinai, the 40 
stripes, Deut. 25:3, and the predictions in 
Ezek. 4:6; 29:11 ; Jonah 3:4. 

NUM'BERS, the book of, is so called 
because the first 3 chapters contain the 
numbering of the Hebrews and Levites, 
which was performed separately, after the 
erection and consecration of the taberna- 
cle. See also ch. 26. The rest of the book 
contains an account of the breaking up of 
the Israelites from Sinai, and their subse- 
quent wanderings in the desert, until their 
arrival on the borders of Moab. It was 
written by Moses, B. C. 1451, and is the 4th 
book of the Pentateuch. See Exodus and 
Wanderings. 

NUN, a fish, 1 Chr. 7:27, in A. V., Non ; 
a descendant of Ephraim, and father of 
Joshua, Num. 11:28; 14:6. 

NURSE, in Hebrew both masculine and 
feminine, Exod. 2:7; Num. 11:12; Ruth 
4:16. The Bible contains various allusions 
to the tender and confidential relation an- 
ciently subsisting between a nurse and the 
children she had brought up, Isa. 49:22, 
23; 60:4; 1 Thess. 2:7, 8. See also the 
story of Rebekah, attended through life by 
her faithful and honored Deborah, the oak 
under which she was buried being called 
"The oak of weeping," Gen. 24:59; 35:8. 
The custom still prevails in the better fam- 
ilies of Syria and India. Says Roberts in 
his Oriental Illustrations, " How often have 
scenes like this led my mind to the patri- 
archal age. The daughter is about for the 
first time to leave the paternal roof; the 
servants are all in confusion ; each refers 
to things long gone by, each wishes to do 
something to attract the attention of his 
young mistress. One says, 'Ah, do not 
forget him who nursed you when an in- 
fant;' another, ' How often did I bring you 

397 



NUT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



OAT 



the beautiful lotus from the distant tank. 
Did I not always conceal your faults?' As 
Rebekah had her nurse to accompany her, 
so at this day the aya who has from infancy 
brought up the bride goes with her to the 
new scene. She is her adviser, her assist- 
ant, and friend, and to her will she tell all 
her hopes and all her fears." 

NUT, in Gen. 43:11, the pistachio-nut, 
fruit of the Pistacia vera, a tree 20 or 30 
feet high, the nut not unlike an almond. 
In Song 6:11 the English walnut, fruit of a 
lofty, wide-spreading tree. 

NYM'PHAS, a prominent Christian at 
Laodicea, whom Paul salutes, together 
with the company of believers wont to wor- 
ship at his house, Col. 4:15; in the R. V. 
"their house." 



o. 

OAK. Six different Hebrew words are 
translated oak in the A. V., all from a root 
signifying strength; none of them deno- 
ting the Quercus robur of our own forests. 
A true oak is supposed to be intended in 
Gen. 35:8; Josh. 24:26; Isa. 1:29; 2:13; 
6:13; 44:14; Ezek. 27:6; Hos. 4:13; Amos 
2:9; Zech. 11:2. In some passages any 
strong flourishing tree, Isa. 6:13; 61:3; 
Ezek. 31:14; Dan. 4:10-26. In others the 
terebinth, Gen. 35:4; Judg. 6:11; 2 Sam. 
18:9; 1 Kin. 13:14; 1 Chr. 10:12; Isa. 1:30; 
Ezek. 6:13. "Abraham's oak," so called 
for centuries after Christ, near Hebron, 
was of this kind, the Quercus pseudo-coc- 
cifera, a deciduous tree, though resembling 




ABRAHAM'S OAK, 

an evergreen in foliage. The tree now 
called "Abraham's oak" is a true acorn- 
bearing oak, now very old, and 22K feet 
in circumference. The terebinth or tur- 
pentine-tree, called butm by the Arabs, is 
translated "elm" in Hos. 4:13, and "teil- 
tree" in Isa. 6:13, in which passages the 
true oak is also mentioned. In some pas- 
sages where "plain" or "plains" occurs, 
we should probably understand "oak," or 
"oak grove," Gen. 12:6; 13:18; 14*13; 
18:1; Deut. 11:30; Judg. 4:11; 9:6, 37. 
Three species of oaks are now found in 
Bible lands, and in Lebanon some are of 
398 



NEAR HEBRON. 

large size, as they formerly must have 
been in Palestine. Dr. Robinson saw the 
crests and heights of the region east of the 
Jordan clothed as in ancient times with 
grand oaks, Zech. 11:2. The oak is a long- 
lived tree, and many single trees or groves 
were notable and historical landmarks, 
1 Sam. 10:3. See Moreh. Under the 
welcome shade of oaks and other large 
trees many public affairs were transacted ; 
sacrifices were offered, courts were held, 
and kings were crowned, Josh. 24 : 26 ; Judg. 
6:11, 10; 9.6. See Grove. 

OATH, a solemn affirmation or promise 



OAT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



OBA 



accompanied by an appeal to the Supreme 
Being to punish the swearer if his state- 
ments are not true or his promises not 
kept, Gen. 26:28; 2 Sam. 21:7; Neh. 10:29, 
30. An oath was often taken when im- 
portant declarations were made, 1 Kin. 
18:10, a vow assumed, Lev. 5:4, a solemn 
promise given, Gen. 14:22; 24:2-4; 50:25, 
or a covenant made, Gen. 31:53; 1 Chr. 
16:15-17. God has prohibited all false 
oaths and all useless and customary swear- 
ing in ordinary discourse ; but when the 
necessity or importance of a matter re- 
quires an oath, he allows men to swear by 
his name, Exod. 22:11 ; Lev. 5:1. To swear 
by a false god was an act of idolatry, Jer. 
5:7; 12:16. 

Among the Hebrews an oath was admin- 
istered judicially, not only to witnesses, 
but to an accused person whose guilt could 
not be proved, that upon his solemn denial 
he might be set free, Exod. 22: 10, 11 ; Lev. 
5:1; 6:2-5; Num. 5:19-22; 1 Kin. 8:31. 
The judge stood up and adjured the per- 
son to be sworn in the name of God, also 
mentioning one or more of His infinite at- 
tributes. In this manner our Lord was 
adjured by Caiaphas, Matt. 26:63. Jesus 
had remained silent under long examina- 
tion, when the high-priest, rising up, know- 
ing he had a sure mode of obtaining an 
answer, said, " I adjure thee by the living 
God, that thou tell us whether thou be the 
Christ." To this oath, thus solemnly ad- 
ministered, Jesus replied that he was indeed 
the Messiah. 

An oath is a solemn appeal to God, as to 
an all-seeing witness that what we say is 
true, and an almighty avenger if what we 
say be false, Heb. 6:16. Its force depends 
upon our conviction of the infinite justice 
of God; that he will not hold those guilt- 
less who take his name in vain; and that 
the loss of his favor immeasurably out- 
weighs all that could be gained by false 
witness. It is an act of religious worship ; 
on which account God requires it to be 
taken in his name, Deut. 10:20, and points 
out the manner'in which it ought to be ad- 
ministered, and the duty of the person who 
swears, Exod. 22:11; Deut. 6:13; Psa. 15:4; 
24:4. Hence atheists, who profess to be- 
lieve that there is no God, and persons who 
do not believe in a future state of reward 
and punishment, cannot consistently take 
an oath. In their mouths an oath can be 
only profane mockery. 

God himself is represented as confirm- 
ing his promise by oath, and thus conform- 



ing to what is practised among men, Gen. 
26:3; Psa. 95:11; Acts 2:30; Heb. 6:13, 16, 
17. The oaths forbidden in Matt. 5:34, 35; 
23:16-22; Jas. 5:12, must refer to the un- 
thinking, hasty, and frivolous practices of 
the Jews, not to reverent appeals to God on 
proper occasion ; otherwise Paul must have 
acted against the command of Christ, Rom. 
1:9; Gal. 1 : 20 ; 2 Cor. 1 : 23. That person is 
obliged to take an oath whose duty requires 
him to declare the truth in the most solemn 
and judicial manner; though undoubtedly 
oaths are too often administered unneces- 
sarily and irreverently, and taken with but 
slight consciousness of the responsibility 
thus assumed. As we are bound to mani- 
fest every possible degree of reverence to- 
wards God, the greatest care is to be taken 
that we swear neither rashly nor negli- 
gently in making promises. To neglect 
performance is perjury, unless the promise 
be contrary to the law of nature and of 
God; in which case no oath is binding; 
the sin is in taking it. See Corban and 
Vows. 

A customary formula of taking an oath, 
accompanied perhaps by some significant 
gesture, was, "The Lord do so to me, and 
more also," that is, the Lord slay me, as 
the victim sacrificed on many such occa- 
sions was slain, Gen. 15:10, 17; Jer. 34:18, 
and punish me even more than this, if I 
speak not the truth, Ruth 1:17; 1 Sam. 
3:17. Similar phrases are these: "As the 
Lord liveth," Judg. 8:19; "Before God I 
lie not," Rom. 9:1; "I say the truth in 
Christ," 1 Tim. 2:7; "God is my record," 
Phil. 1:8. Several acts are alluded to as 
accompaniments of an oath ; as putting the 
hand under the thigh, Gen. 24:2; 47:29; 
and raising the hand towards heaven, Gen. 
14:22, 23; Deut. 32:40; Rev. 10:5. Hence 
to " lift up the hand " often means to take 
an oath, Exod. 6:8; Deut. 32:40; Psa. 
106:26; Ezek. 20:5-42. 

Perjury or false swearing, and all pro- 
fane mention of God's names or attributes, 
are grievous sins and worthy of severe pun- 
ishment, Exod. 20:7; Lev. 19:12; 24:10-16; 
Deut. 19:16-19; Hos.4:2, 3. In some cases, 
less of heedlessness than of wilful defiance 
of the Almighty, it has been followed by 
sudden death. 

OBADI'AH, Heb. OBAD'YAH, servant of 
Jehovah, I., the chief officer of king Ahab's 
household, who preserved the lives of 100 
prophets from the persecuting Jezebel, by 
concealing them in 2 caves and furnishing 
them with food, 1 Kin. 18:4. He was trust- 

399 



OBA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



OFF 



ed by Ahab, and in time of famine shared 
with the king in a survey of the land for 
water supplies — not for the people, but for 
the tyrant's beasts — during which he met 
the prophet Elijah, and was sent to an- 
nounce his coming to Ahab, i Kin. 18:3-16. 
True piety can live in very unfavorable 
circumstances, 1 Cor. 10:13. 

II. The 4th of the minor prophets, sup- 
posed to have prophesied about 587 B. C. 
It cannot indeed be decided with certainty 
when he lived, but it is probable that he 
was contemporary with Jeremiah and Eze- 
kiel, who denounced the same dreadful 
judgments on the Edomites, as the punish- 
ment of their pride, violence, and cruel in- 
sultings over the Jews after the destruction 
of their city, and foretold the ultimate tri- 
umph of Zion, ver. 17-21. The prophecy, 
according to Josephus, received its initial 
fulfilment about 5 years after the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem. 

Ten others of this name are mentioned 
in 1 Chr. 3:21; y.^; 8:38; 9:16, 44; 12:9; 
27:19; 2 Chr. 17:7; 34:12; Ezra 8:9; Neh. 
10:5. 

O'BAL, bare, Gen. 10:28, son of Joktan 
and head of an Arabian tribe ; called Ebal 
in 1 Chr. 1:22, and probably residing near 
the strait Bab el-Mandeb. 

O'BED, servant, son of Boaz and Ruth, 
and grandfather of David, Ruth 4:17; 1 Chr. 
2:12. See also the genealogies of Christ, 
Matt. 1:5; Luke 3:32. Four others are 
named in 1 Chr. 2:37, 38; 11:47; 26:7; 
2 Chr. 23:1. 

O'BED-E'DOM, servant of Edom, I., a 
Levite — called a Gittite, from Gath-rim- 
mon, Josh. 21 125 — whose special prosperity 
while keeper of the ark after the dreadful 
death of Uzzah encouraged David to carry 
it up to Jerusalem. The Kohathites bore 
the ark on their shoulders, as the law di- 
rected, not on a cart. Obed-edom and his 
sons were made doorkeepers of the taber- 
nacle at Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 6:10-12; 1 Chr. 
15:18-24; 16:38; 26:4-8, 15. Happy the 
family that reveres and cherishes the ark 
of God, though it brought woe to the Philis- 
tines. The house of Obed-edom is sup- 
posed to have stood on a level plateau of 4 
acres on a ridge 6 miles west by south of 
Jerusalem ; it is named Kuryet es-Saideh, 
"abode of the blessed one." 

II. Others of this name are mentioned 
in 1 Chr. 16:38; 2 Chr. 25:23, 24. 

OBE'DIENCE to God is the supreme duty 
of men, Acts 4:17; 5:29, as his creatures, 
Psa. 95:6, dependent on his bounty, Psa. 
400 



145; Acts 14:17, subject to his law, Psa. 119, 
and redeemed by his grace, 1 Cor. 6:20. It 
should be from the heart, 1 John 5:2-5, in 
all things and at all times, Rom. 2:7; Gal. 
6:9. Obedience is due from children to 
parents, Exod. 20:12; Eph. 6:1; 001.3:20; 
from servants to their employers, Eph. 6:5 ; 
Col. 3:22; 1 Pet. 2:18; and from citizens to 
government, Rom. 13:1-5; Tit. 3:1. 

OBEI'SANCE. See Salutation, Wor- 
ship. 

O'BIL, camel-keeper, the name or title of 
an Arab in charge of David's camels, 1 Chr. 
27:30. 

OBLA'TION. See Offering, First- 
fruits. 

O'BOTH, water-skins, or passes, the 43d 
station of the Israelites, near Moab, south- 
east of the Dead Sea, Num. 21:10, 11; 
33:43, 44. 

OBSERVE', Mark 6:20, treat with re- 
spect. 

OBSERVERS OF TIMES, Lev. 19:26; 
Deut. 18:10, 14; 2 Kin., 21:6; 2 Chr. 33:6; 
Gal. 4:10, men who had a superstitious re- 
gard for supposed lucky or unlucky days 
as determined by astrology. They are 
condemned in Scripture. See Divination. 
In our own day many have a similar weak- 
ness in dreading Friday, the day of our 
Lord's death, although he then took away 
man's chief occasion for fear. 

OCCUPY, in Exod. 38:24; Judg. 16:11, to 
use; in Ezek. 27:16, 19, 21, 22, to trade; in 
Ezek. 27 : 9, 27, to trade with ; in Luke 19 : 13, 
employ in business. 

OC'RAN, afflicted, of the tribe of Asher, 
Num. 1:13; 2:27; 7:72. 

O'DED, erecting, I., father of Azariah the 
prophet, in the reign of Asa, 2 Chr. 15:1-8. 

II. A prophet of the Lord, who, being at 
Samaria when the Israelites under king 
Pekah returned from the war against Ju- 
dah and brought 200,000 captives, went to 
meet them and remonstrated with them; 
so that the principal men in Samaria took 
care of the prisoners, gave them clothes, 
food, and other assistance, and carried the 
feeble on asses. Thus they conducted them 
back to Jericho, 2 Chr. 28:9, etc. 

OF, often used in A. V. for by, Luke 14:8; 
Acts 23:27; for on, Ruth 2:16; and for for, 
Psa. 69:9; John 2:17. 

OFFENCE'. This word is used in the 
ordinary sense of a sin, or a wrong or dis- 
pleasure, as in Eccl. 10:4; Rom. 4:25; 5 :I 5~ 
20; 2 Cor. 11:7; Jas. 2:10; 3:2, and in the 
sense of a stumbling-block or cause of sin 
to others, 2 Cor. 6:3, or whatever is per- 



OFF 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



OIL 



verted into an occasion or excuse for sin. 
So with the verb "to offend," or cause to 
fall, Psa. 119:165; Matt. 5:29, 30; 18:6, 8, 9. 
To be "offended " is to be led to fall away, 
Matt. 13:21; 24:10. Christians are required 
to give no just occasion for the stumbling 
of others, even denying themselves some 
things otherwise lawful, Rom. 14:13-21; 
1 Cor. 8:9-13; 10:32; 2 Cor. 6:3. The doc- 
trine of the cross was fatally offensive to 
many Jews, as it still is to human pride, 
Rom. 9:33; Gal. 5:11; 1 Pet. 2:8; and this 
was foretold, Isa. 8:14, and should not sur- 
prise us. 

OF'FERING, or OBLA'TION, anything 
prescribed by the law to be presented to 
God to propitiate him, imploring his favor, 
or expressing gratitude, Gen. 4:3-8; 8:20. 
In the Hebrew, an offering, minchah, is dis- 
tinguished from a sacrifice, zebah, as being 
bloodless. In our version, however, the 
word offering is often used for a sacrifice, 
as in the case of peace-offerings, sin-offer- 
ings, etc. Of the proper offerings, that is, 
the unbloody offerings, some accompanied 
the sacrifices, as flour, wine, salt; others 
were not connected with an}' sacrifices. 
Like the sacrifices, some, as the firstfruits 
and tenths, were obligator}'; others were 
voluntary offerings of devotion. Various 
sorts of offerings are enumerated in the 
books of Moses. Among these are, 1. Fine 
flour or meal; 2. Cakes baked in an oven; 

3. Cakes baked on a plate or shallow pan ; 

4. Cakes cooked in a deep vessel by frying 
in oil ( English version ' ' frying-pan, ' ' though 
some understand here a gridiron, or a plate 
with holes); 5. Firstfruits of the new corn, 
either in the simple state, or prepared by 
parching or roasting in the ear or out of 
the ear. The cakes were kneaded with 
olive oil, or fried in a pan, or only dipped 
in oil after they were baked. The bread 
offered for the altar was without leaven; 
for leaven was never offered on the altar, 
nor with the sacrifices, Lev. 2:11, 12. But 
they might make presents of common bread 
to the priests and ministers of the temple. 
Honey was never offered with the sacrifi- 
ces, but it might be presented alone, as 
firstfruits, Lev. 2:11, 12. 6. Clean animals 
were also offered. Lev. 22:18-23. Those 
who offered living victims were not ex- 
cused from giving meal, wine, and salt, to- 
gether with the greater sacrifices. Those 
who offered only oblations of bread or of 
meal offered also oil, incense, salt, and 
wine, w r hich were in a manner their sea- 
soning. The priest in waiting received the 

26 



offerings from the hand of him who brought 
them, laid a part on the altar, and reserved 
the rest for his own subsistence as a minis- 
ter of the Lord. Nothing was wholly burned 
up but the incense, of which the priest re- 
tained none. See Lev. 2:2, 13, etc.; Num. 

15:4, 5- 

In some cases the law required only 
offerings of corn or bread, as when they 
offered the firstfruits of harvest, whether 
offered solemnly by the nation, or as the 
devotion of private persons. The unbloody 
offerings signified in general not so much 
expiation, which was the peculiar meaning 
of the sacrifices, as the consecration of the 
offerer and all that he had to Jehovah. 
Only in the case of the poor man, who could 
not afford the expense of sacrificing an an- 
imal, was an unbloody sacrifice accepted in 
its stead, Lev. 5:11. See Sacrifices. 

It is easier to make costly offerings than 
to forsake beloved sins, and God many 
times sternly reproved the Hebrews for 
relying on their offerings, without the wor- 
ship of the heart and life, Isa. 1:11-17; Jer.. 
6:20; 7:21-23; Hos. 6:6; Amos 5:22-24^ 
Mic. 6:6-8. See also Psa. 50:8-23; Rom.. 
2:28, 29; Heb. 10:1-14; 13:15, 16. 

OF'TEN, 1 Tim. 5:23, frequent; an ad- 
jective in old English. 

OG, long-necked, an Amoritish king of 
Bashan east of the Jordan, defeated and 
slain by the Israelites under Moses at Ed- 
rei. Compare Josh. 24:12. He was a giant 
in stature, one of the last of the Rephaim 
who had possessed that region; and his 
iron bedstead, 14 feet long, was preserved 
after his death as a relic. Ashtaroth-car- 
naim and Edrei were his chief cities ; but 
there were many other walled towns, and 
the land was rich in flocks and herds. It 
was assigned by Moses to the half-tribe of 
Manasseh, Num. 21:33; 32:33; Deut. 1:4; 
3:1-13; 4:47; 31:4; Josh. 2:10; 12:4; 13:30. 
His fame long continued, Psa. 135:11; 
136:20. 

OIL, a symbol of gladness, Psa. 45:7; 
Isa. 61:3; Joel 2:19, was employed from 
the earliest periods in the East, not only 
for the consecration of priests and kings, 
Lev. 8:12; 1 Sam. 10:1 ; 16:1, but to anoint 
the head, the beard, and the whole person 
in daily life. Gen. 28:18; Deut. 28:40; Ruth 
2,:^; Psa. 92:10. See Anointing. It was 
employed by physicians, Isa. 1:6; Mark 
6:13; Luke 10:34; Jas. 5:14; was almost 
the only artificial light, Exod. 25:6; 27:20, 
21 ; 35:8 ; Lev. 24:2; 1 Sam. ^:t,; and was 
universally used as food, 1 Kin. 5:11; 2 Chr. 

401 



OIL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



OLI 



2:10, 15; Ezek. 16:13, I 9- Fresh and sweet 
olive oil was greatly preferred to butter 
and animal fat as a seasoning for food, and 
to this day in Syria almost every kind of 
food is cooked with oil. It had a place also 
among the meat-offerings in the temple, 
being usually mixed with the meal of the 
oblation, Lev. 5:11; 6:21. For lamps also 
pure olive oil was regarded as the best, 
and was used in illuminating the taberna- 
cle, Exod. 35 : 14 ; 39 : 37 ; Num. 4:16. These 
many uses for oil made the culture of the 
olive-tree an extensive and lucrative busi- 
ness, 1 Chr. 27:28; Ezek. 27:17; Hos. 12:1. 
Oil was tithed by the Mosaic law, Num. 
18:12; Deut. 12:17; Neh. 13:12, and was as 
much an article of storage and of traffic as 
corn and wine, 1 Chr. 27:28; 2 Chr.32:28; 
Ezra y.j. The best oil was obtained 
from the fruit while yet green, in No- 
vember, by a slight beating or press- 
ing, Exod. 27:20; 29:40, and laying 
it in sloping trays, that the first juice 
might flow off into receptacles. The 
ripe fruit, from December to Febru- 
ary, yielded more abundantly but a 
less valuable oil. The berries were 
crushed under stone rollers, or by 
subjecting them to pressure in the 
oil-mill, Hebrew gath-shemen. The 
olive-berries are not now trodden 
with the feet. This, however, seems 
to have been practised among the 
Hebrews, at least to some extent, 
when the berries had become soft 
by keeping, Mic. 6:15. Gethsemane, 
that is, oil-press, probably took its 
name originally from some oil-press 
in its vicinity. See Olive. 

OIL'-TREE, Isa. 41:19; in 1 Kin. 
6:23 called "olive-tree;" in Neh. 
8:15 "pine-branches;" supposed to 
be the Pinus pinea, a tall and beau- 
tiful cultivated tree. 

OINT'MENTS, of various ingredi- 
ents boiled together, Job 41:31, were 
much used by the ancient Hebrews, 
not chiefly for medical purposes as 
among us, but as a luxury, Ruth 
3:3; Psa. 104:15; Song 1:3; Matt. 
6:17; Luke 7:46. They were also used at 
funerals, Matt. 26:12; John 12:3, 7; 19:40. 
Their perfumery was usually prepared in 
olive oil, and not in volatile extracts and 
essences. The sacred ointment is de- 
scribed in Exod. 30:22-33. It was used 
in anointing the tabernacle, the table, ves- 
sels, candlestick, altar of incense, altar of 
burnt-offerings and its vessels, the laver, 
402 



and the priests, Exod. 29:7; 37:29; 40:9, 
15; Psa. 133:2. The ointments of the rich 
were made of very costly ingredients, and 
their fragrance was highly extolled, Isa, 
39:2; Amos 6:6; Matt. 26:7-9; John 12:5. 
See Anointing. 

OLD AGE. Aged people were to be 
treated with reverence and all needful 
care, Job 12:12; 15:10, the young rising at 
their approach, Lev. 19:32, and any lack 
of respect was strongly condemned, Deut. 
28:50; Lam. 5:12. Corresponding duties 
were owed by them to the young. The 
wisdom taught by experience is invalua- 
ble; compare 1 Kin. 12:1-16; Job 32:7; 
and the responsibilities of church and state, 
both in Old Testament and New Testament 
times, were intrusted to "elders." 




olive: olea europ^a. 

OL'IVE, Heb. pleasant or shining. This 
is one of the earliest trees mentioned in 
Scripture, and has furnished, perhaps ever 
since the deluge, the most universal em- 
blem of peace, Gen. 8:11. It is always 
classed among the most valuable trees of 
Palestine, which is described as a land of 
oil olive and honey, Deut. 6:11; 8:8; Hab. 
3:17. No tree is more frequently men- 



OLI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



OLI 



tioned in the Greek and Roman classics. 
By the Greeks it was dedicated to Minerva, 
and employed in crowning Jove, Apollo, 
and Hercules. The olive is never a very 
large or beautiful tree, and seldom exceeds 
30 feet in height ; its leaves are dark green 
on the upper surface and of a silvery hue 
on the under, and generally grow in pairs. 
Its wood is hard, like that of box, and very 
close in the grain. It was used in Solo- 
mon's temple, 1 Kin. 6:23-33. The branch- 
es were employed in making booths for the 
Feast of Tabernacles, Neh. 8:15. It blos- 
soms very profusely, and bears fruit every 
other year. The flower is at first yellow, 
but as it expands it becomes whiter, leav- 
ing a yellow centre. The blossoms are 
very abundant, but many drop off at the 
lightest breeze, Job 15:33. The fruit re- 
sembles a plum in shape and in color, 
being first green, then pale, and when ripe 
almost black. It is gathered by shaking 
the boughs and by beating them with poles, 
Deut. 24:20; Isa. 17:6; 24:13, and is some- 
times plucked in an unripe state, put into 
some preserving liquid, and exported. It 
is principally valuable for the oil it pro- 
duces, which is an important article of 
commerce in the East. A full-sized tree in 
full bearing vigor is said to produce 50 
pounds of oil, Judg. 9:8, 9; 2 Chr. 2:10. 
The olive delights in a stony soil, and will 
thrive even on the sides and tops of rocky 
hills where there is scarcely any earth ; 
hence the expression, "oil out of the flinty 
rock," etc., Deut. 32:13; Job 29:6. Yet it 
will grow in a wet soil. It is an evergreen 
tree, and very long-lived, an emblem of a 
fresh and enduring piety, Psa. 52:8; Jer. 
11:16; Hos. 14:6. Around an old trunk 
young plants shoot up from the same root, 
to adorn the parent stock when living and 
succeed it when dead; hence the allusion 
in describing the family of the just, Psa. 
128:3. It is slow of growth, and no less 
slow to decay. The ancient trees now in 
Gethsemane are believed by many to have 
sprung from the roots of those which wit- 
nessed the agony of our Lord. Dr. Martin 
and Bove think they may be even 2,000 years 
old. The largest is 6 yards in circumfer- 
ence, and 9 or 10 yards high. The "wild 
olive-tree " is smaller than the cultivated, 
and inferior in all its parts and products. 
A graft on it from a good tree bears good 
fruit; .while a graft from a "wild" olive 
upon a good tree remains "wild" as be- 
fore. Yet, " contrary to nature," the sin- 
ner engrafted on Christ partakes of His 



nature and bears good fruit, Rom. 11:13- 
26. 

An " olive-yard," or grove of olive-trees, 
was as common in Palestine as vineyards 
or grain fields, Exod. 23:11; Josh. 24:13; 
1 Sam. 8:14; 2 Kin. 5:26; 1 Chr. 27:28; 
Neh. 5:11; 9:25. 

OL'IVES, MOUNT OF, Zech. 14:4; Ezek. 
11:23, called simply " the mount " in Neh. 
8:15, also "Olivet" in 2 Sam. 15:30; Acts 
1:12; now Jebel et-Tur, a ridge 2 miles 
long running north and south on the east 
side of Jerusalem, its summit not half a 
mile from the city wall, and separated from 
it by the valley of the Kidron. It rises 
2,665 feet above the Mediterranean, and the 
Jordan valley 14 miles off lies 3,500 feet be- 
low. The Church of the Ascension, on the 
central height, is due east from the Mosque 
of Omar % of a mile, 224 feet higher than 
Moriah and 355 above the bed of the Kid- 
ron. It is composed of a chalky limestone, 
the rocks everywhere showing themselves. 
The olive-trees that formerly covered it 
and gave it its name are now represented 
by a few trees and clumps of trees which 
ages of desolation have not eradicated. 
There are 3 prominent summits on the 
ridge ; of these the southernmost, which is 
250 feet lower than the other two, is now 
known as the "Mount of Offence," origi- 
nally the " Mount of Corruption," because 
Solomon defiled it by idolatrous worship, 
1 Kin. 11:5-7; 2 Kin. 23:13, 14. Over this 
ridge, between the northern and the cen- 
tral summit, passes the road to Bethany, 
the most frequented road to Jericho and 
the Jordan. The sides of the Mount of Ol- 
ives towards the west contain many tombs 
cut in the rocks. The central summit, di- 
rectly east of the temple area, rises 200 feet 
or more above Jerusalem, and presents a 
fine view of the city, and indeed of the 
whole region, including the mountains of 
Ephraim on the north, the valley of the 
Jordan on the east, a part of the Dead Sea 
on the southeast, and beyond it Kerak in 
the mountains of Moab. Perhaps no spot 
on earth unites so fine a view with so many 
memorials of the most solemn and impor- 
tant events. David climbed it sadly, flee- 
ing from Absalom, 2 Sam. 15:23-32. Over 
this hill the Saviour often passed in his 
journeys to and from the holy city. Geth- 
semane lay at its foot on the west, and 
Bethany on its eastern slope, nearly a mile 
from the summit, Matt. 21:1; 24:3; 26:30; 
Mark 11 :i; 13:3 ; John 8: 1. It was proba- 
bly near Bethany, and not as tradition says 

403 



OLY 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ONE 



on the middle summit, that our Lord as- 
cended to heaven, Luke 24:50; Acts 1:12, 
though superstition has built the "Church 
of the Ascension " on the pretended spot, 
and shows the print of his feet on the rock 
whence he ascended! From the summit, 
3 days before his death, he beheld Jerusa- 
lem, and wept over it, recalling the long 
ages of his more than parental care, and 
grieving over its approaching ruin. Scarce- 
ly anything in the gospels moves the heart 
more than this natural and touching scene. 
No one can doubt that it was God who 
there spoke; his retrospect, his prediction, 
and his compassion alike proved it. See 
Luke 19:37-44, in connection with Matt. 
23:35-38, spoken the next day. The same 
spot is associated with the predictions of 
his future judgments in the earth, Zech. 
14:4. See view of the central summit in 
Gethsemane ; also Sepulchres. 

OLYM'PAS, a Christian at Rome, Rom. 
16:15. 

O'MAR, eloquent, 2d son of Eliphaz, Gen. 
36:11, 15; 1 Chr. 1:36. 

O'MEGA, the great O, or long O, the last 
letter of the Greek alphabet as Alpha is the 
first. See A. Rev. 1:8, 11; 21:6; 22:13. 
Compare Isa. 41:4; 44:6. Christ performs 
what he begins, Phil. 1:6; Heb. 13:8. 

O'MER, a sheaf, Exod. 16:16-36, a He- 
brew measure of capacity, the 10th part of 
an ephah. See Measures and Appendix 
Tables. 

OMNIPOTENT, Rev. 19:6, in the He- 
brew Shaddai, the Almighty, a name of 
God signifying his infinite power, an attri- 
bute only partially comprehended by us 
through his amazing works in the creation, 
preservation, and government of the uni- 
verse, Gen. 17:1; Exod. 15:11, 12; Deut. 
3:24; Psa. 62:11; 65:5-13; Matt. 19:26; 
Eph. 3:20. It is the name given to God 
throughout the book of Job, and he himself 
assumes it for the comfort of his people 
and the dismay of his enemies, Gen. 35 : 1 1 ; 
Exod. 6:3; Psa. 91:1; 2 Cor. 6:18; Rev. 

I9:i5- 

OMNIPRES'ENCE, an infinite attribute 
of Jehovah alone, signifying that he is ev- 
erywhere present, at all times, and in the 
perfection of all his other attributes. His 
nature is undivided and wholly distinct 
from all created things. The thought of 
his presence should enter into all our life, 
to restrain from sin, and to strengthen, 
cheer, and inspire us, Gen. 16:13; 28:16, 
17; Psa. 139; Acts 17:27, 28; Heb. 1:3. 

OMNIS'CIENCE, an infinite attribute of 
404 



God, in virtue of which he perfectly knows 
all things and beings, actual and possible, 
past, present, and future. Like all God's 
attributes, it is beyond all finite compre- 
hension, Job 11:7; Isa. 46:9, 10; 1 John 
3:20. 

OM'RI, servant of Jehovah, I., a grand- 
son of Benjamin, 1 Chr. 7:8. 

II. The son of Imri, tribe of Judah, 1 Chr. 
9:4. 

III. A captain under David, 1 Chr. 27:18. 

IV. Founder of the 3d dynasty of Israel, 
and previously general of the army of Elah 
king of Israel; but being at the siege of 
Gibbethon, and hearing that his master 
Elah was assassinated by Zimri, who had 
usurped his kingdom, he raised the siege,, 
and being elected king by his army, 
marched against Zimri, attacked him at 
Tirzah, and forced him to burn himself 
and all his family in the palace in which 
he had shut himself up. After his death 
half of Israel acknowledged Omri for king, 
the other half adhered to Tibni, son of 
Ginath, which division continued 4 years. 
When Tibni was dead the people united 
in acknowledging Omri as king of all Is- 
rael, who reigned 12 years, 6 years at Tir- 
zah and 6 years at Samaria, 1 Kin. 16:8- 
28. His wickedness exceeded that of his 
predecessors. Compare 2 Chr. 22:2-4; 
Mic. 6: 16. He lost some of his cities to the 
Syrians under Ben-hadad I., 1 Kin. 20:34; 
22:3. His son and successor was Ahab. 

Tirzah had previously been the chief 
residence of the kings of Israel ; but when 
Omri purchased the hill of Shomeron, 
1 Kin. 16:24, he built there a new city, 
which he called Samaria, from the name of 
the previous possessor, Shemer or Shomer, 
and there fixed his royal seat. From this 
time Samaria was the capital of the king- 
dom of the 10 tribes. It appears under the 
name of Beth-khumri, founded by Omri, 
on the stone tablets exhumed by Layard 
from the ruins of Nineveh. 

ON T force, I., a Reubenite, son of Peleth, 
engaged at first in the mutiny of Korah, 
Num. 16:1. It is conjectured that he with- 
drew and escaped ruin. 

II. See Heliopolis. 

O'NAN, strong, 2d son of Judah, who 
refused to raise up children by the widow 
of his deceased brother, as the law required, 
Deut. 25:5-10; Mark 12:19, and was pun- 
ished by death, Gen. 38:4-9; 46:12. 

ONES'IMUS, profitable, a slave to Phi- 
lemon of Colossae in Phrygia, who ran 
away from him and fled to Rome ; but be- 



ONE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



OPH 



ing converted to Christianity through the 
preaching of Paul, he was the occasion of 
Paul's writing the Epistle to Philemon, 
which see. He ministered tenderly to the 
apostle in his imprisonment, and was re- 
ceived by his former master as ''a brother 
beloved/' Col. 4:9. 

ONKSIPH'ORUS, profit-bearing, a Chris- 
tian friend of Paul at Ephesus, who came 
to Rome while the apostle was imprisoned 
there for the faith, and at a time when al- 
most everyone had forsaken him. This is 
supposed to have occurred during Paul's 
last imprisonment, not long before his 
death. Having found Paul in bonds, after 
long seeking him, he assisted him to the 
utmost of his power, and without regard to 
danger ; for which the apostle implored the 
highest benedictions on him and his fam- 
ily, 2 Tim. 1 : 16-18 ; 4: 19. 

ON'ION, the Allium cepa, one of the veg- 
etables of Egypt for which the Hebrews 
murmured in the desert, Num. 11:5. Has- 
selquist says that the onions of Egypt are 
remarkably sweet, mild, and nutritious. 
Juvenal, Pliny, and Lucian satirize the 
superstitious regard of the Egyptians for 
this bulb. 

ON'LY-BEGOT'TEN, or only son, Luke 
7: 12, a Scriptural title of Christ, suggesting 
a mysterious relation between him and the 
Father which no human words can fully 
express and no finite mind comprehend, 
John 1 : 14. 

6' NO, strong, a town of Dan, afterwards 
of Benjamin, near Lydda, 1 Chr. 8:12; Ezra 
2:33 ; probably traced in Kefr 'Ana, 5 miles 
north by west of Lydda. The " plain of 
Ono" denotes a portion of the plain of 
Sharon near Ono, Neh. 6:2; 7:37 ; 1 1 : 35. 

ON'YCHA, an ingredient of the sacred 
incense, whose fragrance perfumed the 
sanctuary alone. Exod. 30:34. It is conjec- 
tured to mean the Blatta Byzantina of the 
shops, which consists of the cover or lid of a 
species of muscle, and when burned emits 
a musky odor. The best onycha is found 
in the Red Sea, and is white and large. 

ON'YX, a nail, the nth stone in the high- 
priest's breastplate, Exod. 28 : 9-12, 20. The 
modern onyx has some resemblance to the 
agate, and the color of the body of the stone 
is like that of the human nail ; hence its 
name. The Hebrew word so translated is 
not known with certainty to signify the 
onyx, but denoted some valuable stone, 
Exod. 25:7; 35:9; 39-6, 13; Job 28:16. 
They were found in Havilah, Gen. 2:12, 
and used by the king of Tyre, Ezek. 28:13. 



The onyx is often of a milk-white color, 
with brown strata, and is set in rings, seals, 
and cameos. A species of marble resem- 
bling the onyx was known to the Greeks, 
and may have been the "onyx-stones" 
stored up by David for the temple, 1 Chr. 
29:2. 

O'PHEL, the knoll, I., a quarter of Jeru- 
salem adjacent to the temple, and therefore 
occupied by the Nethinim, Neh. 3:26, 27; 
11:21. It appears to have been inclosed 
by a wall and fortified by a strong tower, 
2 Chr. 27:3; 33:14, and is thought to be 
meant by the Hebrew ophel, translated 
"stronghold" in Mic.4:8. It is often men- 
tioned by Josephus as Ophla. There can 
be no doubt that the name belongs to the 
lower ridge into which Mount Moriah sinks 
south of the area of the mosque. It is 290 
feet wide, and extends 1 ,550 feet to the south, 
terminating in a bluff 40 or 50 feet high 
above the pool of Siloam. It is separated 
from Mount Zion on the \vest by the valley 
called Tyropoeon, and was anciently cov- 
ered with houses, but is now devoted to 
the culture of olives, figs, and other fruit. 
Portions of the ancient wall on the east 
have been found by recent excavations 70 
feet high, connecting it with the temple 
area. See Jerusalem. 

II. In the A. V. "the tower," a place on 
a height near Samaria, in a house of which 
Gehazi hid his spoils received from Naa- 
man, 2 Kin. 5:24. 

O'PHIR, fruitful or red, I., one of the 
sons of Joktan, who settled in Southern 
Arabia, Gen. 10:26-29. 

II. A country to which the ships of Solo^ 
mon traded, and which had for a long time 
been celebrated for the purity and abun- 
dance of its gold, Job 22 : 24 ; 28 : 16. " Gold 
of Ophir" was proverbially the best gold, 
Psa. 45:9; Isa. 13:12. The only passages 
which give us any information as to the 
location of Ophir are 1 Kin. 9:26-28; 10:11, 
22; 22:48, with the parallel passages in 
2 Chr. 8:18; 9:10, 21; 20:36, 37; from 
which it appears that the so-called "ships 
of Tarshish " went to Ophir; that these 
ships sailed from Ezion-geber, a port of 
the Red Sea ; that a voyage was made once 
in 3 years ; that the fleet returned freighted 
with gold, peacocks, apes, spices, ivory, 
algum-wood, and ebony. Upon these data 
interpreters have undertaken to determine 
the situation of Ophir ; but they have ar- 
rived at different conclusions. Josephus 
places it in the peninsula of Malacca. Oth- 
ers have placed it at Sofala, in South Afri- 

405 • 



OPH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ORG 



ca, where mines of gold and silver have 
been found, which appear to have been 
anciently and extensively worked. Others 
still suppose it to have been Southern Ara- 
bia. General opinion now inclines to the 
first location, and in Southern India alone 
all Solomon's articles of commerce are 
found together. See Uphaz. 

OPH'NI, /amine, a town in the northeast 
of Benjamin, Josh. 18:24, the Gophna of 
Josephus, now Jufna, a poor village 2^ 
miles northeast of Bethel. 

OPH'RAH, a/awn, I., a town of the Ben- 
jamites, located by Eusebius 5 miles east of 
Bethel, near which site, towards the north, 
now stands et-Taiyibeh on a conical hill, 
with an old tower commanding a splendid 
view of the Jordan valley, the Dead Sea, 
and the mountains beyond, Josh. 18:23; 
1 Sam. 13:17. Probably the place to which 
Christ went after the resurrection of Laza- 
rus, John 11:54. See Ephraim. 

II. " Of the Abiezrites " (see Abiezer), 
a town of Manasseh where Gideon resided, 
and where after his death his ephod, made 
or adorned from the spoils of Zebah and 
Zalmunna, was superstitiously adored, 
Judg. 6 : 1 1-24 ; 8 : 27, 32 ; 9 : 5. It overlooked 
the plain of Esdraelon from the southwest. 

III. Son of Meonothai, of the tribe of Ju- 
dah; or a place founded by him, 1 Chr. 
4:14. 

OR, sometimes in A. V. means ere, be- 
fore, Psa. 90: 2; Prov. 8:23; Song 6: 12; Dan. 
6:24; Acts 23:15. 

OR'ACLE, the secret room of the temple, 
the Holy of Holies, where the ark of the 
covenant was placed, where God was spe- 
cially present between the cherubim, and 
delivered his messages, 2 Sam. 16:23; 

1 Kin. 6:5, 16, 19; 7:49; 8:6, 8; 2 Chr. 3:16; 
4:20; 5:7,9; Psa. 28:2. See Mercy-seat. 
The established mode of " inquiring at the 
mouth of the Lord" was through the high- 
priest, by means of the Urim and Thum- 
mim, 1 Sam. 23:9; 30:7, 8. In the New 
Testament "oracles" means the divine 
utterances, the entire word of God, Acts 
7:38; Rom. 3:2; Heb. 5:12; 1 Pet. 4:11. 

Strikingly unlike the true and living ora- 
cles of God were the famous counterfeit 
oracles of numerous heathen temples, often 
condemned in Scripture, Judg. 17:1, 5; 

2 Kin. 1:2; Hos.4:i2; Hab. 2:19. Among 
the Greeks the most famous were that of 
Jupiter under the oak at Dodona, and that 
of Apollo at Delphi— where the priestess 
sat on a tripod over a fissure in a rock, 
from which issued an intoxicating vapor, 

406 



and her ravings were interpreted by the 
priests. The priests who pretended to 
convey to applicants the responses of their 
gods often gave a reply capable of two 
opposite interpretations, when neither pri- 
vate information nor their own experience 
or sagacity gave them the clew to a safe an- 
swer. Thus Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, was 
encouraged to a war with Rome, by an ora- 
cle which was found after his defeat to 
foretell defeat as much as victory : Aio te, 
Aeacida, Romanos vincere posse. 

OR'ATOR, the eloquent, in Isa. y.$ y 
A. V., rather "skilful of speech," that is, 
of incantation or pretended magic. Com- 
pare Psa. 58:5. In Acts 24:1 the Roman 
advocate who appeared on behalf of the 
Jews against Paul in the court at Rome. 

OR'DER, implying system, regularity, 
and decorum, whether in the public affairs 
of church and state, or in the household 
and individual life, is both beautiful and 
essential to success. It is commended by 
the example of God, Gen. 18:19; Josh. 
24:15; Psa. 90:12; 119:133; Eccl. 3:1, n; 
1 Cor. 14:26-40; Phil. 1:27. 

OR'DINANCE, a decree, charge, or law, 
Exod. 12:24; 15:25; Lev. 18:30; 2 Chr. 
33:8; Rom. 13:1; Heb. 9:1, 10. The gos- 
pel enjoins obedience to all rightful au- 
thority, 1 Pet. 2:13, especially that of God, 
1 Cor. 11:2. Church ordinances, so called 
as resting on Scriptural authority, are such 
as baptism, the Lord's Supper, public wor- 
ship — with reading and expounding Gods 
Word, preaching the gospel, praise, prayer, 
and thanksgiving. 

O'REB and ZE'EB, raven and wolf, 2 
Midianite chiefs, captured after the victory 
of Gideon, and slain by the men of Ephraim 
at the spots whither they had fled, and 
which were afterwards called, in memory 
of them, " the rock of Oreb " and the wine- 
press or cellar of Zeeb, Judg. 7:25; 8:3. 
Their punishment foretells that of all 
God's enemies, Psa. 83; Isa. 10:26. Oreb 
is placed by some at Ash el-Ghurab, 3 
miles north by east of Jericho; and the 
wine-press of Zeeb, a little farther north. 

O'REN, ash-tree, 1 Chr. 2:25, son of Je- 
rahmeel. 

OR'GAN, Psa. 150:4, a wind instrument 
apparently composed of several pipes. It 
cannot, however, mean the modern organ, 
which was unknown to the ancients, but 
refers probably to the ancient syrinx, or 
pipes, similar to the Pandean pipes, a se- 
ries of 7 or more tubes of unequal length 
and size, closed at one end, and blown into 



ORI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



OST 



with the mouth at the other, Gen. 4:21 ; Job 
21:12:30:31. See Music. 

ORI'ON, languid, Job 9:9, Heb. chesll, 
IVmos 5:8; in Isa. 13:10 translated "con- 
stellations;" according to the best inter- 
preters and the ancient versions the con- 
stellation Orion, which, on account of its 
supposed connection with storms, Virgil 
calls " nimbosus Orion." It lies south of 
the ecliptic, and its belt of 3 bright stars 
is crossed by the equator. In Job 38:31 
fetters are ascribed to him ; and this coin- 
cides with the Greek fable of the giant 
Orion, bound in the heavens for an unsuc- 
cessful war against the gods. The Arabs 
call it "the giant," meaning Nimrod. Some 
interpreters identify chest/ with the star 
Canopus, in Arabic sohail. 

OR'NAMENTS. The Hebrews and other 
Eastern people were very fond of these. 
The men wore seal-rings, gold chains, and 
costly attire, Gen. 4.1:4.2; the women richly- 
embroidered garments, with rings for the 
fingers, ears, and nose, bracelets, anklets, 
and hair-ornaments, Gen. 24:22, 53; 35:4, 
often in profusion, Exod. 3:22 ; 11:2; 33:4; 
Judg. 8:26 — see Prov. 1:8,9; ^ sa - 2> :1 ^~ 2 A — 
and especially by brides, Song 1:10, 11; 
Jer. 2:32. They were laid aside in mourn- 
ing, Exod. 33:4-6; 2 Sam. 1:24; Ezek. 
16:11; 24:17, 22. Paul and Peter exhort 
Christian women to adorn themselves 
chiefly with womanly virtues, 1 Tim. 2:9, 
10; 1 Pet. 3:4. Compare Prov. 30:10-31. 

OR'NAN. See Araunah. 

OR'PAH, gazelle, a Moabitess, wife of 
Chilion and Naomi's daughter-in-law, who 
remained with her people and gods when 
Ruth followed Naomi and the Lord, Ruth 
1:4-14. The one was taken and the other 
left. Orpah's name disappears, but Ruth 
was the ancestor of a long line of kings 
and of our Lord himself. Momentous and 
everlasting results often depend on the de- 
cision of a single hour. 

OR'PHANS were specially provided for 
by the Hebrew law, Deut. 14:29; 24:17; 
Jas. 1:27. In John 14:18 rendered "com- 
fortless," in R. V. "desolate," one left 
without a protector. The same Greek 
word, as a participle is used in 1 Thess. 
2:17, "bereaved of you." 

OSE'E, Rom. 9:25, Hosea, as in R. V. 

OSHE'A, he saves, or HOSHE'A, Deut, 
32:44, the name of Moses' successor, 
changed to Joshua, Jehovah saves, in honor 
of his faith, Num. 13:8, 16. 

OS'PREY, Heb. powerful, a bird of the 
eagle kind, unfit for food, Lev. 11 : 13. It is 



thought to be the sea-eagle, or the black 
eagle of Egypt. See Birds. 

OS'SIFRAGE, bone-breaker ; in Hebrew 
Peres, from paras, to break; an unclean 
bird of the eagle family, Lev. 11:13; Deut. 
14: 12. Some interpreters think the beard- 
ed vulture is intended ; others a mountain 
bird like the lammergeyer of the Alps, 
which breaks the bones of wild goats by 
hunting them over precipices. It is 4 or 5 
feet in length and 8 or 9 in the stretch of 
its wings. 




the ostrich: struthio camelus. 

OS'TRICH, the largest of birds, and a 
sort of connecting link between fowls and 
quadrupeds, termed by the Persians, Arabs, 
and Greeks the "camel-bird." It is a na- 
tive of the dry and torrid regions of Africa 
and Western Asia. The gray ostrich is 7 
feet high, and its neck 3 feet long ; it weighs 
nearly 80 pounds, and is strong enough to 
carry 2 men. The other species, with 
glossy black wings and white tail, is some- 
times 10 feet high. The beautiful plumes 
so highly valued are found on the wings, 
about 20 on each, those of the tail being 
usually broken and worn. There are no 
feathers on the thighs or under the wings, 
and the neck is but scantily clothed with 
thin whitish hairs. The weight of the body 
and the size and structure of the wings 
show that the animal is formed for running 
and not for flying. 

The ostrich is described in Job 39:13-18, 
and in various places where our A. V. calls 
it the "owl," Job 30:29; Jer. 50:39, or 

407 



OST 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



OWL 



"daughter of the owl," Isa. 13:21; 34:13; 
43:20; Mic. 1:8. In these and other pas- 
sages it figures as a bird of the desert. Shy 
and timorous, it is occasionally driven by 
hunger to visit and ravage cultivated fields, 
but is usually found only in the heart of 
the desert, in troops or small groups, or 
mingling familiarly with the herds of wild 
asses, gnus, and quaggas. It was unclean 
by the Mosaic law, Lev. 11:16; Deut. 14:15. 
Its food is often scarce and poor, plants of 
the desert " withered before they are grown 
up;" also snails, insects, and various rep- 
tiles; for it has a voracious and indiscrim- 
inating appetite, swallowing the vilest and 
the hardest substances. Job speaks par- 
ticularly of the speed of the ostrich, " She 
scorneth the horse and his rider." So 
Xenophon, the biographer of Cyrus, says 
of the ostriches of Arabia that none could 
overtake them, the baffled horsemen soon 
returning from the chase. 

The mother-bird scoops out a circular 
nest in the sand, and lays a large number 
of eggs, some of which are placed 
without the nest, as though intend- 
ed for the nourishment of the young 
brood. Afterwards, with the help 
of the sun in the tropics and of her - ^sp 
mate in the cool nights, she per- ^§§§1 
forms the process of incubation ; but ^UHll 
her timidity is such that she flies 
from her nest at the approach of _j^ as 
danger, and as Dr. Shaw remarks, 
" forsakes her eggs or her young 
ones, to which perhaps she never ^fjlfj 
returns, or if she does, it may be too 
late either to restore life to the one 
or to preserve the lives of the oth- 
ers. The Arabs meet sometimes 
with whole nests of these eggs un- 
disturbed, some of them sweet and 
good, others addle and corrupted. 
They often find a few of the little ones 
no bigger than well-grown pullets, 
half starved, straggling and moaning 
about like so many distressed orphans for 
their mother. In this manner the ostrich 
may be said to be ' hardened against her 
young ones, as though they were not hers ; 
her labor,' in hatching and attending them 
so far, ' being vain, without fear ' of what 
becomes of them afterwards. This want 
of affection is also recorded in Lam. 4:3, 
' The daughter of my people is become 
cruel, like the ostriches in the wilder- 
ness;' that is, apparently by deserting her 
own children and receiving others in re- 
turn." 

408 



When the ostrich is provoked, she some- 
times makes a fierce, angry, and hissing 
noise, with her throat inflated and her 
mouth open ; at other times she has a moan- 
ing and plaintive cry; and in the night the 
male repels prowling enemies by a short 
roar which is sometimes taken for that of a 
lion, Mic. 1:8. 

OTH'NI, my lion, 1 Chr. 26:7. 

OTH'NIEL, lion of God, son of Kenaz 
and 1st judge of the Israelites, delivering 
them from the tyranny of the king of Meso- 
potamia, and ruling them in peace 40 years. 
His wife Achsah, daughter of his uncle Ca- 
leb, was the reward of his valor in taking 
the city of Debir, Josh. 15:17; Judg. 1:13; 
3:9, 10. During his administration the 
Hebrews were faithful to God, and pros- 
pered, Josh. 15:16-19; Judg. 1:11-15; 3:8- 
11 ; 1 Chr. 4:13. 

OUCHES, sockets in which precious 
stones were set, Exod. 28:11, 14, 25; 39:6., 
13, 16. 

OVEN. See Bread. 




SACRED IBIS: IBIS RELIGIOSA. 

OWL, a night bird of prey, unfit for food. 
Several species are found in Palestine and 
in all Western Asia. The horned owl, Otus 
ascalaphus, is probably meant in the A. V. 
by "little owl" in Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14:16, 
and "owl" in Psa. 102:6; and the Strix 
flammea by "screech owl" in Isa. 34:14. 
Another Hebrew word, bath - haya'anah, 
translated owl in A. V., Lev. 11:16; Deut. 
14: 15, etc., means the ostrich (which see). 
Still another word, yanshuph, translated 
"great owl" in Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14:16; 
and " owl '' in Isa. 34 : 11, A. V., means either 



ox 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



OZN 




THE NIGHi-HEkON: AKDcA NVCT1CORAX. 

the sacred ibis, or more probably the night- 
rieron. 

OX, or bull, the male of the beeve kind 
when grown. But the word ox is some- 
times used in a general sense like "herd," 
and is often rendered " kine." The ox tribe 
were clean animals by the Levitical law, 
Deut. 14:4, and were much used for food, 
1 Kin. 1:9; 4:23; 19:21, though in the des- 
ert wanderings those only were eaten 
which had been first offered in sacrifice, 
Lev. 17:1-6. They supplied milk, butter, 
and "cheese," Deut. 32:14; 2 Sam. 17:29; 
Isa. 7:22; were employed as beasts of bur- 
den, 1 Chr. 12:40, and of draught, Num. 7:3; 
1 Sam. 6:7; 2 Sam. 6:6; in ploughing, Deut. 
22:10; 1 Sam. 14:14; 1 Kin. 19:19, and in 
treading out grain, etc., Deut. 25:4; Psa. 




THE BULL OF SYRIA. 

144:14; Hos. 10:11, during which they were 
not to be muzzled, 1 Cor. 9:9, but well fed, 
Isa. 30:24; and the Sabbath rest was to be 
given them, Exod. 23: 12 ; Deut. 5:14. They 
were sometimes fattened in stalls, 1 Kin. 
4:23; Prov. 15:17; Luke 15:27, and barley 
was the grain generally given them. They 
constituted no small part of the wealth of 
the Hebrews in their pastoral life, Gen. 
24:35 ; Exod. 12:32, 38 ; 2 Sam. 12:2 ; 1 Chr. 
27:29; Job 1 : 14: 42: 12. Hundreds of them 



were offered in sacrifice every year, Exod. 
20:24; and these were to be the best of 
their kind, Mai. 1 : 14. The region east of 
the Jordan was a famous grazing country, 
and boasted of the strongest bullocks and 
the finest herds. Those roaming at large 
were often dangerous, and were wont to 
gather ominously around any object that 
excited their suspicions, as is the habit of 
half-wild cattle in our own day, Psa. 22: 12. 
See Bashan, Butter, Milk. Oxen were 
driven with goads, Judg. 3:31 ; Acts 9:5. A 
man that stole an ox was obliged to give 5 
oxen in return, or 2 in some cases; and a 
stray ox was to be carefully returned to its 
owner, Exod. 22:1, 4; 23:4. Unruly cattle 
were to be safely kept, or their owner was 
accountable for all damage, Exod. 21:28- 
36 — one of the many precepts of the Jew- 
ish law of universal equity and very wide 
application in our own time. The testing 
of a new yoke of oxen is still a business 
of great importance in the East, as of old, 
Luke 14 : 19. A passage in Campbell's trav- 
els in South Africa well illustrates the pro- 
verbial expression, " as a bullock unaccus- 
tomed to the yoke," Jer. 31:18: "When 
the selection fell on an ox I had received 
as a present from some African king, of 
course one completely unaccustomed to 
the yoke, such generally made a strenuous 
struggle for liberty, repeatedly breaking 
the yoke and attempting to make its es- 
cape. At other times such bullocks lay 
down upon their sides or back, and re- 
mained so in defiance of the Hottentots, 
though 2 or 3 of them would be lashing 
them with their ponderous whips. Some- 
times, from pity to the animal, I would 
interfere, and beg them to be less cruel. 
'Cruel,' they would say, 'it is mercy; for 
if we do not conquer him now he will re- 
quire to be so beaten all his life.' " 

The buffalo is not uncommon in modern 
Palestine, and is used with the neat cattle 
around Lake Huleh, though an ugly, sul- 
len animal. See Bulls of Bashan and 
Unicorn. 

The "wild ox," or bull, mentioned in 
Deut. 14:5; Isa. 51:20, is supposed to have 
been the oryx, a species of stag or ante- 
lope, large and powerful. 

OX-GOAD. See Goad. 

O'ZEM, power, I., a son of Jesse. 

II. Son of Jerahmeel, 1 Chr. 2:25. 

OZI'AS, Matt. 1 : 8, 9, A. V. See Uz- 

ZIAH. 

OZ'NI, Num. 26:16, of the tribe of Gad; 
called also Ez'bon, Gen. 46:16. 

409 



PAD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PAL 



PA'DAN-A'RAM, the plains of Aram or 
Syria, Gen. 25:20; 28:2; 31:18, or simply 
Padan, Gen. 48:7, the plain, in distinction 
from the " mountains " of Aram, Num. 23 : 7. 
See Mesopotamia and Syria. 

PAIN'FUL, laborious, Psa. 73:16; 2 Cor. 
11:27. 

PAINT, PAINTING. Among the He- 
brews the walls and beams of houses were 
often painted, Jer. 22:14; images of idols, 
or drawings of them on temple walls, were 
also thus adorned by the heathen, Ezek. 
23:14. The Assyrian ruins and Egyptian 
monuments show painted figures and orna- 
mental devices. See Nineveh. Cosmetic 
painting was common among Egyptian 
and Assyrian women, and to some extent 
among the Hebrews. See Eye. 

PAL/ACE in the Old Testament denotes 
sometimes all the buildings, courts, and 
gardens inclosed by the outer wall of a 
royal residence, Dan. 1:4; 4:4; 1 Kin. 7:1- 
12 ; sometimes the fortress or citadel, 1 Kin. 
16:18; 2 Kin. 15:25. In the New Testament 
the word is applied to the residence of a 
man of wealth or high position, Matt. 26:3, 
69; Mark 14:66; Luke 11:21, or, as in the 
R. V., its " court," around which the house 
stood. For its meaning in Phil. 1 : 13, A. V., 
see Pr^torium. 

P A' L,AL,, judge, Neh. 3:25. 

PAL/ESTINE denotes, in the Old Testa- 
men^ the country of the Philistines, " Phi- 
listia," as the Hebrew word is elsewhere 
translated. It was that part of the Land of 
Promise extending along the Mediterra- 
nean Sea on the varying western border 
of Simeon, Judah, and Dan, Exod. 15:14; 
Isa. 14:29, 31; Joel 3:4. Palestine, taken 
in later usage in a more general sense, 
signifies the whole country of Canaan, as 
well beyond as on this side of the Jordan, 
though frequently it is restricted to the 
country on this side that river ; so that in 
later times the words Judaea and Palestine 
were synonymous. We find also the name 
of Syria-Palestina given to the Land of 
Promise, and even sometimes this province 
is comprehended in Ccele-Syria, or the 
Lower Syria. Herodotus is the most an- 
cient writer known who speaks of Syria- 
Palestina. He places it between Phoenicia 
and Egypt. See Canaan. 

PALM'ER-WORM. This old English 
term, meaning pilgrim-worm, is used in 
Joel 1:4; 2:25; Amos 4:9, like "canker- 
worm" and "caterpillar," for some de- 
410 



structive insect, perhaps a species of the 
locust; but in this case probably a large 




PALMER- WORM AND CATERPILLAR : PLUSIA 
GAMMA. 

moth, some varieties of which are very de- 
structive even before they reach the winged 
state. See Locust. 

PALM-TREE, Exod. 15:27. This tree is 
called in Hebrew tamar, from its straight, 
upright, branchless growth, Jer. 10:5, for 
which it seems more remarkable than any 
other tree. It grows in hot, dry climates 
and in sandy soil, sending its roots down 
to subterranean waters, but flourishes best 
near streams and springs. Its graceful 
form was reproduced in the columns of 
costly houses and on the doors of the tem- 
ple, 1 Kin. 6:32; 2Chr. 3:5; compare Ezek. 
41 : 18-20. See Tamar. 

The palm is one of the most beautiful 
trees of the vegetable kingdom. The trunk, 
of nearly uniform size throughout, is full of 
rugged knots, which render it compara- 
tively easy to climb to the top for the fruit, 
Song y.j, 8. These projections are the 
vestiges of the decayed leaves ; for the 
trunk, like that of all endogenous trees, 
has its centre filled with pith, round which 
is a tough bark, full of strong fibres when 
young, which, as the tree grows old, hard- 
ens and becomes ligneous. To this bark 
the leaves are closely joined, which in the 
centre rise erect, but after they are ad- 
vanced above the sheath that surrounds 
them, they expand very wide on every side 
the stem, and as the older leaves decay, 
the stalk advances in height. It becomes 
30 or 40 feet high, and in some instances 
60 to 100 feet; and with its ever-verdant 
and graceful crown continually aspiring 
towards heaven, and its precious fruit, it is 
an apt image of the soul growing in grace, 
Psa. 92:12, 14. The leaves, when the tree 
has grown to a size for bearing fruit, are 6 




RUINED FOUNTAIN AT JERICHO. 



PAL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PAM 



to 8 feet long, are very broad when spread 
out, and are used for covering the tops of 
houses, for fans, and similar purposes. 




the date-palm: phcenix dactylifera. 

The fruit, from which one sort of palm is 
often called the date-tree, grows below the 
leaves in a dozen or more clusters, some- 
times weighing over 15 pounds, and is of a 
sweet and agreeable taste. The palm be- 
gins to bear when about 10 years old, lives 
200 years or more, and yields most abun- 
dantly from the 30th to the 80th year. The 
ripe dates are gathered by hand or shaken 
into a net, and spread out in the open air 
for a few days ; some are eaten fresh, others 
stored for future use, or yield a rich syrup 
from their expressed juice, or a pleasant 
drink by maceration in hot water. Such 
are the date-wines of the East. The dili- 
gent natives, says Mr. Gibbon, celebrate, 
either in verse or prose, the 360 uses to 
which the trunk, the branches or long leaf- 
stalks, the leaves, fibres, and fruit of the 
palm are skilfully applied. A considera- 
ble part of the inhabitants of Egypt, of Ara- 
bia, and Persia subsist almost entirely on 



its fruit. They boast also of its medicinal 
virtues. Their camels feed upon the ground 
date-stone. From the leaves they make 
couches, baskets, bags, cordage, mats, and 
brushes; from the branches or stalks, ca- 
ges for their poultry and fences for their 
gardens; from the fibres of the trunk, 
thread, ropes, and rigging; from the sap is 
prepared a spirituous liquor ; and the body 
of the tree furnishes fuel: it is even said 
that from one variety of the palm-tree, the 
phoenix far inif era, meal has been extract- 
ed, which is found among the fibres of the 
trunk, and has been used for food. 

Several parts of the Holy Land, no less 
than of Idumsea that lay contiguous to it, 
are described by the ancients to have 
abounded with date-trees, /udaea is typi- 
fied in several coins of Vespasian by a dis- 
consolate woman sitting under a palm- 
tree, with the inscription, Judaea Capta. 
See Captivity. The Hebrews carried the 
leaves at the Feast of Tabernacles, Neh. 
8:15. Palms flourished in Elim and Elath, 
in Baal-tamar and Hazezon-tamar, in 
Bethany, "house of dates," and Phoenicia, 
"land of palms." In Deut. 34:3, Jericho 
is called the " city of palm-trees ;" and one 
of these trees is still found in that vicin- 
ity; but in general they are now rare in 
Palestine. Palm -wreaths, and branches 
waved in the air or strewn on the road, are 
associated as a symbol of victory, not only 
with the honors paid to ancient conquerors 
in the Grecian games and in war, but with 
the triumphant entry of the King of Zion 
into Jerusalem, John 12:13, an d with his 
more glorious triumph with his people in 
heaven, Rev. 7:9. 

PAL/SY, or paralysis, strikes sometimes 
one side or portion of the body, and some- 
times the whole, affecting the power of 
motion or the power of sensation, or both, 
1 Kin. 13:4-6. The affected part sometimes 
becomes withered, the muscles contract- 
ing, Mark 3:1-5. In some violent forms, 
prevalent in the East, the limbs remain 
fixed as at the beginning of the attack, and 
the suffering is intense, death ensuing in a 
few days, Matt. 8:5-13. Palsy is one of the 
least curable of diseases ; but the Saviour 
healed it with a w r ord, Matt. 4:24; 9:2-7; 
12:10; Mark 2:3-12; Acts 8:7; 9:33, 34. 
There is also a palsy of the soul, which the 
Great Physician can heal, and he alone. 

PAL/TI, whom Jehovah delivers, one of 
the 12 spies, a leader in Benjamin, Num. 

13:9- 
PAMPHYL'IA, a province of Asia Minor, 
411 



PAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PAR 



having Cilicia east, Lycia west, Pisidia 
north, and the Mediterranean south — a 
crescent-shaped plain sweeping around the 
seacoast, Acts 27:5, and extending north 
to the Taurus Mountains, being about 80 
miles long and 30 wide. The river Ceastrus 
was formerly navigable 7 miles to Perga, 
the capital. Attalia was the chief seaport, 
Acts 14:25, 26. Strangers from Pamphylia 
were at Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost, 
Acts 2:10; and Paul twice visited it on his 
first missionary tour, and parted with John 
Mark here, Acts 13:13; 14:24, 25; 15:38. 

PAN'NAG, in Ezek. 27: 17, is the Hebrew 
word for some unknown product of Pales- 
tine, which the Jews sold to the Tyrians. 
It is variously understood to mean millet, 
sweetmeats, a confection or delicate spice, 
etc. 

PA'PER, PAPY'RUS. See Book. 

PA'PHOS, a city in the western end of 
Cyprus, whose Roman governor was con- 
verted at the visit of Paul and Barnabas, 
Acts 13:6-13. Old Paphos, now Kuklia, 
said to have been founded about B. C. 
1 184, was 2 miles from the shore, and was 
the site of a famous temple of Venus, often 
called "the Paphian goddess," because she 
was fabled to have risen from the sea here. 
New Paphos, now Baffa, was on the coast, 
about 10 miles northwest of the older town ; 
it had a tolerable harbor, now nearly filled 
up, and was the seat of a Roman procon- 
sul. See Elymas and Sergius Paulus. 

PAR'ABLE, Gr. Parabole, a compari- 
son, as in Mark 4:30, A. V., Heb. masked, si- 
militiide, translated " parable " in Job 27: 1, 
A. V., and "proverb" in Prov. 1:1; in its 
wider sense any form of teaching by anal- 
ogy or figure : including metaphors, Ezek. 
12:22; Matt. 24:32, proverbs or maxims, 
1 Sam. 10:12; 24:13; 2 Chr. 7:20; Luke 
4:23, obscure prophetic utterances, Num. 
23:18; Ezek. 20:49, typical or symbolical 
signs, Heb. 9:9. In its narrower sense, as 
in many of Christ's teachings, it is a short 
narrative of some actual or possible occur- 
rence, enforcing some important spiritual 
truth. It differs from the fable, which em- 
ploys reasoning animals or plants to illus- 
trate a wise policy, Judg. 9:8-15; and from 
the allegory, Psa. 80:8-16; John 15:1-8, in 
having its meaning less plainly on the sur- 
face, and requiring a careful consideration 
of the personality and circumstances of 
speaker and hearers. 

Parabolical and enigmatical language 
was much used by Eastern sages, Psa. 
49:4; 78:2; and nothing was more insup- 
412 



portable than to hear a fool utter parables, 
Prov. 26:7. A parable was employed by 
Nathan in reproving David, 2 Sam. 12:1-4; 
by another prophet in rebuking Ahab, 
1 Kin. 20:39, 40; by Isaiah, 5:1-7. This 
form of discourse was frequent with later 
Hebrew writers and teachers, and has ever 
been much admired by Oriental people. 
Our Saviour frequently addressed the peo- 
ple in parables, thereby verifying the proph- 
ecy of Isaiah, 6:9, that the rebellious peo- 
ple should see without knowing, and hear 
without understanding, in the midst of in- 
structions, Matt. 13:10-15; Mark 4:2, 10-13, 
^Zi 34- This result, however, only proved 
how inveterate were their hardness of heart 
and blindness of mind ; for in no other 
way could he have offered them instruction 
more invitingly, clearly, or forcibly than 
by this beautiful and familiar mode; and 
to all who really desired to know the truth 
he readily gave the needed explanations. 

In interpreting a parable, its primary 
truth and main scope are to be chiefly con- 
sidered. The details, though often signifi- 
cant, must not be unduly pressed ; and the 
special aspect of divine truth which it pre- 
sents is not to be insisted on to the exclu- 
sion of other aspects presented in other 
parables or in the more direct teaching of 
Scripture. Compare Christ's own expla- 
nations of the parables of The Sower and 
The Wheat and Tares. 

Matthew and Luke record most of his 
parables, while Mark dwells more on his 
acts and John on his longer discourses. 

The following parables of our Lord are 
recorded by the evangelists : 

Wise and foolish builders, Matt. 7 : 24-27. 

Children of the bride-chamber, Matt. 9 : 15. 

New cloth and old garment, Matt. 9 : 16. 

New wine and old bottles, Matt. 9: 17. 

Unclean spirit, Matt. 12:43-45. 

Sower, Matt. 13 : 3. 18 ; Luke S : 5, 11. 

Tares, Matt. 13 : 24-30, 36-43. 

Mustard-seed, Matt. 13 : 31, 32 ; Luke 13 : 19. 

Leaven, Matt. 13:33- 

Treasure hid in a field, Matt. 13:44- 

Pearl of great price, Matt. 13 : 45. 46- 

Net cast into the sea, Matt. 13:47-5°- 

Meats defiling not, Matt. 15 : 10-20. 

Unmerciful servant, Matt. 18:23-35. 

Laborers hired, Matt. 20: 1-16. 

Two sons, Matt. 21 : 28-32. 

Wicked husbandmen, Matt. 21 :33"45- 

Marriage-feast, Matt. 22 : 2-14. 

Fig-tree leafing, Matt. 24:32-34. 

Man of the house watching, Matt. 24:43. 

Faithful and evil servants, Matt. 24:45-51. 

Ten virgins, Matt. 25: 1-13. 

Talents, Matt. 25:14-30. 

Kingdom divided against itself, Mark 3 124. 



PAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PAR 



House divided against itself, Mark 3 : 25. 

Strong man armed, Mark 3 : 27 ; Luke 11 : 21. 

Seed growing secretly, Mark 4 : 26-29. 

Lighted candle, Mark 4 : 21 ; Luke 11 : 33-36. 

Man taking a far journey, Mark i3:34~37- 

Blind leading the blind, Luke 6 : 39. 

Beam and mote, Luke 6:41, 42. 

Tree and its fruit, Luke 6 : 43-45, 

Creditor and debtors, Luke 7:41-47. 

Good Samaritan, Luke 10 : 30-37. 

Importunate friend, Luke n:5 _ 9« 

Rich fool, Luke 12: 16-21. 

Cloud and wind, Luke 12 : 54-57. 

Barren fig-tree, Luke 13 : 6-9. 

Men bidden to a feast, Luke 14 : 7-1 1. 

The great supper, Luke 14: 15-24. 

Builder of a tower, Luke 14 : 28-30, 33,- 

King going to war, Luke 14 : 3i~33- 

Savor of salt, Luke 14 : 34, 35. 

Lost sheep, Luke 15:3-7. 

Lost piece of silver, Luke 15 : 8-10. 

Prodigal son, Luke 15 : 11-32. 

Unjust steward, Luke 16 : 1-8. 

Rich man and Lazarus, Luke 16: 19-31. 

Importunate widow, Luke 18: 1-8. 

Pharisee and publican, Luke 18:9-14. 

Pounds, Luke 19:12-27. 

Good shepherd, John 10: 1-6. 

Vine and branches, John 15 : 1-5. 

PAR'ADISE, Gr. paradeisos, a word of 
Persian origin answering to the Heb. gan, 
and denoting a beautiful park, garden, or 
orchard, Neh. 2:8; Eccl. 2:5; Song 4:13. 
In the Septuagint the term is applied to 
the garden of Eden, Gen. 2:15, commonly 
known as "the terrestrial Paradise." In 
Jewish theology it designates the abode of 
the righteous in the unseen world, the home 
of repose and joy beyond the grave. In 
its use our Saviour promised happiness to 
the penitent thief, Luke 23:43. Paul in a 
vision was caught up into paradise, 2 Cor. 
12:4. And in Rev. 2:7; 22:14, the natural 
features of the scene where innocence and 
bliss were lost are used to depict the world 
where these are restored perfectly and for 
ever. 

PA'RAH, the mouse, Josh. 18:23, a town 
of Benjamin, possibly at the ruins now 
called Farah, on the point made by wadies 
Faran and Suweinit, 6 miles northeast of 
Jerusalem. 

PA'RAN, beauty, a large tract of desert 
country south of Canaan, a high limestone 
plateau nearly surrounded by mountains — 
the short ranges on its east side running 
down to the Arabah valley and part of 
the Gulf of Akaba, those on the south be- 
longing to the great Sinai group, those on 
the west separating it from the desert of 
Etham and Shur. On the north it merged 
in the Negeb or "south country" of the 
Israelites, and included the deserts of Ka- 



desh and Zin, Num. 13:21, 26; 33:36. It is 
described as a dreary expanse of chalky 
soil, covered with coarse gravel, black flint, 
and drifting sand, with scanty vegetation. 
Some cities and cultivated grounds, how- 
ever, and patches of pasture lands were 
formerly found here. Its water-courses 
are now dry except in the rainy season. 
Bedouin tribes roam over it with their 
flocks. The roads from Egypt and Mount 
Sinai to Canaan cross it. In this region 
the Israelities dwelt for 38 years, from 
which fact it derives its modern name, 
" Badiet et-Tih," desert of the wandering. 

The first mention of Paran, " El-paran," 
the oak of Paran, is as the western limit of 
Chedorlaomer's pursuit of the Horites, Gen. 
14:6. It became the home of Hagar and 
Ishmael, Gen. 21:21; was entered by the 
Israelites soon after leaving Sinai, Num. 
10:12, 33; 11:3, 34, 35; 12:16; and from it 
the spies were sent, Num. 13:3, 26. Isra- 
el's stations in it are mentioned, Num. 
33:18-36; David retired to it, 1 Sam. 25:1, 
and Hadad went through it to Egypt, 
1 Kin. 11 :i7, 18. 

"Mount Paran," Deut. 33:2; Hab. 3:3, 
was probably the modern Jebel Magra'h, a 
conspicuous range running east to the Ara- 
bah heights, midway between the Dead Sea 
and the Gulf of Akaba. 

PAR'BAR, 1 Chr. 26:16, 18, a portico or 
out-building on the west side of the tem- 
ple, with chambers for storage. 

PARCHED GROUND, in Isa. 35:7, A. V., 
translated by Lowth "the glowing sand," 
by Henderson " the vapory illusion," and 
in German sand-meer and wasserschein, 
" sand-sea " and " water-show," refers to 
the mirage, an optical illusion described 
by almost all travellers in tropical deserts. 
It is produced by an unequal refraction of 
the rays of the sun in the lower strata of 
the atmosphere over the hot sand. The 
inexperienced wanderer sees at a distance 
what he thinks is a beautiful sheet of wa- 
ter, and imagination clothes the further 
shore with fresh herbage and shrubbery, 
stately palms waving in the breeze, build- 
ings, etc. ; but on hasting towards it he 
finds the delightful vision recede and at 
length disappear, and nothing remains but 
the hot, dry sands. Instead of the decep- 
tive and vanishing hopes of earth, our Sa- 
viour bestows the true waters of eternal 
life. 

PARCH'MENTS, 2 Tim. 4:13. Skins, 
rudely prepared, were early used for wri- 
ting. Sheepskins were thus used by the 

413 



PAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



PAS 



lonians^ centuries B. C. Under Eurae- 
nes, a king of Pergamos, about 2 centuries 
B. C, a better mode of dressing them was 
discovered, and they were called in Latin 
" charta pergamena," whence our word 
parchment. See Book. 

PAR'DON, Psa. 25:11, God's withholding 
the punishment due to us for our sins, and 
treating us as though we had not offended. 
God alone can grant pardon, Exod. 34:6, 
7; Mark 2:7, 10-12, out of his free love and 
grace, Isa. 43:25; Rom. 5:8; Eph. 1:6, 7, 
on account of the atonement and media- 
tion of Christ, Rom. 3:23-26; Heb. 9:9-28, 
who himself bore the punishment due to 
sinners, Isa. 53:4-12; Gal. 3:10, 13. Re- 
pentance and faith in Christ are necessary 
to secure it, Isa. 55:7; John 3:16, 18; Acts 
10:43; 13:38, 39; 1 John 1:6-9. Men are 
commissioned to deliver God's message 
promising pardon to repenting and belie- 
ving sinners, but no man has power t® 
pardon sin, Luke 24:47. The Scriptures 
show the completeness of God's pardon by 
speaking of it as the covering of sin, not 
imputing it, Psa. 32:1, 2, taking it away, 
Psa. 103:12; Mic. 7:19, blotting it out and 
not remembering it, Psa. 51 :i,g; Heb. 8:12. 

PAR'LOR, in 1 Chr. 28:11, an inclosed 
inner room, often translated " chamber." 
In 1 Sam. 9:22 a bedroom or "chamber" 
at the corner of a court-yard. In Judg. 
3:20-25 a cool and private upper chamber, 
to w r hich the owner repaired for his noon 
siesta or for purer air and a better view. 

PAR'MENAS, abiding, Acts 6:5, one of 
the first 7 deacons. 

PA'ROSH, or Pha'rosh, a flea, Ezra 2:3; 
8:3; Neh. 3:25; 7:8; 10:14, a Jew whose 
family, in number 2,712, returned to Jeru- 
salem with Zerubbabel, besides others with 
Ezra. 

PARSHANDA'THA, given by prayer, a 
son of Haman, Esth. 9:7. 

PAR'THIA, originally a province of Me- 
dia, southeast of the Caspian Sea, appears 
to have been conquered by Cyrus B. C. 
550, and was subject to the Persian mon- 
archs and to the Seleucidae. Under Arsa- 
ces, B. C. 256, it established its independ- 
ence, and in apostolic times the empire 
extended from India to the Tigris. Seleu- 
cia and Ctesiphon were chief cities, and 
Ecbatana a royal summer residence. Par- 
thia retained its power nearly 500 years, 
and was not subjugated even by the Ro- 
mans. But in A. D. 226 the Persians con- 
quered the last of the Arsacidse and re- 
established the Persian Empire. The Par- 
414 



thians were a rude people, of Scythian ori- 
gin. They were expert horsemen, armed 
chiefly with bows, and discharging their 
arrows with wonderful skill while riding 
at full speed and in flight, like Indians or 
Cossacks. Parthia proper, now called Atak, 
is included in modern Khorassan. Jews 
from Parthia, and perhaps Parthian prose- 
lytes to Judaism, were at Jerusalem at 
Pentecost, speaking the Persian language, 
Acts 2:9. 

PARTITION, The middle wall of, 
Eph. 2:14, the wall separating the court of 
the Gentiles from the inner courts of the 
temple, denoting whatever distinguished 
the favored people of God from the heath- 
en. This distinction, as well as its cere- 
monial tokens, God abolished in the ful- 
ness of time, John 4:21-24; Acts 11:1-18; 
14:27; 15:1-29. See Temple. 




GREEK PARTRIDGE: CACCABIS SAXATILIS. 

PAR'TRIDGE. The Greek partridge is 
common in Palestine, and at least one 
other variety; and both frequent rocky 
hillsides, and when disturbed seek safety 
by running rather than by flight ; and the 
peasants now as anciently, 1 Sam. 26:20, 
chase it until it is weary and knock it over 
with a stick or stone. Its numerous eggs 
also are much prized for food, and it is often 
driven off and its nest robbed, Jer. 17:11. 

PARU'AH, blooming, 1 Kin. 4:17. 

PARVA'IM, 2 Chr. 3:6, a region where 
fine gold was found; the word is translated 
by Gesenius " eastern regions." The loca- 
tion is not known. 

PAS-DAM'MIM, boundary of flowing s, 
1 Chr. 11:13, called Ephes-dammim (see) 
in 1 Sam. 17: 1. It was near Socoh, 16 miles 
southwest of Jerusalem. 



PAS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PAS 



PASE'AH, lame, I., a descendant of Ju- 
dah, i Chr. 4:12. 

II. Head of a family of Nethinim in Ze- 
rubbabel's time, Ezra 2:49; Neh.3:6; 7:51. 

PASH'UR, prosperity , I., son of Immer, 
a priest and a chief officer in the temple. 
In Jehoiakim's reign he persecuted Jere- 
miah for prophesying evil to Jerusalem, 
and incurred a fearful punishment, Jer. 
20:1-6. 

II. A priest, son of Malchiah, sent by 
king Zedekiah to ask of Jeremiah the issue 
of Nebuchadnezzar's preparations against 
Jerusalem, Jer. 21. Afterwards, when the 
Babylonians retired from the city, Jer. $j : 5, 
11, he demanded the prophet's death as a 
traitor, Jer. 38: 1-13. Many descendants of 
this Pashur, priests, returned from captiv- 
ity at Babylon, 1 Chr. 9:12; Ezra 2:38; 
Neh. 11:12. 

PAS'SAGES, Jer. 22:20. See Abarim. 

PAS'SION, Acts 1:3, suffering; the last 
sufferings and death of Christ. See Cross. 
In Acts 14: 15, Jas. 5:17, " like passions " is 
nearly equivalent to " the same human na- 
ture." 

PASS'OVER, Heb. Pesach, Gr. Pascha, 
the name given, 1, to the victim sacrificed 
to insure the safety of the firstborn of the 
Israelites in Egypt, when the Lord slew 
the firstborn in every Egyptian family, but 
passed over the Israelites to protect them, 
Isa. 31 : 5, where the blood of the lamb was 
sprinkled on the doorway; and 2, to the 
festival established to commemorate that 
event and Israel's release from bondage, 
Exod. 12; 13:3-10. This feast, marked by 
the sacrifice of the passover, was one of 
the 3 chief festivals of the Hebrews, and 
was like a sacrament— reminding them of 
God's grace to them in the past, and bind- 
ing them still to obey and trust him, and 
so secure its continuance. It was called 
also " the feast of unleavened bread," Exod. 
23:14-18; Deut. 16:2, 6, 16; 2 Chr. 30:1, 13, 
15; Ezra 6:22; Luke 22:1, 7; 1 Cor. 5:7. 

The month of the Exodus, named Abib, 
and at a later period Nisan, was made the 
first month of the sacred year, Exod. 12:2 ; 
13 : 4. At the institution of the festival it was 
commanded that the lamb or kid should 
be selected on the 10th day of Nisan. It 
was to be a male of the first year. Each 
family was to take a lamb, or if a family 
was too small, one or two others might join 
it. On the 14th day all leaven was scru- 
pulously removed from the dwelling, as is 
the custom of the Jews to this day. At 
evening (see) the passover was to be killed, 



and some of its blood was to be put on 
the door-posts and lintel. It was to be 
roasted entire, and eaten the same night ; 
no bone must be broken, and any residue 
must be burned before morning. Unleav- 
ened bread and bitter herbs were to be eat- 
en with it, and no leaven was to be used 
till after the 21st day of the month. The 
equipments and posture of travellers in 
haste were to be assumed. At every new 
observance of the festival a declaration of 
its meaning was to be made by the father 
to his children. The first full day of the 
festival, the 15th of Nisan, was to be ob- 
served as a holy day of rest, a "sabbath" 
and of convocation, as was also the last 
day, Nisan 21st, Lev. 23:5-8; and special 
sacrifices were appointed for each day, 
Num. 28:16-25. On the 2d day, the 16th 
of Abib, the firstfruits of barley were to be 
offered to the Lord, Lev. 23:10, 11, and 
from this 50 days were reckoned to " the 
feast of weeks," ver. 15-21. See Pente^ 
cost. One prevented from keeping the 
feast at the due time was to observe it in 
the 2d month ; wilful neglect of it was pun- 
ished with death, Num. 9:6-14; foreigners 
who had entered into covenant relation 
with God were admitted to it, Exod. 12:43- 
48. The prescribed place for the slaying 
of the passover was at the sanctuary of 
God, Deut. 16:16; Josh. 18:1; the temple 
at Jerusalem when built, 2 Chr. 30:5, 8. 
The slayer was the head of the family, or 
else a priest or Levite. The blood was 
sprinkled on the altar, where also the in- 
ward fat was burned, ver. 15-17. Besides 
the passover and the required national 
sacrifices for the ensuing days, voluntary 
peace-offerings, Heb. chagigah, were given 
and partaken of by many families, Lev. 3 ; 
2 Chr. 30:21, 22; 35:13. An offering of 
money was prescribed, Exod. 23:15; Deut. 
16:16, 17. Women were permitted, though 
not commanded, to join in the celebration, 

1 Sam. 1:3, 7; Luke 2:41. 

The chief notices of the observance of 
the feast of the passover are, that in Egypt, 
Exod. 12:28; in the wilderness of Sinai, 
Num. 9:1-5; the first in Canaan, Josh. 5:10, 
11 ; those by Solomon, 2 Chr. 8: 13 ; that of 
Hezekiah, the reformer, in the 2d month, 

2 Chr. 30:1-22; that by Josiah, 2 Kin. 
23:21-23; and one after the Captivity, Ezra 
6:19-22. 

Jewish writers state that, the family or 
families having performed the required 
purifications, John 11 :^5, and being assem- 
bled at the table, the master of the feast 

415 



PAS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PAT 



took a cup of wine mixed with water and 
blessed God for the fruit of the vine, of 
which all then drank. After a washing of 
hands the passover was brought in, with 
unleavened cakes, bitter herbs, and a vin- 
egar or fruit sauce, into which morsels of 
the food were to be dipped, Matt. 26:23; 
John 13:26. The father then blessed God 
for the fruits of the earth, and made the 
prescribed explanations, Exod. 12:26, 27. 
After a 2d cup and washing of hands, an 
unleavened cake was broken and distrib- 
uted, and a blessing was pronounced upon 
the Giver of bread. When all had eaten 
of the passover a 3d cup, of thanksgiving 
for deliverance from Egypt and the gift of 
the law, w r as blessed and partaken of, Matt. 
26:27; 1 Cor. 10:16; it was called "the cup 
of blessing." The repast was usually closed 
by a 4th cup and psalms of praise; Psalms 
115-118 were sung here and Psalms 113 and 
114 earlier in the feast. See Hymn. The 
whole week of the feast was one of rejoi- 
cing, Deut. 27:7. 

Mention is made of several passovers at- 
tended by Jesus, Luke 2:42, 43; John 2:13. 
He partook for the last time and instituted 
the Christian memorial feast of his own 
sacrifice, typified by every passover, on the 
evening commencing the day of his cru- 
cifixion, Matt. 26:17-30; Mark 14:12-26; 
Luke 22:7-23; John 13. In comparing the 
4 accounts it is to be remembered that the 
term "passover" denotes sometimes the 
special sacrifice on the 14th of Nisan, and 
sometimes the whole festival and its offer- 
ings, John 18:28. Astronomical calcula- 
tions show that the 14th of Nisan fell on a 
Thursday in A. D. 30, the year of our Lord's 
crucifixion ; the 15th day, Friday, begin- 
ning at 6 p.m., when the 14th closed, was 
accordingly " the preparation " (see) for the 
weekly Sabbath — " a high day " both as oc- 
curring in the Passover week and as pre- 
ceding the presentation of the first-fruits 
of barley, Mark 15:42; Luke 23:54; John 
19:14, 31, 42. 

The Jews still observe the Passover, 
though only as a feast of unleavened bread, 
all their sacrifices having ceased with the 
destruction of the temple, A. D. 70, a year 
when their last full celebration of the feast 
called multitudes to Jerusalem. The few 
Samaritans at Nablus, however, still slay 
and eat the passover on Mount Gerizim. 
The continued observance of this festival 
is a living proof of the actual occurrence of 
the great events it commemorates. 

The deliverance from death and bondage 
416 



thus commemorated was a type of the infi- 
nitely greater salvation from eternal death 
and the bondage of sin, through the sac- 
rifice of " the Lamb of God," " Christ our 
Passover," 1 Cor. 5:7; compare John 1:29; 
19:36. Faith in him is essential to place 
us under the shelter of his blood and ad- 
mit us to the liberty of his service ; and it 
must needs be evinced by the cleansing of 
our hearts and lives from " the old leaven " 
of "malice and wickedness," and by obe- 
dience to his commands in "sincerity and 
truth," 1 Cor. 5:8. See Lord's Supper. 

PAS'TOR,feeder, shepherd, Jer. 2:8; 3:15; 
10:21, one whose office it is to feed and 
guard the flock of Christ, Eph. 4:11; 1 Pet. 
5:2. See Shepherd. 

PAS'TURAGE. See Shepherd. 

PAT'ARA, a maritime city on the south- 
west coast of Lycia, 7 miles east of the 
mouth of the Xanthus and opposite Rhodes. 
It Ayas celebrated for an oracle of Apollo, 
the reputed father of its founder Patarus. 
Its harbor was much frequented. Paul 
reembarked here for Phoenicia on his last 
visit to Jerusalem, Acts 21:1, 2. A Chris- 
tian church was early established here, 
and was represented at the Council of Nice. 
Ruins of considerable extent mark the site 
and retain the name of Patara, but the har- 
bor is now filled with sand. 

PATE, Psa. 7:16, A. V., the crown of the 
head, not with the idea of contempt, as 
"pate " is now used. 

PATH'ROS, Isa. 11: 11; Jer. 44:1, 15; 
Ezek. 29:14; 30:14, Upper or Southern 
Egypt, one of the 2 main divisions of the 
land; or as some suppose, the Pathyrite 
district, in which Thebes lay, and which 
probably derived its name from the town 
Ha-hathor, "the abode of Hathor" the 
Egyptian Venus. This region was origi- 
nally independent of Egypt and had its 
own kings. It was probably identical with 
the Thebaid of the Greeks and the Said of 
the Arabs. Its early inhabitants, the Path- 
rusim, were descendants of Mizraim, Gen. 
10:14. See Egypt. 

PA'TIENCE, as an attribute of God, de- 
notes his long-suffering forbearance from 
wrath and continuance of mercy under 
great and manifold provocations from man, 
Exod. 34:6, 7; Rom. 2:4; 2 Pet. 3:9. As a 
Christian grace it denotes sometimes tran- 
quil and trustful endurance of evil and 
perseverance in faith and duty, Luke 8:15; 
Rom. 5:3; Jas. 1:3, 12; 2 Pet. 1:6; and 
sometimes forbearance towards fellow- 
men, Matt. iS:26, 29; 1 Thess. 5:14; 2 Tim. 



PAT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PAU 



2:24. God is the source of this as of all 
grace, Rom. 15:5; and the Christian is to 
seek it from him in the study of the Scrip- 



tures, and of Christ, who perfectly exempli- 
fied it, Rom. 15:1-5; Gal. 5:22; Heb. 6:12, 
15; 12:1, 2; Jas. 5:10, 11 ; 1 Pet. 2:18-23. 





PATMOS : HARBOR OF LA SCALA. 



PAT'MOS, a rocky and barren island in 
the iEgean Sea, used by the Romans as a 
place of exile for criminals, and to which 
the apostle John was banished by Domi- 
tian, A. D. 95, Rev. 1:9. It lies 20 miles 
south of Samos, and 24 from the coast of 
Asia Minor; it is about 25 miles in circum- 
ference and has a bold and deeply-indent- 
ed shore. The port and town La Scala 
are on the eastern side. Crowning the 
high hill on which the town lies is the old 
monastery of St. John. Half way up the 
hill is the grotto which tradition assigns as 
the place where John saw and recorded his 
prophetic visions. Patmos was called Pal- 
mosa in the middle ages, but is now called 
Patino. It is one of the Sporades, and pays 
a small tribute to the Turks. 

PA'TRIARCH, paternal ruler of a family 
or tribe, applied in the New Testament to 
Abraham, Heb. 7:4, Jacob's sons, Acts 7:8, 
9, and David, Acts 2:29. In the Septuagint 
it is sometimes used to translate the He- 
brew word for "head" or "prince " of a 
tribe, 1 Chr. 27:22. In common usage it 
denotes especially the men whom Scrip- 
ture mentions as living before Moses. The 
form of government indicated by the word 
prevailed in the early history of the He- 
brews. The father of a family exercised 
authority over his descendants as long as 
he lived ; at his death this dignity devolved 
on one of his sons— usually, but not always, 
27 



the eldest, by birthright (see) — Gen. 27:29; 
49:8 ; 1 Chr. 5:1, 2. From the heads or pa- 
triarchs of the families composing a tribe 
a prince was selected, Num. 1:4-16. See 
Elders. After the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem the Jews termed the 2 heads of the 
Sanhedrin patriarchs ; and the word has 
come into use in some branches of the 
Christian church to designate dignitaries 
superior to archbishops. 

PAT'ROBAS, a Christian at Rome salu- 
ted by Paul, Rom. 16:14. The imperial 
household had one or more men of this 
name. Compare Phil. 1:13; 4:22. 

PATTERN, 1 Tim. 1 : 16, an example, as 
in the R. V. In Heb. 9:23, copies, as in 
the R. V., of the models mentioned in Heb. 

8:5. 

PA'U, or PA'I, capital of Hadar king of 
Edom, Gen. 36:39; 1 Chr. 1:50. 

PAUL, little, the distinguished "apostle 
of the Gentiles," Rom. 11:13; also called 
Saul, asked for, a Hebrew name. He is 
first called Paul in Acts 13:9, and, as some 
think, assumed this Roman name accord- 
ing to a common custom of Jews in foreign 
lands or in honor of Sergius Paulus, ver. 7, 
his friend and an early convert. Both 
names, however, may have belonged to him 
in childhood. He was born at Tarsus in 
Cilicia, and inherited from his father the 
privileges of a Roman citizen. His parents 
belonged to the tribe of Benjamin, and 

417 



PAU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PAU 



brought up their son as "a Hebrew of the 
Hebrews," Phil. 3:5. Tarsus was highly 
distinguished for learning and culture, and 
the opportunities for improvement it af- 
forded were no doubt diligently improved 
by Paul. At a suitable age he was sent to 
Jerusalem to complete his education in the 
school of Gamaliel, the most distinguished 
Rabbi of that age. It does not appear 
that he was in Jerusalem during the minis- 
try of Christ; and it was perhaps after his 
return to Tarsus that he learned the art of 
tent-making, in accordance with a general 
practice among the Jews and their maxim, 
" He that does not teach his son a useful 
handicraft teaches him to steal," Acts 18:3; 
20:34; 2 Thess. 3:8. 

We next find him at Jerusalem, appar- 
ently about 30 years of age, high in the 
confidence of the leading men of the na- 
tion. He had profited by the instructions 
of Gamaliel, and became learned in the 
law; yielding himself to the strictest disci- 
pline of the sect of the Pharisees, he had 
become a fierce defender of Judaism and 
a bitter enemy of Christianity, Acts 8:^; 
26:9-11. After his miraculous conversion, 
of which we have 3 accounts, Acts 9:22; 
26, Christ was all in all to him. It was 
Christ who revealed himself to his soul at 
Damascus, Acts 26:15; l Cor. 15:8; to 
Christ he gave his whole heart and soul, 
mind, might, and strength; and thence- 
forth, living or dying, he was " the ser- 
vant of Jesus Christ." He devoted all the 
powers of his ardent and energetic mind 
to the defence and propagation of the 
gospel of Christ, more particularly among 
the Gentiles. His views of the pure and 
lofty spirit of Christianity, in its worship 
and in its practical influence, appear to 
have been peculiarly clear and strong; and 
the opposition which he was thus led to 
make to the rites and ceremonies of the 
Jewish worship exposed him everywhere 
to the hatred and malice of his country- 
men. On their accusation he was at length 
put in confinement by the Roman officers, 
and after being detained for 2 years or 
more at Caesarea, he was sent to Rome for 
trial, having himself appealed to the em- 
peror. There is less certainty in respect 
to the accounts which are given of Paul 
afterwards by the early ecclesiastical wri- 
ters. Still it was a very generally-received 
opinion in the earlier centuries that the 
apostle was acquitted and discharged from 
his imprisonment at the end of 2 years, 
and that he afterwards returned to Rome, 
418 



where he was again imprisoned and put to 
death by Nero. 

Paul appears to have possessed all the 
learning which was then current among 
the Jews, and also to have been acquainted 
with Greek literature, as appears from his 
mastery of the Greek language, his frequent 
discussions with their philosophers, and 
his quotations from their poets — Aratus, 
Acts 17:28; Menander, 1 Cor. 15:33; and 
Epimenides, Tit. 1 : 12. Probably, however, 
a learned Greek education cannot with 
propriety be ascribed to him. But the most 
striking trait in his character is his enlarged 
view of the universal design and the spirit- 
ual nature of the religion of Christ, and of 
its purifying and ennobling influence upon 
the heart and character of those who sin- 
cerely profess it. From the Saviour him- 
self he had caught the flame of universal 
love and the idea of salvation for all man- 
kind, Gal. 1:12. Most of the other apostles 
and teachers appear to have clung to Juda- 
ism, to the rites, ceremonies, and dogmas 
of the religion in which they had been 
educated, and to have regarded Christian- 
ity as intended to be engrafted upon the 
ancient stock, which was yet to remain as 
the trunk to support the new branches. 
Paul seems to have been among the first to 
rise above this narrow view and to regard 
Christianity in its true light, as a universal 
religion. While others were for Judaizing 
all those who embraced the new religion 
by imposing on them the yoke of Mosaic 
observances, it was Paul's endeavor to 
break down the middle wall of separation 
between Jews and Gentiles, and show them 
that they were all " one in Christ." To 
this end all his labors tended ; and, ardent 
in the pursuit of this great object, he did 
not hesitate to censure the time-serving 
Peter and to expose his own life in resist- 
ing the prejudices of his countrymen. In- 
deed his 5 years' imprisonment at Jerusa- 
lem, Caesarea, and Rome arose chiefly from 
this cause. 

The following chronological table of the 
principal events in Paul's life may be of 
use in directing and assisting inquiries into 
this most interesting portion of history. 
The different chronologies of Hug, Lard- 
ner, and Conybeare and Howson are here 
presented side by side ; and thus the table, 
while it shows the general agreement of 
chronologists as to the order of events, 
shows also that it has thus far been found 
impossible to arrive at entire certainty re- 
specting their dates. 



PAU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PAU 



Paul's conversion, Acts 9. In the x £ o 
twenty-first year of Tiberius 36 36 36 

He goes to Arabia, and returns to Da- 
mascus, Gal. 1:17; and in the third 
year escapes from Damascus and vis- 
its Jerusalem, Acts 9:23-26, in the 
year- 39 39 38 

From Jerusalem he goes to Tarsus, 
Acts 9 : 30 ; and after several years of 
labor in Cilicia and Syria, Gal. 1 :2i, 
during which it is supposed most 
of the sufferings occurred which are 
mentioned in 2 Cor. 11:24-26, he 
went with Barnabas to Antioch in 
Syria, Acts 11 : 25, 26, where they la- 
bored during the year 44 43 44 

From Antioch he is sent with Barna- 
bas to Jerusalem, his second visit, to 
carry relief for the famine, and re- 
turns to Antioch, Acts 11 : 30 45 44 45 

First great missionary tour, with Bar- 
nabas, from Antioch to Cyprus, Anti- 
och in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, and 
Derbe, and returning through the 
same places and Attalia to Antioch, 
Acts 13; 14, about two years, com- 
mencing 45 48 

Third visit to Jerusalem, with Barna- 
bas, to consult respecting circumcis- 
ion, etc., and return to Antioch, Acts 
15:2-30-- 53 50 50 

Second missionary tour, from Antioch, 
through Cilicia, Derbe, Lystra, Phry- 
gia, Galatia, Troas, Neapolis, Philip- 
pi, Thessalonica, Bercea, Athens, and 
Corinth, Acts 15:35 to 18:1, where 
he finds Aquila - 54 51 52 

After eighteen months at Corinth he 
makes his fourth visit to Jerusalem, 
by Cenchrea, Ephesus, and Caesarea, 
and returns to Antioch, Acts 18: 11- 

22 » in 56 — 54 

Third missionary tour, through Gala- 
tia and Phrygia, arriving at Ephe- 
sus, Acts 19: 1, in 57 53 54 

And after two years at Ephesus, going 
through Troas and Macedonia to 
Corinth, Acts 20 : 1 59 56 57 

Fifth visit to Jerusalem, from Corinth, 
by Philippi, Troas, Miletus, Tyre, 
Ptolemais, and Caesarea, Acts 20:3 
t02i:i5 60 58 58 

After two years' imprisonment at Jeru- 
salem and Caesarea, he sails from Si- 
don, by Myra, Fair Havens, etc., to 
Malta, where he is shipwrecked ; in 
the spring he proceeds to Rome, 
Acts 21 : 17 to 28: 16 --- ---63 61 61 

Two years' imprisonment in Rome, 
and release, Acts 28 : 30 65 63 63 

After laboring, as some think, in Spain, 
Rom. 15:24, 28, also in Ephesus, 
Macedonia, 1 Tim. 1 : 3, Crete, Tit. 
1:5, Asia Minor, 2 Tim. 1:15, and 
Nicopolis, Tit. 3:12, he is again a 
prisoner at Rome, joyfully awaiting 
martyrdom, though almost alone, 
2 Tim. 2:9; 4:6-18 — 65 68 



These various journeys of St: Paul, many 
of them made on foot, should be studied 
through on a map, in connection with the 
inspired narrative in Acts and with his 
own pathetic description of his labors, 
2 Cor. 11:23-29, wherein nevertheless the 
half is not told. When we review the 
many regions he traversed and evangel- 
ized, the converts he gathered, and the 
churches he founded, the toils, perils, and 
trials he endured, the miracles he wrought, 
and the revelations he received, the dis- 
courses, orations, and letters in which he 
so ably defends and unfolds Christianity, 
the immeasurable good which God by him 
accomplished, his heroic life, and his mar- 
tyr death, he appears to us the most ex- 
traordinary of men. 

The character of Paul is most fully por- 
trayed in his epistles, by which, as Chrys- 
ostom says, he " still lives in the mouths 
of men throughout the whole world. By 
them, not only his own converts, but all the 
faithful even unto this day, yea, and all the 
saints who are yet to be born until Christ's 
coming again, both have been and shall be 
blessed." In them we observe the trans- 
forming and elevating power of grace in 
one originally turbulent and passionate — 
making him a model of manly and Chris- 
tian excellence; fearless and firm, yet con- 
siderate, courteous, and gentle; magnani- 
mous, patriotic, and self-sacrificing; rich 
in all noble sentiments and affections. 

Epistles of Paul. — There are 14 epis- 
tles in the New Testament usually ascribed 
to Paul, beginning with that to the Romans, 
and ending with that to the Hebrews. Of 
these the first 13 have never been contest- 
ed; as to the latter, many good men have 
doubted whether Paul was the author, al- 
though the current of criticism is in favor 
of this opinion. These epistles, in which 
the principles of Christianity are devel- 
oped for all periods, characters, and cir- 
cumstances, are among the most important 
of the primitive documents of the Christian 
religion, even apart from their inspired 
character ; and although they seem to have 
been written without special premedita- 
tion, and have reference mostly to tran- 
sient circumstances and temporary rela- 
tions, yet they everywhere bear the stamp 
of the great and original mind of the apos- 
tle, as purified, elevated, and sustained by 
the influences of the Holy Spirit. 

The following is Lardner's arrangement 
of the epistles of Paul, with the places 
where they were written and the dates: 

419 



PAV 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PEA 



A. I). 
- 52 
" 52 

end of 52 



EPISTLKS. PLACES. 

i Thessalonians- -Corinth 

2 Thessalonians-- " 

Galatians f Corinth or) 

(. JLphesus J or beginning of 53 
1 Corinthians Ephesus beginning of 56 

1 Timothy Macedonia-- 56 

Titus " or near it, near end 56 

2 Corinthians " about Oct., 57 

Romans Corinth " Feb., 58 

Ephesians Rome " April, 61 

2 Timothy - " " May, 61 

Philippians " ---before end of 62 

Colossians '' " " 62 

Philemon --- " " " 62 

Hebrews -- Italy spring, 63 

The arrangement of Hug is somewhat 
different; and most critics now place He- 
brews and the pastoral epistles to Timothy 
and Titus latest in the list, while those who 
find evidence that Paul was released from 
his first imprisonment and lived until the 
spring of A. D. 68, assign them to the last 
years of his life. See Timothy. 

PAVE'MENT, Exod. 24:10; 2 Kin. 16:17; 
Esth. 1:6. See Gabbatha. 

PAVIL'ION, a tent, as for kings or gen- 
erals in time of war, 1 Kin. 20:12, 16. Da- 
vid poetically describes the Lord as dis- 
comfiting his servant's enemies from the 
midst of a pavilion of dark waters and 
thick clouds of the skies, Psa. 18:6-14; 
compare Josh. 10: io, 11. He is a secure 
shelter to those who trust in him, Psa. 
31:20; 83:3. 

PEACE. The 2 or 3 Hebrew words thus 
translated are very comprehensive, deno- 
ting primarily wholeness, i. e., health, wel- 
fare, or good of all kinds, Gen. 29:6, mar- 
gin; Exod. 4:18; Num. 6:26; peace as op- 
posed to war, Eccl. 3:8; concord or friend- 
ship, Psa. 41:9, margin. The Greek word 
in the New Testament has much the same 
breadth of meaning, Luke 1 : 79; 2:14; 7:50; 
12:51; 14:32. "Peace be unto you," the 
common salutation in the East, Christ re- 
alized for his disciples in the highest sense, 
John 14:27; 20:19, 2I > 2 6, in the reconcilia- 
tion made through his death between God 
and man, and in all the blessings which 
flow from it, Col. 1 : 19-23 ; compare Psa. 
85:5; Isa. 9:6; 53:5. 

The Christian grace of peace is that 
tranquillity of conscience, mind, and heart 
which God confers in assuring the believer 
of his pardon, Rom. 5 : 1 ; 15 : 13. It may be 
enjoyed amid great outward adversity, John 
16:33. While the preaching of the gospel 
naturally awakens opposition of thought, 
aim, and effort between believers and re- 
jecters of Christ, Matt. 10:34, a kindly dis- 
420 



position towards others is an essential fruit 
of the Spirit in all who are Christ's, Gal. 
5:22; Col. 3:15; and its active manifesta- 
tion is blessed by Christ, Matt. 5:9, and 
enjoined by him and his apostles, Mark 
9:50; 2 Cor. 13:11; Heb. 12:14; 1 Pet. 3:11. 
The old English idiom, "to hold one's 
peace," means simply to be silent, Psa. 
39:12; Mark 3:4. 




PEA'COCKS were imported by Solomon, 
1 Kin. 10:22; 2 Chr. 9:21, and the Hebrew 
word so translated closely resembles the 
modern Tamul or Malabar term. See 
Tarshish. In Job 39: 13 the word transla- 
ted peacocks should be rendered ostriches, 
and that rendered ostrich should be stork, 
as it is elsewhere translated. 

PEARL, in Job 28: 18, A. V., should prob- 
ably be "crystal." Pearls have always 
been highly prized as personal ornaments, 
and the ancients accorded them a high 
rank among precious substances, Matt. 
7:6; 13:45, 46; Rev. 21:21. Pearls are a 
globular deposit of nacre, the lining sub- 
stance of many shells, and are found in 
several mollusks, whose nacre is called 
" mother of pearl." The pearl-oysters grow 
in deep water, in clusters, on rocks called 
"pearl-banks," and are found in the Per- 
sian Gulf, on the west coast of Ceylon, on 
the coasts of Java, Sumatra, etc., and in 
smaller quantities elsewhere in both hemi- 
spheres. The oysters are brought up by 
trained divers, who can pursue their dan- 
gerous trade only during a few weeks or 
months of calm spring or summer weather. 
Few pearls are as large as a cherry-stone, 



PEC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PEL 



yet some have reached the size of a wal- 
nut, and one has been valued at $350,000. 




The value and beauty of such a stone, ac- 
quired with such severe toil, make it an 
apt illustration of the blessing of salva- 
tion, obtained for us by the self-sacrifice of 
Christ, and which it is our wisdom to ac- 
quire at any cost, Matt. 13:45, 46; Prov. 
2:3-9; Rev. 3:18. 

PECU'LIAR, Exod. 19:5; Deut. 26:18; 
Psa. 135:4; Tit. 2:14; 1 Pet. 2:9, signifies 
God's own special possession. 

PEEP, in Isa. 8:19, denotes the stifled, 
piping voice of necromancers. 

PE'KAH, open-eyed, son of Remaliah, 
and general of Pekahiah king of Israel. 
He conspired against his master, and hav- 
ing slain him, B. C. 758, he reigned in his 
place 20 years, 2 Kin. 15:25-28. In the lat- 
ter part of his evil reign he formed an alli- 
ance with the Syrians of Damascus, and 
early in the reign of Ahaz Pekah and Re- 
zin invaded Judah and besieged Jerusa- 
lem, ch. 16: 1-6. Though unable to take the 
holy city, Isa. 7; 8:1-10, the allies killed 
many warriors of Judah and took many 
prisoners, 2 Chr. 28:5-8; but the Israelites 
were divinely ordered to restore their cap- 
tives, ver. 9-15; Lev. 25:39, 42, 43, 46. 
Ahaz seeking the aid of Assyria, Tiglath- 
pileser defeated Syria and Israel, and de- 
prived Pekah of the country beyond the 
Sea of Galilee, taking the inhabitants cap- 
tive, 2 Kin. 15:29; 16:7-9; 1 Chr. 5:26; 
Isa. 17. Soon afterwards Pekah was slain 
by Hoshea, who after a 9 years' interreg- 
num usurped the throne, 2 Kin. 15:30; 
17:1. Pekah was the last of the 4 kings of 
Israel assassinated in the troublous times 
of the prophet Hosea, Hos. 1 : 1 ; 8:4; 10:7, 
15; compare 2 Kin. 15:8-10, 13, 14, 23-25, 
30. 

PEKAHI'AH, whose eyes the Lord opened, 
son and successor of Menahem king of 
Israel, was a wicked prince, and reigned 
but 2 years, B. C. 760-758. Pekah, son of 



Remaliah, conspired against him, and killed 
him in his own palace, 2 Kin. 15:22-25. 

PE'KOD, visitation, a. name applied to 
Babylon, or perhaps denoting a Chaldsean 
province, Jer. 50:21 ; Ezek. 23:23. 

PE'LEG, division, Gen. 10:25; 11:16-19; 
1 Chr. 1 : 19-25, a son of Eber and brother 
of Joktan. His name refers to a division 
made in his time in the family of Eber, 
whose elder branch, that of Peleg, remained 
in Mesopotamia, while sons of the younger, 
Joktan, migrated to Southern Arabia. 

PEL'ETHITES and CHER'ETHITES, Da- 
vid's body-guard, 2 Sam. 8: 18 ; 15:18; 20:7, 
23; 1 Kin. 1:38, 44. The names have been 
translated "executioners and couriers;" 
but many suppose they were foreign mer- 
cenaries, their names implying their origin 
and not their duties, and that Pelethites is 
another word for Philistines. See Chere- 
thites. 




PEL'ICAN, vomiter, Lev. 11:18, a vora- 
cious water-fowl, of a rank oily flesh, un- 
clean by the Mosaic law. It is gregarious 
and migratory. The common white peli- 
can, still found in Egypt and Palestine, is 
nearly 6 feet long, and resembles the goose 
in shape. Its broad flat bill is 15 inches in 
length, and has a pouch underneath, near- 
ly invisible when empty, but capable of 
containing 2 or 3 gallons of water. This it 
uses as a scoop-net in catching fish, of 
which it holds enough for 6 men. The 
young are fed on the regurgitated food of 
the parent; hence its name, the process 
being aided by pressure of the bill on the 
breast. The bill terminates in a bright red 
hook, and may have given rise to the fable 
that the pelican feeds its young with its 
blood. It is a good flyer as well as diver 
and swimmer, and having loaded itself 
with fish retires to some lonely spot to di- 
gest its food ; it then has a dull and melan- 

421 



PEN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PEN 



choly aspect, Psa. 102 : 6. Its voice is harsh. 
In the prophecies of the desolation of Idu- 
maea, Isa. 34:11, and of Nineveh, Zeph. 
2:14, the presence of the pelican, called 
cormorant in A. V., is mentioned. 

PEN, Judg. 5:14; Psa. 45:1; Jer. 8:8. 
For inscriptions on stone, Exod. 24:12; 
Job 19 : 24, or metallic plates, Isa. 8:1, where 
" roll " is really a polished " writing-table " 
or tablet, Isa. 30:8, the ancients used a sty- 
lus of hardened iron, sometimes perhaps 
tipped with a hard stone, Jer. 17:1. See 
Diamond. For tablets of wood coated with 
wax, Luke 1:63, the stylus had one end 
■broad and smooth for erasing errors. For 
soft materials, such as papyrus, skin, lin- 
en, parchment, a fine-pointed hair-pencil, 
dipped in ink, was used, as by the Chinese 
now. In later times the reed pen was used, 
at first with an unsplit point, prepared with 
a particular kind of knife, Jer. 36:18, 23; 
3 John 13. The reed pen is still used by the 
Syrians, Turks, etc. See Ink, Sceptre. 

PENI'EL, or PENU'EL, the face of God, 
the place where Jacob wrestled with the 
Angel-Jehovah " face to face," Gen. 32:24- 
31 ; Hos. 12:4. It was east of the Jordan 
and near the Jabbok. There was a town 
so called 500 years later, the tower of which 
Gideon destroyed, Judg. 8:8-17. About 
250 years later Penuel was rebuilt or forti- 
fied by Jeroboam I., 1 Kin. 12:25. Dr. Mer- 
rill would place its site on the south side 
of the Jabbok and near its mouth. 

PENIN'NAH, the 2d wife of Elkanah the 
father of Samuel. See Hannah. Their 
story illustrates the evils of polygamy, 
1 Sam. 1. 




PEN'NY, Matt. 18:28; Mark 6:37, the de- 
narius, the chief Roman silver coin, equal 
to about 16 cents. The Greek drachma, 
" piece of silver," Luke 15:8, was of about 
the same value. Distressing scarcity is 
indicated, Rev. 6:6, when a whole day's 
wages can buy only a "chcenix " (less than 
a quart) of wheat — what a single man 
would need ; a denarius usually purchased 
a bushel. The "penny" shown to Christ 
bore Tiberius' likeness and name, Matt. 
22:19, 21. Even the nominal value of the 
denarius would be better expressed by 
422 



"shilling" or "franc;" and its real value, 
in purchase of labor or commodities, was 
far greater formerly than now, the Samari- 
tan's gift equalling at least two dollars 
with us, Luke 10:35. 

PEN'TATEUCH,yfry<? volumes, the collec- 
tive name of the 5 books of Moses : Gene- 
sis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deu- 
teronomy. See these titles, and also Mo- 
ses. The name as well as the individual 
titles of the books is of Greek origin, prob- 
ably given by the Alexandrian translators 
of the Old Testament. See Septuagint. 
By the Hebrews the roll or volume was 
called Torah, "the Law." The Greek 
names describe the contents of each book, 
the Hebrew names, Bereshith, "in the be- 
ginning," etc., are either an initial word or 
a prominent word in the initial verse. The 
Pentateuch is called in the Bible " the law," 
Neh. 10:34, 36; Matt. 12:5; Luke 10:26; 
John 8:17 (though "the law" sometimes 
includes all the Hebrew Scriptures, John 
15:25, which were otherwise divided into 
"the law and the prophets," Matt. 22:40, 
or " the law, the prophets, and the psalms," 
Luke 24:44); the "book of Moses," 2 Chr. 
25 : 4 ; " the law of Moses," 1 Kin. 2:3; Dan. 
9:11, 13; John 7:23; Acts 13:39 with John 

1 :i7, 45; "the book of the law," 2 Kin. 22:8, 
11 ; "the book of the law of Moses," Josh. 
8:31; Neh.8:i; " the book of the covenant," 

2 Kin. 23:2, 21; "the book of the law of 
Jehovah," 2 Chr. 17:9; "the law of Jeho- 
vah," 2 Chr. 31:3; and "a book of the law 
of Jehovah given by Moses," 2 Chr. 34:14. 
The grand subject of the Pentateuch is the 
Hebrew theocracy: Genesis showing the 
preparation for it, Exodus the foundation of 
it, Leviticus its internal constitution, Num- 
bers its actual establishment in wilderness 
journeys and the conquest of Canaan, and 
Deuteronomy being a recapitulation and 
enforcement of the legislation relating to it. 
The Pentateuch bears its own testimony to 
its authorship by express mention of Moses 
as the writer of several portions, Exod. 
17:14; 24:3-7; 34:27; Num. 33:2; Deut. 
31:9-12, 19, 22, 24-26; without strong rea- 
son for the contrary opinion, such as exists 
as to the account of his death, Deut. 34, it 
is fair to presume that he wrote the rest, 
and this presumption is confirmed by the 
unity of the composition as a whole, by the 
language of other Old Testament Scrip- 
tures and of Christ and his apostles, by the 
constant tradition of the Jewish and the 
Christian church, and by the internal evi- 
dence of the work itself, which calls for the 



PEN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PER 



authorship- of a man with the precise prov- 
idential qualifications which Moses alone 
had— through his Egyptian education and 
his leadership in the wilderness journey- 
ings. The antiquity of the book is further 
evidenced by its primitive theology and the 
archaic Hebrew in which it is written, in 
both which respects it differs from the wri- 
tings of the Davidic period, and still more 
from those of the post-exilian period, to 
which some modern critics would assign 
it. While Moses thus appears to have been 
the only possible author of the Pentateuch, 
he may, by and under divine direction, 
have made use of ancient records of events 
preceding his time — a supposition which 
may well account for alleged differences, 
in style and the use of the names of God, 
on which a modern critical school has 
grounded objections against the Mosaic 
authorship. The anticipatory use of cer- 
tain local names before their application 
after the conquest of Canaan — as Dan, 
Gen. 14:14; Deut. 34:1 with Josh. 19:47, 
and Hebron, Gen. 13:18; 23:2 with Josh. 
14:15; Judg. 1:10 — may be explained on 
the ground of prophetic foreknowledge, or 
of substitution in later editions of the Pen- 
tateuch after the names became settled. 

Some section of the Pentateuch was reg- 
ularly read in each Jewish synagogue on 
the Sabbath, Acts 13:15; 15:21. It was 
and is the sacred book of the Samaritans, 
who accept no other part of the Bible. 

PEN'TECOST, fiftieth, Acts 2:1-41, the 
Greek name for the 2d of the 3 great festi- 
vals which Israel was commanded to keep 
at the national sanctuary, Exod. 23:14-17. 
It was celebrated on the "fiftieth" day 
after the 16th of Nisan, which is the 2d 
day of the Passover festival, Lev. 23:15, 16; 
and it fell on the 6th day of the 3d month. 
In the Old Testament it is called "the 
feast of weeks," Exod. 34:22, " the feast of 
harvest," Exod. 23:16, and "the day of the 
first-fruits," Num. 28:26, and was institu- 
ted as a day of thanksgiving to God for the 
grain-" harvest," which in Palestine was 
usually gathered during the 7 " weeks " 
between the Passover and this festival, and 
Avhich was completed with the wheat-har- 
vest. The " first-fruits " of the latter were 
offered on the appointed day in 2 leavened 
loaves, each containing 6 pints of the finest 
wheat flour, Lev. 23:17. Special bloody 
sacrifices were also prescribed, Lev. 23:18- 
21 ; Num. 28:26-31 ; and the day was to be 
one of holy rest and rejoicing, of gratitude 
prompting new obedience, and of hospi- 



tality to the needy. Of each participant a 
free-will offering proportioned to his means 
was required, Deut. 16:9-12. 

The later Jews, after their dispersion at 
the destruction of Jerusalem, regarded this 
festival as commemorative of the giving of 
the law from Mount Sinai, Exod. 20:1-20, 
an event whose near coincidence with the 
time appointed for " the feast of weeks " 
may be inferred from Exod. 19:1, 10, 11, 
16. This is the chief significance of the 
festival among modern Jews. 

On the day of Pentecost the Holy Spirit 
was poured out on the Christian church, 
Acts 2:1-3. This gift of a divine Enlight- 
ener and Sanctifier bore to the deliverance 
wrought by the sacrifice of Christ as the 
true Passover a relation similar to that 
which the giving of the law bore to the de- 
liverance from Egypt, but was of a more 
glorious efficacy, and designed for all na- 
tions and the whole period of the gospel 
dispensation, Acts 2:17, 38, 39. On this 
day, in the conversion of the 3,000, the 
"first-fruits" of a grand spiritual "har- 
vest " were presented to the Lord. Com- 
pare Matt. 9:37, 38; John 4:35, 36. The 
mighty effects then produced foreshow the 
yet greater work the Spirit will perform in 
answer to prayer. 

PENU'EL. See Peni'el. 

PEO'PLE, usually foreign nations, some- 
times the common people, John 7:20. 

PE'OR, cleft, a mountain-peak in Moab, 
the last of the 3 stations from which Ba- 
laam beheld and blessed Israel, Num. 23:27 
to 24:19, then encamped in the valley east 
of the Jordan near the Dead Sea, Num. 
22:1; 24:2, 5. Peor, like Pisgah, Num. 
21:20, faced Jeshimon. Prof. Paine, of the 
American Palestine Exploration Society, 
in 1873 identified Pisgah with Jebel Siagh- 
ah, whose 3 summits, it is probable, were 
the sites of Balaam's 3 views. See Jeshi- 
mon and Pisgah. In Num. 25:18; 31:16; 
Josh. 22:17, Peor is a contraction for Baal- 
peor, Num. 25:3. 

PERA'ZIM, breaches, Isa. 28:21; an idol- 
atrous high-place, elsewhere called Baal- 
perazim (see), 2 Sam. 5:18-21; 1 Chr. 
14:8-12. 

PERDI'TION. Christ calls Judas "the 
son of perdition," John 17:12 with Mark 
14:21; Acts 1:25, according to the Hebrew 
idiom describing his character and destiny. 
See Son, Perdition is signified in Scrip- 
ture by "the lake of fire," Rev. 17:8, 11; 
19:20, the dreadful final abode of the devil 
and of men " not written in the Lamb's 

423 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PER 



book of life," Rev. 20: 10-15. Our Saviour 
refers to it as "the furnace of fire," Matt. 
I 3 : 5°j "the Gehenna of fire," "the eternal 
fire prepared for the devil and his angels," 
Matt. 18:9; 25:41. See Hell, III., and Hin- 
nom. The Greek word in Rev. 17:8, 11, 
also translated "destruction," Rom. 9:22; 
2 Pet. 2:1, 3, R. V., has a general sense of 
loss, destruction, and ruin, Matt. 26:8; 
Acts 8 : 20, and is often used in a special 
sense to denote the loss of eternal life and 
blessedness, Matt. 7:13; John 17:12; Heb. 
10:39; 2 Pet. 3:7. That this does not mean 
simple loss, or the annihilation of the wick- 
ed, is proved by the language in which the 
Bible depicts the enduring guilt, defilement, 
shame, and anguish of the doomed, Dan. 
12:2; Matt. 13:40, 50; 18:34, 35; 25:30, 41; 
Mark 3:29; 9:44-48; Rom. 2:4-9; Rev. 
14:9-11 ; 21 :8. 

The same Greek word is used by the 
Septuagint to translate the Hebrew Abad- 
don, " destruction," which is generally un- 
derstood as referring to the place of gloom 
and suffering in the unseen world, Job 
26:6; 28:22; Psa. 88:11; Prov. 15:11. 

The Greek verb from which the noun is 
derived likewise has a general sense of 
loss, destruction, and ruin, Matt. 2:13; 
8:25; 9:17; Luke 15:8, 9, 24, 32, and like 
the noun it is specially applied to the de- 
praved and ruined condition of man as a 
sinner, Matt. 18:11; Luke 19:10; from 
which he may be saved through faith in 
Christ, John 3:16; 10:28; 2 Pet. 3:9, but 
which if continued in through this life, 
2 Cor. 2:15; 4:3, will terminate in that com- 
plete " perdition " in sin and misery which — 
both as the natural result of persistence in 
sin, unbelief, and enmity to God, John 8:24; 
Matt. 12:31, 32; John 3:36, and by the di- 
rect sentence and infliction of the Judge — 
involves those condemned to follow out the 
choice of their lives and depart from Christ, 
Matt. 25:41, 46; 10:28. From 2 Thess. 2:3, 
etc., we learn that another " son of perdi- 
tion " would come in "the last times," "the 
man of sin," and "that wicked" or "law- 
less one," apparently the final embodiment 
of ungodliness — whether a person or an 
organization we are not told — destined to 
be destroyed by Christ. 

PE'RES, division, Dan. 5 : 28. See Uphar- 
sin. 

PE'REZ, Neh. 11:4, 6. See Pharez. 

PE'REZ-UZ'ZAH, 2 Sam. 6:8. See Uz- 

ZAH. 

PER'FECT, whole, complete, having every 
essential component part, Lev. 22:21-24; 
424 



1 Cor. 13:10. Men are called perfect who y 
though by no means sinless, were yet com- 
paratively blameless, truly possessing the 
qualities required by God, as faith in him,, 
love to him, and the spirit of obedience, 
Gen. 6:9; 1 Kin. 15:14; 2 Kin. 20:3; Job 
1:1. 

To be "perfected," or "made perfect," 
is to be brought to some particular con- 
templated end, 2 Chr. 8 : 16 ; as Christ to 
his foretold death, Luke 13:32 with ver. 31, 
2)2), and to a complete fitness for his medi- 
atorial work, Heb. 2:10 with ver. 18 and 
5:9; and as the believer in Christ comes to 
peace of conscience, Heb. 10:14 with 7 :I 9! 
9:9; 10:1, 2; to the full reception of the 
promise of the Messiah, Heb. 11:39,40; to 
the goal of spotless holiness, complete con- 
formity to Christ, Phil. 3:12 with ver. 8-10. 
and to the holiness and blessedness of the 
redeemed spirit after death, Heb. 12:23. 

A "perfect " man in Christ is one spirit- 
ually full-grown in faith, love, knowledge, 
and strength for action, as contrasted with 
a "babe " in Christ, 1 Cor. 2:6; Heb. 5:14, 
margin; compare ver. 12, 13; 6:1. Paul 
classes himself among the "perfect," Phil. 
3 : 15, but does not regard himself as " made 
perfect," ver. 12; see above. 

Believers are exhorted to " be perfect- 
ed," 2 Cor. 13:11, to "go on unto perfec- 
tion," Heb. 6: 1, acquiring through the grace 
of God, Heb. 13:21, a character ripened 
into Christian manhood, complete in every 
Christian grace, Eph. 4:13 with Jas. 1:4; 

2 Pet. 1:1-1 1. God, in all his imitable 
qualities, is the model set before them, 
Matt. 5:48. 

PER'FUMES were anciently, and still 
are, much used in the East, Prov. 27:9; 
Isa. 57:9; and were applied to the person, 
John 1 2 : 3, as well as to garments, Psa. 45 : 8, 
and to beds, Prov. 7:17, and carried burn- 
ing before the litters of princes, Song 3:6, 
7. Moses speaks of the art of the perfu- 
mer, A. V. "apothecary," and gives the 
composition of the 2 sacred perfumes used 
in the tabernacle service, the one as an- 
ointing oil, the other as incense, Exod. 
30:23-33, 34-38. Perfumes were used in 
embalming the dead, Mark 16 : 1 ; John 
19 : 39, 40. See Embalming, Incense, Oint- 
ments, Spices. 

PER'GA, a city of Pamphylia, on the river 
Cestrus, 7 miles from its mouth. The river 
is now obstructed by a bar, but was an- 
ciently navigable as far as Perga, where 
Paul and Barnabas landed on their first 
missionary tour, with Mark — who there left 



PER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PER 



them, Acts 13:13. Paul revisited Perga on 
his return, Acts 14:25. It was the original 
capital of Pamphylia, and after the division 
of the province remained the capital of one 
part, and Side became the chief city of the 
other. Perga had fine public buildings, and 
on an adjacent height a splendid temple of 
Diana, which gave celebrity to the city — 
some of whose discovered coins bear the 
image of that goddess. Extensive ruins 
remain, called by the Turks Eski-Kalessi. 

PER'GAMOS, R. V. PER'GAMUM, a city 
of Mysia, 3 miles north of the river Caicus, 
and 20 miles from the yEgean Sea, It was 
the residence of the Attalian dynasty of 
kings, who raised it to eminence as a seat 
of art, literature, and idolatry. Their do- 
minions fell to the Romans B. C. 133, and 
became the province of Asia proper. Eu- 
menes II., B. C. 197-159, founded a library 
which increased to 200,000 volumes ; being 
presented by Antony to Cleopatra, and re- 
moved to Alexandria, it was destroyed by 
the Caliph Omar with the famous Alexan- 
drine library. In transcribing manuscripts 
for it great quantities of sheepskin were 
used, and great improvement was made in 
the preparation of it for writing ; the im- 
proved material was called " charta perga- 
mena" (paper of Pergamos), whence our 
word " parchment." A beautiful grove 
near the city contained temples of Jupiter, 
Minerva, Apollo, Venus, Bacchus, and JEs- 
culapius. Special prominence was given 
anciently to the worship of Venus, and 
afterwards of iEsculapius, the god of med- 
icine and pharmaceutical magic, whose 
emblem was a serpent. Some interpret 
the expressions in Christ's message to the 
church here, Rev. 1:11; 2:12-17, "the 
throne of Satan," etc., as referring espe- 
cially to the worship of this serpent-idol ; 
compare Rev. 12:9; others apply them to 
the abundant idolatries and impurities of 
the city and the hostility to Christianity 
already begun there in the slaying of An- 
tipas. Ruins of ancient buildings show 
the former magnificence of Pergamos, now 
Bergama, but the modern houses are poor. 
It has a population of 20,000, chiefly Turks 
and Mohammedans, with about 2,000 Greek 
and Armenian Christians. A remarkable 
conical height near the city, now crowned 
with ruins, was held sacred by the heathen 
from early antiquity, and in time was oc- 
cupied by a fortress. 

PER'IZZITES, Gen. 15:20, ancient in- 
habitants of Palestine, often enumerated 
with other tribes descended from Canaan. 



They were widely scattered : in Abraham's 
time near Bethel, Gen. 13:7; in Jacob's, 
near Shechem, Gen. 34:30; in Joshua's, on 
the wooded slopes of Carmel, Josh. 17:15; 
and afterwards in the territory of Judah, 
Judg. 1:4, 5. From this apparent disper- 
sion, from the probable meaning of the 
word, rustics or village?"s, and from their 
being associated several times with the 
Canaanites alone, who appear to have oc- 
cupied cities, some conjecture that by the 
Perizzites are denoted the rural population 
or villagers of the land. The Perizzites 
were chiefly slain or expelled by the Isra- 
elites, who however wickedly mingled with 
the remainder, Judg. 3:5, 6. Some were 
left in Solomon's day, 1 Kin. 9:20, and per- 
haps after the Captivity, Ezra 9:1. 

PERSECU'TION is a crime, whether com- 
mitted by the church or by the civil power. 
Rightly, the church has no temporal penal- 
ties, but spiritual only, and for its own 
members ; and the civil power has penal- 
ties only for overt acts, and not for spirit- 
ual offences. Persecution occurs when 
either party transcends these bounds ; 
whether those who inflict it are malignant 
haters of the truth or mistaken good men, 
and whether the sufferers are faithful mar- 
tyrs for Christ or the worst of errorists. 
The coercion of heretics by pains, penal- 
ties, and death has been defended by ref- 
erence to Old Testament laws. But under 
the Mosaic dispensation, when God was 
the recognized legislative, judicial, and ex- 
ecutive Head of the nation, the worship of 
another god was treason, and incurred the 
penalty of death, Lev. 20:1-5; Deut. 13, as 
did outrageous breaches of others of the 
commandments, which were the law of the 
land. By severe chastisements God taught 
the early ages of mankind the fatal nature 
of sin, which unrepented of involves the 
sinner in endless death. The death-pen- 
alty indeed may not have been often in- 
flicted, but in signal instances, e. g-., Lev. 
24:11-14; 1 Kin. 18:40; and idolatry had 
many patrons among the kings of Israel. 
An appeal also to the Supreme Judge was 
always possible through appointed means, 
which now do not exist. The Mosaic dis- 
pensation is abolished, and nothing in the 
precepts or spirit of the New Testament 
warrants coercion in spiritual matters. 
The State has no right to intrude with its 
penalties on the domain of conscience, 
and the church's kingdom is "not of this 
world," and has no "carnal weapons," but 
relies on the power of truth, on conscience, 

425 



PER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PER 



and the Spirit of God, Luke 9:53-55; John 
18:36; 2 Cor. 10:4. 

PER'SIA proper, probably intended in 
Ezek. 38:5, extended from the Persian Gulf 
north to Media, between Carmania on the 
east and Elam or Susiana on the west. The 
country and name are represented by the 
division of modern Persia, called Fars or 
Farsistan. The southern low tract on the 
gulf is sandy and unproductive ; but north 
of this is a mountainous region, with beau- 
tiful and fertile valleys and plains, avera- 
ging about 4,000 feet above the sea. The 
chief cities were Pasargadae, the older cap- 
ital, now Murgab, where the reputed tomb 
of Cyrus is shown, and Persepolis, the la- 
ter capital, founded by Darius Hystaspis, 
and burned by Alexander the Great when 
drunk, B. C. 330. 

Other Scripture passages refer to the 
Persian Empire, whose greatest extent was 
from the Indus to Thrace, and from the 
Black and Caspian Seas to the Indian 
Ocean, Persian Gulf, and Egypt, including 
all Western Asia and parts of Europe and 
Africa. 

Persia proper was occupied by the Per- 
sians, an Aryan people akin to the Medes, 
after B. C. 880, when they are first men- 
tioned in Assyrian inscriptions. They mi- 
grated from east of the Caspian Sea, and 
were led into Persia by Achaemenes, B. C. 
700. The Persian kingdom became tribu- 
tary to the Medes about B. C. 630. In 558 
Cyrus, son of Cambyses king of Elam, 
revolted, and in 550, having added the do- 
minions of the Medes to his own, he began 
a career of conquest which extended his 
sway from the Indus to the iEgean Sea, 
thus founding the 2d great world-kingdom, 
Dan. 2:32; 7:5; 8:1-4; Isa. 44:28; 45 :I ~4- 
He conquered Babylon, B. C. 538, and fol- 
lowing his conciliatory policy issued a de- 
cree authorizing the return of the captive 
Jews and the rebuilding of the temple, 2 Chr. 
6:20-23; Ezra 1:1-4. His son and succes- 
sor Cambyses, B. C. 529, the " Ahasuerus" 
of Ezra 4 : 6, conquered Egypt, which in sub- 
sequent reigns repeatedly revolted. The 
usurper Pseudo-Smerdis, B. C. 522, " Arta- 
xerxes," forbade the building of the tem- 
ple, Ezra 4:7-24. Under his deposer and 
successor Darius Hystaspis, B. C. 521-485, 
the temple was completed, Ezra 4:5, 24; 
5:1-6; 6:15; Hag. 1:1; Zech. 1:1; 7:1. In 
this reign Shushan (see) became the cap- 
ital of the Persian Empire. Persia was 
defeated by the Greeks at Marathon, B. C. 
490. Darius' successor, B. C. 485-465, was 
426 



the " fourth king" of Dan. it :2, the Xerxes 
who invaded Greece B. C. 480, and suf- 
fered defeat at Salamis, the "Ahasuerus " 
of Esther. He was followed first by the 
usurper Artabanus, then by his son Arta- 
xerxes Longimanus, B. C. 464-424, Ezra 
7:1, 11-26; Neh. 2:1-8, in whose reign the 
walls of Jerusalem were restored, Neh. 
2:11 to 6:15. Of his successors, the last, 
Darius Codomanus, B. C. 335, is probably 
referred to in Neh. 12:22; he was subdued 
and slain by Alexander the Great, B. C. 
330, and thus the Persian Empire ended, 
Dan. 8:5-7, 2 °- After Alexander's death 
Persia was ruled by the Seleucid&e until 
annexed to the Parthian Empire, B. C. 164 ; 
was independent under the Sassanidae, A. 
D. 226; in A. D. 642 was conquered by the 
Arabs, who established Mohammedanism. 
It was overrun by the Tartars under Jen- 
ghis Khan in 1206, by Tamerlane in 1380, 
and by the Turks in the 16th century. The 
present Turkoman dynasty, whose capital 
is Teheran, was established in 1796. 

The ancient Persians were witty, brave, 
and comparatively truthful, but passionate, 
vain, and fickle. Their language, like that 
of the Medes, was akin to the Sanscrit. Its 
earliest forms appear in their sacred wri- 
tings, the Zendavesta ; modern Persian is 
derived from it, but has a large mixture of 
Arabic. The Persians worshipped Or- 
muzd, the good spirit and giver of life, and 
feared Ahriman, the inflicter of all evil. 
They also recognized inferior spirits, good 
and bad. They used no images, and their 
worship was originally simple, without al- 
tars, sacrifices, or priests, but became cor- 
rupted by Magianism, the religion of Scyth- 
ic tribes, from whom the immigrating Per- 
sians adopted the worship of the elements, 
especially fire, the Magian ceremonial, and 
divination, and special worship of the sun, 
Mithra, and the moon, Homa. 

Modern Persia, or Iran, is bounded north 
by the Caspian Sea and Russia, west by 
Asiatic Turkey, south by the Persian Gulf. 
Strait of Or muz, and Gulf of Oman, east by 
Beloochistan and Afghanistan. It has an 
area of 550,000 square miles, and a popula- 
tion of perhaps 10,000,000. The sovereign 
or Shah is leader of the unorthodox or 
Sheah sect of Mohammedans, including 
9-ioths of the population. The rest are 
Armenian and Nestorian Christians, Jews, 
and about 5,000 Parsees, representing the 
ancient religion. The people are described 
as handsome, intellectual, social, untruth- 
ful, and polite— "the French of the East." 



PER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PET 



In 1833 the American Board established 
a mission among the Nestorians, whose 
ancient church was sunk in superstition 
and ritualism. The mission was trans- 
ferred to the Presbyterian Board in 1871. 
It has met with encouraging success — ex- 
tending to Jews and Armenians, and even 
Moslems, who are beginning to be more 
accessible than formerly to Christian influ- 
ences. Well-administered European and 
American charities in times of famine have 
operated favorably in creating a feeling 
favorable to Christianity as well as in sav- 
ing many lives. 

PER'SIS, Persian, a Christian woman at 
Rome, whom Paul salutes, Rom. 16:12. 

PES'TILENCE, Exod. 5:3; 9:15, or 
PLAGUE, Exod. 9:14, in the Bible ex- 
pressed all sorts of distempers and calam- 
ities, the former word in the A. V. rep- 
resenting the Hebrew word translated 
"plagues" in Hos. 13:14, and "mur- 
rain" in Exod. 9:3; Psa. 78:50, margin. 
"" Plague " in the A. V. is the rendering of 
4 other Hebrew and 2 Greek words, all in- 
volving the idea of a stroke or blow, as 
from God, 2 Sam. 24 : 16. Compare ( 1 ) Num. 
16 : 48-50; (2) Lev. 26 : 21 ; Num. 11 -.23; 
(3) Exod. 11 :i; Lev. 13:2, etc.; (4) Num. 
16:46; (5) Mark 3:10; (6) Rev. 9:20; 11:6. 
Pestilence is appropriately called " the 
sword of the Lord," 1 Chr. 21:12, and is 
associated with war and famine, Lev. 26:25, 
26; 2 Sam. 24:13-15. A "pestilent fellow," 
Acts 24:5, is a corrupting plague. 

It cannot be determined that there is any 
reference in the Bible to the specific conta- 
gious and destructive disease now called 
*'the plague," which has in modern times 
ravaged Egypt and other Oriental coun- 
tries, and which is considered to be a viru- 
lent typhus attended by severe eruptions. 
In the 14th century "the black death" 
overran Europe, Asia, and Africa, and 2*5,- 
000,000 are estimated to have died of it 
within 3 years. 

PES'TLE, Prov. 27:22. See Mortars. 

PE'TER, Gr. PET'ROS, Syr. CE'PHAS, 
stone or rock, one of the 12 apostles, and, 
with James and John, one of the 3 most 
intimately associated with our Lord. He 
was probably a native of Bethsaida, John 
1:44, and was the son of Jonas or John, a 
fisherman, and brother of Andrew, a fel- 
low-apostle. His original name was Simon 
or Simeon, Matt. 16:17; Acts 15:14, and 
the name Cephas was prophetically given 
to him when first introduced to Jesus in 
Peraea by Andrew, John 1:28, 35, 40-42. 



He was called to go with Christ when la- 
boring at his trade as a fisherman, on the 
Sea of Galilee near Capernaum, with his 
brother Andrew and their partners James 
and John, Matt. 4:18-22; Mark 1:16-20; 
Luke 5:1-11, and learned to be a "fisher 
of men." His residence was then at Ca- 
pernaum, with his brother, his wife, and 
his mother-in-law, Matt. 8:14; Mark 1:21, 
29-31. He seems to have left a considera- 
ble business and a comfortable home to 
follow Christ, Mark 10:28. After continu- 
ing with the disciples for some time he was 
chosen and commissioned as one of the 
12 apostles, Matt. 10:1-11; Mark 3:13-19; 
Luke 6:12-16, when his name Cephas or 
Peter seems to have been reconferred. It 
was confirmed when with the other apos- 
tles he so boldly avowed the Messiahship 
and divinity of Christ, Matt. 16: 16-18. The 
name, petros, and Christ's declaration, 
" Upon this rock," petra, etc., were pro- 
phetic of the special work and prominent 
position of Peter as a confessor of Christ 
in the earliest age of the church. He was 
the spokesman of the apostles on the day 
of Pentecost, when 3,000 Jewish converts 
were added to the church, Acts 2; and he 
was divinely chosen to receive the Gentiles 
into the Christian church at the conversion 
of Cornelius, Acts 10:11; 15:7; compare 
1 Cor. 3:11; Eph. 2 : 20-22 ; Rev. 21:14. The 
churchly powers conferred upon him were 
subsequently bestowed on the disciples 
generally, Matt. 18:18. His ardent, impul- 
sive, hopeful, and energetic temperament, 
with his liability to overestimation of him- 
self and to inconsistency and change, are 
illustrated by many remarkable incidents 
recorded in the Gospels, among which we 
may mention his errors as to the design of 
Christ's incarnation, for which he was se- 
verely rebuked, Matt. 16:21-23; hi s warm 
attachment to the divine Teacher, John 
6:67-69; his boastful pledge to adhere to 
his Master under all circumstances, his 
subsequent denial of him with oaths, and 
his poignant repentance, Matt. 26:31-35, 
69-75; Mark 14:27-31, 66-72; Luke 22:31- 
34, 54-62; John 13:36-38; 18:15-18, 25-27. 
He was the first of the apostles to behold 
Jesus after his resurrection, Luke 24:34; 
1 Cor. 15:5; he was afterwards solemnly 
commissioned by Christ on his utterance 
of a 3-fold assurance of his love, corre- 
sponding to his 3-fold denial, John 21:15- 
19. The death and resurrection of Christ, 
and the accompanying circumstances, led 
to a marked change in the apostle's mind, 

427 



PET 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PET 



and thenceforward his course was, almost 
without exception, bold and steadfast, and 
worthy of his name. He is prominent in 
word and deed through the first 12 chap- 
ters of the Acts. After his miraculous re- 
lease from prison, about A. D. 44, we lose 
sight of him till A. D. 50, when he appears 
at the council at Jerusalem, and though he 
does not preside, contributes to the settle- 
ment of the important question of the rela- 
tion of the Gentile Christians to the Mosaic 
law, Acts 15. Two years later, Paul, who 
speaks of himself as in no way inferior or 
subordinate to Peter, Gal. 1:15-18; 2:6-9, 
rebuked him for inconsistent conduct at 
Antioch, Gal. 2:11, etc.; a rebuke which 
did not permanently disturb the affection 
which Peter cherished for his " beloved 
brother Paul," 2 Pet. 3:15. Paul mentions 
him again, A. D. 57, as engaged in mission- 
ary labors, in company with his wife, 1 Cor. 
9:5, perhaps among the dispersed Jews 
in Asia Minor, 1 Pet. 1:1. Peter seems to 
have labored at Corinth, 1 Cor. 1:12; 3:22, 
and at Babylon, 1 Pet. 5:13. Papal wri- 
ters affirm that he was the bishop of Rome, 
and resided there 25 years. But the evi- 
dence is strongly against this assertion. 
Paul does not mention Peter in the Epistle 
to the Romans, written A. D. 58, though 
he sends courteous salutations to leading 
Christians there, men and women ; nor does 
it appear from the inspired narrative in 
the Acts, or from Paul's numerous epistles 
from Rome— in which he sends the saluta- 
tions of many Roman believers— that Peter 
was there in 61, when Paul arrived there, 
or during Paul's imprisonment there, 61-63, 
Acts 28: 14-31, or that Peter had previously 
been there at all. It is, however, the testi- 
mony of ancient Christian writers that Pe- 
ter suffered martyrdom at Rome at or about 
the same time as Paul, though the exact 
date is not given. His death may possibly 
have occurred in 64, during the Neronian 
persecution, after the great fire, but rather 
in 67 or 68. He is said to have been cruci- 
fied, thus following the Lord in the mode 
of his death, John 21:18, 19. Origen says 
that at his own request, under a feeling of 
his unworthiness, he was crucified head 
downward. There is no evidence in the 
Bible that Peter had any supremacy over 
the other apostles, compare Acts 6:1-6; 
8:14; 15:13, 22; 1 Cor. 1:12, 13; 3:21, 22; 
Gal. 2:1, 2, 6-9, 1 1, or any successor in that 
influence naturally accorded to him as one 
of the oldest, most active, and most faith- 
ful of those who had " seen the Lord." 
428 



The Gospel of Mark, whom Peter calls 
his "son," 1 Pet. 5:13, is believed to have 
been written under the influence of Peter. 
See Mark. 

Epistles of Peter. We have 2 epis- 
tles attributed to Peter by the common 
consent of the Christian church. The gen- 
uineness of the first has never been dis- 
puted; it is referred to as his accredited 
work by several of the apostolic fathers. 
It was addressed to Christian churches in 
Asia Minor, composed primarily of con- 
verted Jews and proselytes, but including 
many converts from paganism, 1 Pet. 4:3* 
It was written probably at Babylon on the 
Euphrates, 1 Pet. 5 : 13. See Babylon. 
Some, however, interpret this of Rome, and 
others of a petty town in Egypt called Bab- 
ylon, near Old Cairo. The "fiery trials" 
through which the church was then passing 
are supposed to have been the persecu- 
tions in the later years of Nero's reign, 
which terminated A. D. 68. Peter exhorts 
them to faith, obedience, and patience, in 
view of the truth of the gospel and the cer- 
tainty of salvation in Christ. 

The 2d epistle was addressed to the same 
persons as the former one ; its general de- 
sign being to confirm the doctrines which 
had been delivered in that, and to excite 
the Christian converts to a course of con- 
duct becoming in every respect their high 
profession of attachment to Christ. This 
epistle was less confidently ascribed to the 
great "apostle of the circumcision" by the 
early church than the first epistle. There 
is no sufficient ground, however, for doubt- 
ing its canonical authority, or that Peter 
was its author, 2 Pet. 1:1, 18; 3:1. Com- 
pare also 1 Pet. 3:20; 2 Pet. 2:5. In many 
passages it resembles the Epistle of Jude. 
Both epistles attest the harmony between 
the doctrines of Peter and Paul, and by 
their humble, meek, patient, and lovely 
spirit show the mastery of divine grace in 
the writers. "The faith expounded by 
Paul kindles into fervent hope in the words 
of Peter, and expands into sublime love in 
those of John." 

PE'THOR, interpretation, the residence 
of Balaam in Mesopotamia, and probably 
on the Euphrates, Num. 22:5; Deut. 23:4. 
Its site is unknown. 

PHA'LEC, Luke 3:35, Peleg, as in R. V. 

PHAL'TI, or PHAL'TIEL, whom God de- 
livers, son of Laish, of Gallim, to whom for 
policy Saul gave David's wife. See Mi- 
chal. He seems to have loved her devo- 
tedly, 1 Sam. 25:44; 2 Sam. 3:15, 16. 



PHA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PHA 



PHANU'EL, whom God beholds, Luke 
2:36. 

PHA'RAOH, the general title of the Egyp- 
tian kings. It was formerly thought to be 
compounded from the Egyptian article, Pi 
or Ph, and Ra, the sun, the king being re- 
garded as the earthly representative of the 
sun-god ; or of the article Ph and the Cop- 
tic word ouro, king. But recent Egyptolo- 
gists translate it the great house, equiva- 
lent to the Turkish "the sublime porte." 
In the still uncertain state of Egyptian 
chronology, and of Bible chronology before 
Solomon, it is difficult to identify the Pha- 
raohs of the Old Testament with kings 
whose proper names are known to us from 
other sources. Thirty royal dynasties, ex- 
tending from Menes, the first king, to Nec- 
tanebo II., the last native ruler, Ezek. 
30:13, dethroned at the 2d Persian con- 
quest, B. C. 343, are enumerated by Mane- 
tho, an Egyptian priest and historian, B. 
C. 300-250. Some of these were, however, 
contemporary kings of different parts of 
Egypt. The term Pharaoh is applied to 
all the Egyptian kings mentioned in Scrip- 
ture except 4. 

1. The Pharaoh of Abraham, whose visit 
to Egypt, Gen. 12:15-20, occurred during 
the period of the Hyksos or Shepherd- 
kings — Semitic foreigners who conquered 
Egypt, and ruled at least Lower Egypt for 
several centuries, including the 15th, 16th, 
and 17th dynasties. The common chronol- 
ogy dates this visit B. C. 1920. R. S. Poole 
of the British Museum dates it at B. C. 2080, 
and under the reign of Salatis, the head of 
the 15th dynasty. 

2. The Pharaoh of Joseph, Gen. 37:36; 
39 to 50. Joseph may have arrived in 
Egypt B. C. 1728, under an earlier king 
than the one who exalted him, B. C. 1715. 
Eusebius says the latter was Apophis ; and 
the date of his reign is given by some as 
B. C. 1876-1850. H. Brugsch, the learned 
Egyptologist, claims to have found in the 
tomb of Baba — time of the Shepherd- 
kings — an undoubted reference to Joseph 
and the 7 years of famine: "I gathered 
grain as were I a friend of the gods of the 
harvests. . . . And when a famine arose 
that lasted many years, then I distributed 
grain to the city in its distress." 

3. The Pharaoh of the Oppression, un- 
der whom Moses was born, Exod. 1:8 to 
2:23; Acts 7:18-20; Heb. 11:23, B. C. 1571. 
Biblical scholars and Egyptologists now 
identify this king with Rameses II., whose 
date Lepsius gives as B. C. 1388-1322. He 



was the 3d king of the 19th dynasty, was 
called by the Greeks Sesostris, and was 
the most famous of all the Pharaohs, a 
mighty conqueror in Africa, Asia, and Eu- 
rope, and an extensive builder. His stat- 
ues and temples are found throughout the 
Nile valley from Zoan to Nubia. The 
mummy of Rameses II., with many others 
of royal and priestly persons, was discov- 
ered in 1881 in a rock-chamber on the west 
bank of the Nile at Deir el-Bahari, near 
Thebes, and transferred to the Boulak Mu- 
seum at Cairo. It is he who is depicted as 
slaughtering prisoners on p. 150. 

4. It may be, however, that the Pharaoh 
of Moses' exile to Midian at the age of 40, 
Exod. 2:11-22, was distinct both from the 
king under whose reign he was born, and 
from the Pharaoh of the Exodus, when 
Moses was 80 )'ears old ; and that this Pha- 
raoh of Moses in Midian was Rameses II. 

5. The Pharaoh of the Exodus, Exod. 
2:23 to 15:19; 2 Kin. 17:7; Neh. 9:10; Psa. 
135:9; i3 6:I 5; Rom. 9:17; Heb. 11:27. 
B. C. 1491. He is generally identified with 
Meneptha I., the son and successor of Ra- 
meses II. His reign, according to the 
monuments, was inglorious, and he died 
without finishing his father's tomb. A 
monument at Tanis mentions his loss of a 
son, which Dr. Brugsch connects with the 
death of the first-born. The many-cham- 
bered and painted tombs of the Pharaohs 
of the 18th, 19th, and 20th dynasties cata- 
comb the limestone hills near Thebes. 
Thence, it is believed, the newly-discov- 
ered mummies were removed to the cavern 
where they were found, to secure them after 
the downfall of the Rameses dynasty. 

6. The Pharaoh whose daughter Bithiah 
became the wife of Mered, of the tribe of 
Judah, 1 Chr. 4:18. 

7. The Pharaoh in David's time, who 
married his wife's sister to Hadad the 
Edomite, 1 Kin. 11:14-22. About B. C. 
1030. See Tahapanes. 

8. Pharaoh, whose daughter Solomon 
took to wife, B. C. ion, 1 Kin. 3:1, and 
who took Gezer from the Canaanites and 
presented it to his daughter, 1 Kin. 9:16. 
This king and No. 7 probably belonged to 
the 21st or Tanite dynasty in Lower Egypt. 

9. Shishak, near the end of Solomon's 
reign and during Rehoboam's, B. C. 975. 
See Shishak. 

10. Zerah, king of Egypt and Ethiopia 
in the time of Asa, B. C. 930. See Zerah. 

11. So, or Sevechus, contemporary with 
Ahaz, B. C. 738, 2 Kin. 17:4. See So. 

429 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PHA 



12. Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia and Egypt 
in the time of Hezekiah, B. C. 720, 2 Kin. 
19:9; Isa. 37:9. See Tirhakah. 

13. The Pharaoh in whom king Hezekiah 
trusted, in his war with Sennacherib, 2 Kin. 
18:21, about B. C. 712. This was probably 
the Sethos of Herodotus, the Zet of Mane- 
tho, last king of the 23d dynasty. A bent 
reed is the hieroglyphic sign of the king of 
Upper Egypt. 

14. Pharaoh - nechoh, or simply Necho, 
B. C. 612-596, in the time of king Josiah, 
2 Kin. 23:29, 30; 2 Chr. 35:20-24; Jer. 46. 
See Necho. 

15. Pharaoh - hophra, about B. C. 590- 
570, grandson and 2d successor of Necho, 
is the Apries of Herodotus and Diodorus. 
Early in his reign he subdued Phoenicia, 
taking Zidon, and returned to Egypt with 
great spoil. Zedekiah, the last king of 
Judah, sought his help in rebelling against 
Nebuchadnezzar, Ezek. 17:11-17. His ad- 
vance caused the Babylonians, who were 
besieging Jerusalem, to draw off their for- 
ces ; but they soon returned and captured 
Jerusalem, B. C. 588, the Egyptians aban- 
doning their allies, Jer. 34:1; 37:5-11; 
2 Kin. 25 : 1-4. Nebuchadnezzar afterwards 
successfully invaded Egypt, Jer. 46:13-26; 
Ezek. 30:20-25. Pharaoh-hophra was de- 
posed by his subjects after a disastrous 
expedition against Cyrene. His successor 
Amasis at first treated him kindly, but was 
finally compelled by the popular sentiment 
to strangle him, Jer. 44:30. Hophra's ar- 
rogance, as depicted by Jeremiah and by 
Ezekiel, ch. 29-32, is described by Herodo- 
tus also. 




Pharaoh's Daughter, i. The preser- 
ver of Moses, Exod. 2:5-10; Acts 7: 20, 21.— 
430 



2. Bithiah, the wife of Mered, 1 Chr. 4:18. — 

3. A wife of Solomon, 1 Kin. 3:1; 7:8; 9 : 24 ; 
2 Chr. 8:11. She was treated with distinc- 
tion, but apparently remained an idola- 
tress. 

The cut, from an ancient Egyptian mon- 
ument, is believed to be a genuine likeness 
of some Pharaoh's daughter, probably Shi- 
shak's. 

PHA'REZ, a breach, son of Judah and 
Tamar, twin brother of Zarah, Gen. 38:29; 
46:12, and ancestor of the great family of 
Pharzites, Num. 26:20; Ruth 4:12, 18; 

1 Chr. 9:4; called Perez, Neh. 11:4, 6, and 
Phares, Matt. 1:3; Luke 3:33, A. V. 

PHAR'ISEES, separated, a numerous and 
dominant party of the Jews, in New Testa- 
ment times the orthodox exponents and 
defenders of the law, as contrasted with the 

2 other sects, the Sadducees and Essenes. 
The Pharisees agreed on main points of 
doctrine and practice, but were divided 
into different schools on minor points, un- 
der leaders such as Hillel and Shammai,. 
celebrated rabbins of the generation pre- 
ceding Christ. The origin of the Pharisees 
is obscure, but they were probably a con- 
tinuation of the Assideans — " the pious " — 
a party existing at the time of the Maccabe- 
an rising, zealous for the external obser- 
vance of the law, 1 Mace. 2:42; 7:13; 2 Mace. 
14:6, in opposition to the Hellenizing fac- 
tion, who favored conforming to heathen 
practices — yielding to their Syrian rulers, 
who sought thus to amalgamate, by perse- 
cution, if needful, the different nationali- 
ties under their sway, 1 Mace. 1:41-64. 
This position of orthodoxy and intense na- 
tionalism was maintained by the Pharisees 
in our Lord's day, though the former had 
degenerated into an empty formalism, Matt. 
23, and the latter into an unreasonable spir- 
it of rebellion. At the accession of Herod 
6,000 of them at first refused the oath of 
allegiance, and the Pharisees organized the 
desperate resistance to the Romans which 
resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem 
and the slaughter or dispersion of the Jew- 
ish people. The popularity and influence 
of the Pharisees may be ascribed to their 
political attitude as well as to their pro- 
fessed sanctity and close adherence to the 
external forms of piety. 

While they esteemed the written books 
of the Old Testament, they attributed equal 
authority to traditional precepts supple- 
mental to the written law, claiming that 
God had communicated them to Moses for 
oral transmission; see Tradition; and 



PHA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PHI 



they finally exalted these precepts, chiefly 
as to external rites, above the written law, 
whose spirit they often violated by their 
rigid application of its letter and their tra- 
ditional and philosophical interpretations, 
Matt. 12:1-8; 15:1-9. Besides this belief 
in traditions, which the Sadducees reject- 
ed, they differed from the Sadducees in 
holding the immortality of the soul and the 
resurrection of the body, Acts 23:8, the 
doctrine of future rewards and punish- 
ments, and of a divine Providence cooper- 
ating with human free-will, Acts 5: 34-39. 

While the Pharisees scrupulously tithed 
the most trifling products, they disobeyed 
the divine requirements of justice, mercy, 
and humility, Matt. 23:23; compare Mic. 
6:8; while they rigidly fasted at fixed times, 
they neglected that abstinence from selfish- 
ness which God commands, Luke 18:12; 
Matt. 23:14; compare Isa. 58:6-10; and 
while they carefully practised external ab- 
lutions of the person and of utensils, they 
were unmindful of purity of heart, Matt. 
23:25-28; Mark 7:4-23. They taxed the 
conscience of the people with puerile ques- 
tions, such as whether it was lawful to eat 
an egg laid on the Sabbath, or of what ma- 
terial the wick of the Sabbath lamp should 
be made, Matt. 23:4. 

Though Christ recognized the authority 
of their Scriptural teachings, Matt. 23:2, 3, 
he repeatedly rebuked their unscriptural 
traditions and their pride, covetousness, 
ostentation, and hypocrisy, Luke 16:14, J 5', 
and thereby he incurred their hatred, for 
the gratification of which they allied them- 
selves with their political and religious op- 
ponents, Herodians and Sadducees, Matt. 
22 : 15-34. They formed a part of the coun- 
cil that sentenced him to death, Matt. 26:59- 
68 with Acts 23:6. 

On the other hand, there appear to have 
been among them individuals of probity 
and even of genuine piety, such as Joseph 
of Arimathaea, Nicodemus, and others, Luke 
2 3 : 5°-53 ; J° hn 3 : 1 J 7 : 5<=>, 5i • Saul of Tar- 
sus was a Pharisee, Acts 26:5; Gal. 1:14. 
The essential features of their character 
are still common in Christian lands, and 
are no less odious to Christ than of old. 

PHAR'PAR, rapid. See Abana. 

PHE'BE, rather PHCE'BE, a Christian 
woman, apparently a deaconess of the 
church at Cenchrea, and bearer of Paul's 
Epistle to the Romans, to whose Christian 
confidence and care he commends her and 
her mission, Rom. 16:1, 2. One who, like 
Phoebe, succors a faithful servant of Christ, 



may thereby aid in accomplishing immeas- 
urable good. See Cenchrea and Dea- 
coness. 

PHE'NICE (by some PHENI'CE) or Phce- 
nice, I., the proper form for Phoenicia, 
which see, Acts 11:19; 15:3. 

II. A town and harbor of Crete, more 
properly Phcenix, as in R. V. The name 
is the Greek for the date-palm, a tree indig- 
enous to the island. The town, lying on 
the southwest coast, had a safe winter har- 
bor, which the ship bearing Paul vainly 
tried to reach after leaving Fair Havens, 
Acts 27:8-15. The harbor of Lutro, with 
which Phoenix has been identified, is about 
35 miles west-northwest from Cape Mata- 
la; it is of good depth, and sheltered from 
winter winds. 

PHI'CHOL, apparently the title rather 
than the name of the head of the army of 
the king of Gerar in the time of Abraham 
and Isaac, Gen. 21:22; 26:26. 

PHILADELPHIA, brotherly love, the seat 
of one of the 7 churches, Rev. 1 : 1 1 ; 3 : 7-13, 
was a city of Lydia, on the border near 
Phrygia, and about 27 miles southeast of 
Sardis. It was on the lower slopes of Mount 
Tmolus, in a volcanic region frequently 
visited and desolated by earthquakes. It 
was named for its founder, Attalus Phila- 
delphus, king of Pergamos, who died B. C. 
138. With the rest of the province of Asia 
it was bequeathed to Rome by the last king 
of Pergamos, B. C. 133.* It was taken by 
the Turks under Bajazet I., A. D. 1392, after 
a brave and long resistance. The church 
here was highly commended by Christ for 
its fidelity, and the preservation of the city 
in spite of earthquakes and wars is note- 
worthy. In the 4th century its churches 
were represented in the Councils of Nice, 
Laodicaea, and Constantinople. It escaped 
the ravages of Tamerlane, who destroyed 
the seats of the other 6 churches, and it 
then afforded an asylum to Christian refu- 
gees from Sardis. The modern city covers 
4 or 5 flat summits at the foot of Mount 
Tmolus, is mean and ill-built, and has a 
population of about 10,000, mostly Turks, 
with some Greek Christians. One of the 
mosques is said to have been the very 
church in which the Christians addressed 
by John worshipped. The ruins include 
about 20 churches. A solitary pillar is one 
of the most conspicuous remains, remind- 
ing the beholder of the promise in Rev. 
3: 12. The modern name of the city is Alah 
Shehr, "beautiful city," from its pictur- 
esque site. 

431 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PHI 



PHILE'MON, affectionate, a resident of 
Colossae, apparently a man of means and 
influence and of marked Christian charac- 
ter, warm sympathy, and large hospitality 
and beneficence. He was converted by 
the instrumentality of Paul, who after- 
wards, near the close of his first imprison- 
ment at Rome, A. D. 62 or 63, wrote to 
him. 

PHILE'MON, EPISTLE TO. The occa- 
sion of this letter, written at the same time 
as those to the Ephesians and Colossians, 
was the penitent return of Onesimus, an 
escaped slave, converted at Rome under 
the teaching of Paul, to his master Phile- 
mon, whose kind reception of him as a 
brother in Christ Paul bespeaks as a favor 
to himself. Compare Col. 3:23 to 4:1 with 
Phile. 7-9. This epistle, which is undoubt- 
edly genuine, is admirable for its Christian 
courtesy, delicacy, and manliness. See 
Onesimus and Colossi. 

PHILE'TUS, beloved, one against whom 
Paul warns Timothy, associating him with 
Hymenaeus as a holder and teacher of er- 
ror, 2 Tim. 2:16-18. See Hymeinleus. It 
has been suggested by Waterland that they 
regarded the doctrine of the resurrection 
as an allegory, " resolving it all into figure 
and metaphor." 

PHIL'IP, lover of horses, I., the tetrarch, 
Luke 3:1. See Herod, V. 

II. The husband of Herodias, Matt. 14:3. 
See Herod, II. 

III. The apostle, a native of Bethsaida, a 
disciple at first of John the Baptist, and one 
of the 12 who were earliest called to follow 
Christ, Matt. 10:3; John 1:43-48; Acts 1:13. 
He is several times mentioned in the Gos- 
pels, John 6:5-7; 12:21,22; 14:8-10. Tra- 
dition says that he preached the gospel in 
Phrygia and died at Hierapolis. 

IV. The evangelist; one of the 7 first 
deacons in the primitive church at Jerusa- 
lem, Acts 6:1-6. When the Christians, ex- 
cept the apostles, were driven from Jerusa- 
lem by persecution after Stephen's death, 
Philip went to Samaria, where he preached 
the gospel with great success and wrought 
many miracles, " amazing " the sorcerer 
Simon, Acts 8:1-13, R. V. From populous 
Samaria Philip was divinely sent to a lone- 
ly spot, on that one of the roads between 
Jerusalem and Gaza which led through 
a region then comparatively unsettled. 
There he was to accost an Ethiopian of 
high rank, a proselyte to Judaism and a 
student of the Bible, on his way home from 
one of the Jewish festivals, and was suc- 

432 



cessful in leading him to Christ, the Holy 
Spirit presently confirming his faith by 
miraculously removing Philip. From Azo- 
tus he preached the gospel through the in- 
tervening towns to Caesarea, where, 18 or 
19 years later, Paul and his companions 
were his guests for a time, Acts 8:26-40; 
21:8-10. He had 4 daughters endowed 
with the gift of prophecy; compare Acts 
2:17. 

PHILIP'PI, the chief city of Eastern 
Macedonia, was near the Thracian border, 
on a fertile plain between 2 mountain ran- 
ges. It derived its name from Philip of 
Macedon, who took it from the Thracians, 
B. C. 358, strongly fortified and garrisoned 
it, and resumed the working of the gold 
mines near it. The town had been called 
Datum, and still earlier Crenides, " foun- 
tains," from its copious springs. Philippi 
was the "first" city reached after leaving 
its seaport Neapolis, Acts 16:12, R. V., 
northwest of which it lay, at about 10 miles' 
distance, by the Via Egnatia, a paved Ro- 
man road over a steep height called Sym- 
bolum. On the plain of Philippi was fought 
the famous battle in which Brutus and Cas- 
sius were overthrown by Octavius and 
Antony, B. C. 42. Later, when Octavius 
had become the Emperor Augustus, he 
transported Roman citizens to Philippi and 
made it a "colony" — a miniature Rome, 
where Roman laws, customs, and language 
prevailed, the people were governed by 
their own magistrates, and possessed the 
rights of Roman citizens. 

Here began the triumphs of the gospel 
in Europe. The first convert to the preach- 
ing of Paul and Silas, divinely sent hither 
from Troas, A. D. 51, was the proselyte 
Lydia. The missionaries having excited 
the opposition of mercenary men by a mi- 
raculous exorcism wrought through Paul 
on a slave girl, were cruelly scourged and 
imprisoned. Compare 1 Thess. 2:2. But 
their bonds were miraculously loosed, their 
jailer was converted, and the magistrates 
discharged them with honor ; they proceed- 
ed southwestward to Amphipolis, Acts 16:8 
to 17:1. Luke parted company with Paul 
here, but was with him here again, A. D. 
58, on Paul's 5th and last visit to Jerusa- 
lem, Acts 20:3-6. The Christians of Phi- 
lippi partook of the spirit of the generous 
and true-hearted Lydia ; on several occa- 
sions they sent contributions to the sup- 
port of Paul, Phil. 2:25; 4:15, 16, 18, with 
4:10; 2 Cor. 8:1. He wrote to them dur- 
ing his first imprisonment at Rome, A. D. 



PHI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PHI 



62 or 63, when he hoped to revisit them, 
Phil. 2:23, 24. Ignatius stopped at Philippi, 
A. D. 107, on his way from Antioch to mar- 
tyrdom at Rome. 

The ruins of the uninhabited city, now 
embraced in Turkey, include the citadel 
on a hill, traces of the city wall, and parts 
of the forum where Paul and Silas were 
scourged. On the west of Philippi is a 
small river, the Bournabachi, on whose 
bank was probably the Jewish place of 
prayer, Acts 16:13, there having perhaps 
been too few Jews in the city to maintain a 
synagogue. 

PHILIP'PIANS, EPISTLE TO THE. In 
this Paul commends their Christian 'zeal 
and firmness under persecution, informs 
them of his own temporal and spiritual 
condition, and of the progress of Christian- 
ity at Rome, gratefully acknowledges their 
continued affection to him, and the receipt 
of their gift by favor of Epaphroditus ; ex- 
horts them to unity and to a lowly and 
unselfish life, like Christ's, Phil. 2:1-5; 
warns them against Judaizing teachers and 
the example of worldly men, 3:1-19. This 
epistle, written by Paul while a prisoner at 
Rome, A. D. 62 or 63, is remarkable for its 
Christian joy and for the warm affection 
the apostle shows for the Philippian con- 
verts, 4:1. It contains important teach- 
ing as to the humiliation and exaltation of 
Christ, 2:5-11, and the resurrection of be- 
lievers, 3:21. The Philippian Christians 
are reminded that as believers in Christ 
they partake of a dignity and privileges 
far more exalted than those belonging to 
them as Roman citizens, Acts 16:12, and 
are exhorted to live worthily of their heav- 
enly citizenship, Phil. 3:20; 1:27, R. V. 
See Philippi. 

PHILIS'TIA, land of sojourners, Psa. 
60:8; 87:4; 108:9; in Psa. 83:7 "Philis- 
tines," and in all other passages " Pales- 
tine," the country inhabited by the Philis- 
tines, who are called by Josephus " Pales- 
tines." Philistia embraced the seacoast 
plain extending from Joppa and the plain 
of Sharon on the north, to the valley of 
Gerar and " the south country," and from 
the Mediterranean to the foot of the Judae- 
an hills. Its length was about 40 miles, its 
width 10 miles at the north, and about 20 
in the south, where it seems to have reached 
Beer-sheba, Gen. 21:33, 34; 26:1; Exod. 
2 3 : 3 1 ', Josh. 13:2, 3. Warren limited it to 
the plain between Ekron and Gaza, 32 miles 
long and 9 to 16 wide. 

On the shore are white sand-dunes, en- 
28 



croacTiing when neglected on the fertile 
ground. East of these is an undulating 
plain with deep, rich soil, from 50 to 3 jo 
feet above the sea. On the east of this 
plain low spurs jut out, and higher ridges 
run nearly north and south, falling off on 
the east side into a valley beyond which 
rises "the hill country" of Judah. The 
torrents which pour through its deep ra- 
vines in the rainy season form marshes 
and pools on reaching the Philistine plains, 
and sinking into the soil often find under- 
ground ways to the sea. The Hebrew 
name for this whole maritime plain was the 
Shephelah, translated the " low country" 
in 2 Chr. 26:10; 28:18; "low plains" in 
1 Chr. 27:28; 2 Chr. 9:27; "the plain," Jer. 
17:26, and "the valley," Josh. 11:16; Judg. 
1:9. Its fertility is frequently implied, 
Gen. 26:1, 2, 12; Judg. 15:5; 2 Kin. 8:2. 

The Philistines are generally believed to 
have been descendants of Ham's son Miz- 
raim. They are said to have migrated into 
Canaan from Caphtor, which is variously 
understood as Crete, Egypt, Cyprus, or 
Cappadocia, Jer. 47:4; Amos 9:7. They 
are doubtless the Caphtorim who supplant- 
ed the Avim, dwellers in Hazerim, the vil- 
lages, " even to Azzah," or Gaza, Deut. 2 : 23. 
In their migration they may have passed 
through the country of the Casluhim, prob- 
ably Lower Egypt, on their way from Crete 
to Canaan, Gen. 10:14. O n Egyptian mon- 




uments of about 1200 B. C. the Philistines 
are depicted as tall and well-proportioned, 
lighter in color than Egyptians, and with 
close-shaven faces. 

The Philistines with whom both Abraham 
and Isaac formed treaties appear as a pas- 
toral people in the far south, with a king or 
chief, and some sort of warlike organiza- 
tion, Gen. 20:1, 2, 14, 15; 21:22-34; 26:1,6, 
12-23, 26-31. It was apparently after this 
period that they, or fresh immigrants from 
Caphtor, dispossessed the Avim and seized 
Gaza, then a Canaanite town on the bor- 
der, Gen. 10:19. At the time of the Exode 
the Philistines were powerful and warlike, 

433 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PHI 



Exod. 13:17. Their country was included 
in the land promised to Israel, Num. 34:5, 
6, and was assigned to Judah and Dan, 
Josh. 15:45,47; 19:41-46. They formed a 
confederacy under the " lords " of their 5 
chief cities. No attempt to conquer them 
was made by Joshua, Josh. 13: 1-3, but after 
his death Judah took Gaza, Ashkelon, and 
Ekron, Judg. 1 : 18. These conquests, how- 
ever, were not permanent, Judg. 2:1-3, 11- 
14; 3:1-4/ The Philistines oppressed the 
Hebrews during the period of the Judges, 
Shamgar and Samson effecting only tem- 
porary deliverances, Judg. 3:31 ; 5:6-8, 11 ; 
10:6, 7; 13 to 16. Israel's resistance in 
Eli's last days was quelled by a Philistine 
victory at Aphek, where the ark was cap- 
tured ; but it was soon after restored, 1 Sam. 
4-6. Under Samuel the Philistines were 
again temporarily subdued, 1 Sam. 7:3-14; 
they were again dominant at Saul's acces- 
sion, ch. 9:16; 13, were defeated at Mich- 
mash, and driven out of the central terri- 
tory of Saul, ch. 14:1-7, 52. David's vic- 
tory over Goliath in the valley of Elah in- 
augurated a series of Hebrew successes 
in Saul's time, Avhose reign and life were 
however ended by the Philistine victory at 
Mount Gilboa, ch. 17; 18:30; 19:8; 23:1-5; 
29:1, 11; 31; 2 Sam. 1. David had twice 
sought refuge from* Saul in Philistia, 1 Sam. 
21:10-15; Psa. 34, title; 56, title; 1 Sam. 
27; 28:1, 2; 29:2-11. They made war upon 
him as king, but he was enabled to subdue 
them, 2 Sam. 5:17-25; 8:1, 11, 12. They 
continued in subjection to Solomon, 1 Kin. 
2:39, 40; 4:21, 24, and his son Rehoboam 
fortified Gath, 2 Chr. 11:8. After the divis- 
ion of Judah and Israel the Philistines were 
engaged in war at various times with both 
kingdoms, and gained great successes over 
Judah in Ahaz's time, 1 Kin. 16:15; 2 Chr. 
21:16, 17; 28:18. Jehoshaphat, Uzziah, and 
Hezekiah were successful against them, 
2 Chr. 17 : 10, 1 1 ; 26 : 6, 7 ; 2 Kin. 18 : 8. Gath, 
omitted from the prophetic denunciations 
of the other cities, appears to have early 
lost its power, 2 Chr. 26:6; Amos 6:2. 

Philistia, being on the route between 
Assyria and Egypt, was often overrun in 
their wars and subdued by each in turn. 
After Egyptian successes in Philistia, Sar- 
gon the Assyrian took Ashdod, B. C. 700. 
Psammetichus I. of Egypt besieged Ash- 
dod 29 years, and finally took it about B. C. 
635. At nearly the same time Ashkelon 
suffered from a Scythian horde returning 
from an invasion of Egypt. Nebuchadnez- 
zar probably reduced the Philistines as 
434 



well as Phoenicia and the Holy Land dur- 
ing the siege of Tyre, ending B. C. 592. 
Pharaoh-hophra took Gaza, Jer. 47 : 1 . The 
Philistine kingdom had dwindled away 
before the captivity of Judah. Ezekiel de- 
nounced them for their hostility to Judah 
at that time, Ezek. 25:15-17. After the re- 
turn, some of the Jews married Philistine 
women, Neh. 13:23, 24. The nation was 
included in the Persian Empire. Alexan- 
der the Great destroyed Gaza, which with- 
stood him 5 months. The land afforded 
aid and refuge to Syrian oppressors of the 
Jews, and suffered from the arms of Ju- 
das Maccabeus and his brother Jonathan. 
1 Mace. 3:24, 41 ; 5:66, 68; 10:69-87. Pom- 
pey annexed Philistia to the province of 
Syria, B. C. 63, but Gaza, Jamnia, Ashdod, 
and Ashkelon were assigned to Herod. 
The country shared in the desolations of 
the Jewish and Roman wars. The denun- 
ciatory predictions of Amos, 1:6-8, and 
Isaiah, 14:29-31, in the 8th century B. C. ; 
of Zephaniah, 2:5, and Jeremiah, 25:15-20; 
47, in the 7th century; of Ezekiel, 25:15-17, 
and Obadiah, 19, in the 6th century, and of 
Zechariah, 9:5, 6, in the 5th century, ap- 
pear to have been abundantly fulfilled. 

The Philistines excelled in war, having 
powerful forces of chariots and cavalry as 
well as foot-soldiers, well armed, 1 Sam. 
17:4-7. They were also skilled in agricul- 
ture and other peaceful arts, Judg. 15:5; 
1 Sam. 13:20; and possessed a navy, as 
the Egyptian monuments show, competing 
with the Phoenicians in commerce by sea, 
besides maintaining an inland caravan 
traffic. They traded in slaves with Edom 
and Southern Arabia, Amos 1:6; Joel 3:4-6. 
Their chief gods were Dagon, Judg. 16:23; 
1 Sam. 5 : 1-5, Ashtoreth, 1 Sam. 31 : 10, 
Baal-zebub, 2 Kin. 1:2-6, and Derceto or 
Atergatis, a female divinity worshipped, 
like Dagon, under the form of a fish. They 
were very superstitious, 1 Sam. 31:9; 2 Sam. 
5:21; and their priests and diviners pos- 
sessed much influence, 1 Sam. 6:2-11; Isa. 
2:6. 

The principal cities of Philistia, Gaza, 
Ashkelon, Joppa, Ashdod, Lachish, Ekron, 
and Gath, still exist as inhabited towns or 
known sites, under names similar to their 
Bible names, and many low mounds show 
where other towns formerly stood. Mons. 
Ganneau has suggested that the fellahin 
or Mohammedan peasantry of Palestine, a 
race differing from the nomadic Arabs, are 
descendants of the ancient Canaanites, in- 
cluding the Philistines. The plain of Phi- 



PHI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PHCE 



listia, though miserably cultivated, is still 
exceptionally fertile, being described by 
travellers as a vast wheat-field ; by check- 
ing the inrolling sands, draining the la- 
goons, and observing a rotation of crops, 
it might be made to yield much more abun- 
dantly. 

PHILOL'OGUS, lover of letters, a Chris- 
tian at Rome, saluted in Paul's Epistle to 
the Romans, 16:15. 

PHILOS'OPHY, love of wisdom, in the 
New Testament means the vain and perni- 
cious speculations of human reason, in 
opposition to the gospel truth revealed by 
God; compare 1 Cor. 1:18-27; 1 Tim. 6:20. 
At Athens, A. D. 51, Paul came in contact 
with Western philosophy in his encounter 
with some Epicurean and Stoic philoso- 
phers, representatives of the 2 great schools 
of Greek moral philosophy, who treated 
his doctrine with contempt or indifference, 
Acts 17:18-32. See Epicureans and Sto- 
ics. In his Epistle to the Colossians, 10 
years later, he cautioned them against al- 
lowing any man to " spoil " or plunder them 
through philosophy; referring doubtless to 
some of the early efforts of Eastern specu- 
lation to dissipate the mysteries of Chris- 
tianity. The "philosophy" of which he 
spoke was a prototype of Gnosticism, after- 
wards in various forms so prominent an 
error in the Eastern church ; elements sim- 
ilar to those subsequently embodied in 
different Gnostic sects are referred to in 
Col. 2:8, 16-23. Paul anticipated the rising 
of false teachers in Ephesus, Acts 20:30, 
and writing to Timothy, who was then la- 
boring there, he refers to 2 forms of error 
besides Judaism: " a vain spiritualism in- 
sisting on ascetic observances and inter- 
preting the resurrection as a moral change," 
i Tim. 1:6; 4:1-7; 6 : 20 ; 2 Tim. 2 : 16-18 ; 
and " a materialism allied to sorcery," 
2 Tim. 3:13; compare Acts 8:9; 19:19. In 
other passages in his epistles, 1 Cor. 2; 
3:18-20, Paul opposes the false wisdom of 
the age, that is, the pagan philosophy, to 
the wisdom of Jesus Christ, and the true 
religion, which to the philosophers and 
sophists seemed to be mere folly, because 
it was built neither on the eloquence nor 
the subtlety of those who preached it, but 
on the power of God, and on the operations 
of the Holy Ghost in the hearts and minds 
of believers ; and because it did not amuse 
and flatter man, but proved him a guilty 
rebel against God, in perishing need of a 
Saviour. 

As there arose, under the influence of phi- 



losophy, several sects among the Greeks, 
as the Academics, the Peripatetics, and the 
Stoics, so also there arose among the Jews 
several sects, as the Essenes, the Pharisees, 
and the Sadducees. The Pharisees had 
some resemblance to the Stoics, the Sad- 
ducees to the Epicureans, and the Essenes 
to the Academics. The Pharisees were 
proud, vain, and boasting, like the Stoics; 
the Sadducees, who denied the immortality 
of the soul and the existence of spirits, 
freed themselves at once, like the Epicure- 
ans, from all solicitude about futurity : the 
Essenes were more moderate, more simple 
and religious, and therefore approached 
nearer to the Academics. 

The danger against which Paul warned 
the church in his day still exists. Pride of 
intellect naturally allies itself with the 
atheism and impenitence of the heart, re- 
fuses to yield to the claims of revelation, 
and rejects whatever displeases its taste or 
rises above its comprehension. True wis- 
dom, on the contrary, is humble and do- 
cile, Matt. 11:25; Mark 10:15. 

PHIN'EHAS, utterance, I., son of Elea- 
zar, and grandson of Aaron the high-priest, 
Exod.6:25. His zealous and decided char- 
acter was shown in the prompt execution 
of the profligate prince of Simeon, and his 
companion a woman of Midian, in the 
plains of Moab, Num. 25. For this bold 
and timely service the high-priesthood was 
secured to his family, also remaining faith- 
ful; and except during an interval from 
Eli to Zadok, his posterity were at the head 
of the priesthood till the destruction of the 
temple, 1 Chr. 6^4-15; Hag. 1:1. Phinehas 
led the host of Israel in the subsequent bat- 
tle with the Midianites, Num. 31:6; Psa. 
106:30, 31. He was at the head of the dep- 
utation sent to remonstrate with the tribes 
beyond the Jordan respecting the altar they 
had erected, Josh. 22:10-34. During the 
life of his father he was superintendent of 
the Levites, Num. 3:32; compare 1 Chr. 
9 : 20 ; and afterwards became the high- 
priest, Josh. 24:33, and as such communi- 
cated the will of God as to the punishment 
of the men of Gibeah, Judg. 20:28. 

II. A son of Eli the high-priest. See 
Hophni. 

III. A Levjte, Ezra 8:33. 
PHLEG'ON, burning, a Christian at 

Rome, Rom. 16:14. 

PHCE'BE. See Phebe. 

PHCENI'CIA, Acts 11:19; i5 : 3, R- V.; 
21:2— so called by the Greeks, either from 
an ancient abundance of palm-trees, or 

435 



PHCE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PHCE 



from Phoenix the brother of Cadmus — was 
a narrow strip of country between the Leb- 
anon Mountains and the Mediterranean 
Sea. Phoenicia proper extended from " the 
Ladder of Tyre," a promontory south of 
Tyre, to the river Bostrenus, Nahr el-Awali, 
2 miles north of Sidon. The length of this 
undulating plain was about 30 miles; its 
width 2 miles near Sidon, and 5 near Tyre. 
But its boundaries varied at different times : 
from the 8th century B. C. it extended 90 
miles farther north to the island city of 
Arvad or Aradus, Ezek. 27:8, 11, the ut- 
most width of this northern strip being 20 
miles. In its largest sense the name Phoe- 
nicia was applied, by one or two Greek 
writers about the commencement of the 
Christian era, to almost the entire length 
of the eastern Mediterranean coast. Back 
from the sandy seashore strip Phoenicia, 
being well watered by the Leontes, Bostre- 
nus, Eleutherus, Lycus, and other streams, 
was generally fertile, and the slopes of 
Lebanon afforded good pasture and an 
abundance of fine timber. The coast was 
indented by several harbors, as at Tyre 
and Sidon, though that at Beirut is now the 
best. The principal cities were Zidon, 
Tyre, Arvad, Tripolis, and Berytus, now 
Beirut. The native name of the country 
was Chna or Canaan, *. e., lowland. The 
Greek name is not found in the Old Testa- 
ment, but there are many references to 
Tyre and Zidon. 

Phoenicia was included in the territory 
promised to the Israelites, and allotted to 
Asher, but from lack of faith,' etc., was not 
conquered by them, Josh. 13:4-6; 19:24- 
29; Judg. 1:31, 32. It afforded refuge to 
Elijah, 1 Kin. 17:8-24; Luke 4:26; sent fol- 
lowers to Jesus, Mark 3:8; Luke 6:17; and 
was visited by him, Matt. 15:21; Mark 7 : 26, 
and by Paul, Acts 21:2-7; 27:3. 

At the dawn of history the Phoenicians 
appear as a rich, cultivated, and powerful 
commercial people. In race they were Ca- 
naanites, Gen. 10:15, 19. Their language 
belonged to the Semitic group, and was 
nearly allied to the Hebrew, by means of 
which the few remnants of Phoenician, 
names of persons and places, and inscrip- 
tions on coins and monuments, may still 
be understood. Their religion was a base 
and corrupting nature-worship. Baal and 
Ashtoreth, their chief divinities, were wor- 
shipped with cruel and impure rites. The 
Phoenicians imparted their own civiliza- 
tion to other nations : from them the Greeks 
received the letters of the alphabet, the use 
436 



of astronomy in navigation, of glass, pur- 
ple, etc. Besides the towns that crowded 
their own coast, the Phoenicians had com- 
mercial stations on the Red Sea and all 
along the Mediterranean. Carthage, the 
early rival of Rome, and Cadiz and Tar- 
shish in Spain, were Phoenician colonies. 
They reached the Atlantic coast as far as 
Britain, and the productions of all known 
lands were exchanged in their markets, 
Ezek. 27. Each great city, with the adja- 
cent territory, was governed by its own 
king, and in time of danger they formed a 
confederation under the leadership of the 
most powerful. The Phoenicians suffered 
from the attacks of the kings of Assyria 
and Babylon, and were successively sub- 
ject to the Persians, Greeks, and Romans. 
The land was taken by the Saracens in the 
7th century, and held by the Crusaders in 
the nth and 12th centuries, since which 
time it has been subject to the Turks. 

The Phoenicians were among the oppres- 
sors of Israel \n the period of the Judges, 
Judg. 3:3; 10:12. Friendly relations seem- 
to have existed afterwards, and alliances 
were formed between the Tyrian king and 
David, and afterwards Solomon, 2 Sam. 
5:11 ; 1 Kin. 5. Palestine was the granary 
of Phoenicia, 1 Kin. 5:11; 2 Chr. 2:10, 15; 
compare Acts 12 : 20, and Phoenicia the 
commercial agent of Palestine, Ezek. 27: 17, 
the Jews having no good ports. In ex- 
change for agricultural products the Phoe- 
nicians aided Solomon with materials and 
workmen in the building of the temple. 
They also joined him in establishing a har- 
bor at Ezion-geber on the Red Sea, and 
in fitting out and navigating trading ves- 
sels, 1 Kin. 9:26-28; 10:11, 12. After the 
division of the kingdom they sided with 
Israel, and broke the covenant with Judah, 
even selling Jews to the Edomites as slaves, 
Joel 3:4-8; Amos 1:9, 10; Isa. 23; Ezek. 
28. Phoenician idolatry early ensnared the 
Israelites, Judg. 2:13; 10:6, was encour- 
aged by Solomon, 1 Kin. n :i, 4, 5, 8, 2>3> 
and prevailed more or less under the kings 
of Judah. It flourished in Israel under 
Ahab, whose queen was a Zidonian, re- 
ceived a temporary check from Elijah, 

1 Kin. 16:31-33; 18:4, 18-40; 2 Kin. 3:2, 
and afterwards from Jehu, 2 Kin. 10:18-28, 
but continued to be an offence to God un- 
til the final captivity of Israel, B. C. 721, 

2 Kin. 17:16-18. 

The Phoenician coast, from the " Ladder 
of Tyre " northward, is now strewn with 
ruins. Porter speaks of the "mournful 



PHR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PHY 



and solitary silence " reigning there, and 
Stanley was equally impressed with its 
desolateness and the complete destruction 
of the Phoenician power denounced by the 
prophets. Within the bounds of ancient 
Phoenicia, however, is situated the most 
civilized, prosperous, and promising city 
of Syria, if not of all Turkey— Beirut, 
whose flourishing Protestant missions, col- 
lege, schools, and printing-offices make it 
a centre of Christianizing influences for 
the East. 

PHRY'GIA, parched, a central district of 
Asia Minor, whose boundaries varied great- 
ly at different times ; so that when it inclu- 
ded Galatia it is said to have touched every 
other province. It was very early settled; 
the ancients believed its inhabitants to have 
migrated from Macedonia before the Tro- 
jan war. It was afterwards divided into 
Phrygia Major on the south, and Phrygia 
Minor on the west, reaching to the Helles- 
pont. The Romans, into whose hands it 
fell, B. C. 133, divided it into 3 districts. In 
apostolic times most of it belonged to the 
province of Asia, and part of it to Cilicia. 
The country was a high table-land, fruitful 
in corn and wine, but including some bare 
mountain and salt-marsh tracts. Of its 
cities, Laodicaea, Hierapolis, Colossae, and 
Antioch of Pisidia are mentioned in the New 
Testament. It probably contained many 
Jews, Acts 2 : 10. Antiochus the Great, B. C. 
223-187, transported to Lydia and Phrygia 
2,000 Jewish families from Mesopotamia. 
The apostle Paul twice passed through it, 
preaching and " strengthening the disci- 
ples," Acts 16:6; 18:23. Its churches were 
represented in the Councils of Nice and 
Constantinople, A. D. 325 and 381. 

PHU'RAH, a bough, Gideon's servant, 
Judg. 7: 10, 11. 

PHUT, or PUT, afflicted, or a bow, Gen. 
10:6; 1 Chr. 1:8, a son of Ham; elsewhere 
his descendants and the country of their 
abode. In Nah. 3:9; Jer. 46 : 9, margin, and 
Ezek. 30:5, margin, they are mentioned as 
allies of Egypt; in Ezek. 27:10 as allies of 
Tyre; and in Ezek. 38:5, margin, as allies 
of Gog. In the A. V. the word is some- 
times translated "Libya," or "the Liby- 
ans." Josephus and many modern schol- 
ars identify Put with Libya, west of Egypt, 
the region now occupied by the Moors; see 
Libya; others with modern Nubia, the re- 
gion between Egypt and Ethiopia, called 
in Egyptian monuments To-pet, "the re- 
gion of the bow." 

PHU'VAH, mouth, PU'A. and PU'AH, a 



son of Issachar, Gen. 46:13; Num. 26:23; 
1 Chr. 7:1. 

PHYGEL'LUS, or PHY 'GELUS, fugitive, 
a Christian from Asia who forsook Paul at 
Rome, 2 Tim. 1:15; 4:16. 

PHYLACTERIES were little rolls of 
parchment, in which were written certain 
words of the law, and which were worn by 
male Jews from the age of 13 upon their 
foreheads and upon the left arm. The cus- 
tom was founded on a literal interpretation 
of Exod. 13:9, 16, "And it shall be for a 
token upon thy hand, and for frontlets be- 
tween thine eyes." 

Leo of Modena informs us particularly 
about these rolls. Those worn upon the 
forehead have been described under the 
article Frontlets, which see. Those that 
were to be fastened to the arm were 2 rolls 
of parchment written in square letters, with 
an ink made on purpose, and with much 
care. They were rolled up to a point, and 
inclosed in a sort of case of black calfskin. 
They were then put upon a square bit of 
the same leather, whence hung a thong of 
the same, of about a finger's breadth, and 
about 2 feet long. These rolls were placed 




at the bending of the left arm, and after the 
thong had made a little knot in the form 
of the letter Yodh (1 ), it was wound about 
the arm in a spiral line, which ended at the 
top of the middle finger. They were called 
the Tephila of the hand. 

The phylactery, from a Greek word sig- 
nifying preservative, was regarded not only 
as a remembrancer of God's law, but as a 
protection against demons. It was proba- 
bly introduced at a late period in the Old 
Testament history, and is still continued. 
Our Saviour reproaches the pride and hy- 
pocrisy of the Pharisees, shown in making 
their phylacteries broad as a sign of their 
superior wisdom and piety, Matt. 23:5. 
David, on the other hand, says, " Thy word 
have I hid in my heart, that I might not 
sin against thee," Psa. 119:11. 

PHYSI'CIANS. The medical skill of the 
Egyptians was widely celebrated; Pha- 
raoh had many physicians, and among 
them professional embalmers, Gen. 50:2. 
They also had midwives, Exod. 1 : 15, as 
well as the Hebrews. The latter also had 

437 



PIB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PIL 



professional physicians, Exod. 21 : 19; Prov. 
17:22; Matt. 9:12; Luke 4:23; 8:43. See 
Luke. They had little anatomical skill, 
partly on account of the ceremonial defile- 
ment caused by touching a corpse. They 
gave their attention to external rather than 
to internal injuries and diseases, Isa. 1:6; 
Ezek. 30:21; though they also prescribed 
for internal and mental disorders, 1 Sam. 
16:16; 2 Chr. 16:12. They made use of 
salves, balms, and poultices, hyssop, oil 
baths, mineral baths, and river bathing, 
with many other remedies, Jer. 46:11; 
Ezek. 47:12; Rev. 22:2. Many wickedly 
had recourse to superstitious practices and 
to amulets and enchantments. See Dis- 
eases. 

PI-BE'SETH, an important city of Lower 
Egypt, on the eastern or Pelusiac branch 
of the Nile, about 40 miles northeast of 
Memphis. The city and the goddess after 
whom it was named were called by the 
Greeks Bubastis. The hieroglyphic name 
of the city is Pe-Bast, " the house of Bast," 
the beneficent goddess of fire, depicted 
with the head of a lioness or a cat, and to 
whom the cat was sacred. Herodotus de- 
scribed her temple of red granite at Bu- 
bastis as the most beautiful he had seen. 
Pharaoh-necho's canal to the Red Sea be- 
gan here. Manetho speaks of a destructive 
earthquake here during the 2d dynasty, 
and of the 22d dynasty of Pharaohs as 
reigning here. Ezekiel, 30: 17, predicts the 
ruin of the city. It was taken by the Per- 
sians and its walls destroyed B. C. 352 ; but 
it survived and was a place of some note 
under the Romans. Its site, marked by 
extensive mounds and broken pottery, is 
called Tel Basta. 

PICTURES, Num. 33:52, idolatrous rep- 
resentations, either separate images, or 
stones "portrayed," /. <?., cut in low relief, 
or engraved, and colored; compare Ezek. 
23:14. "Pictures of silver," Prov. 25:11, 
are supposed to have been wall-surfaces or 
cornices with carving ; compare 1 Kin. 
6:32, 35. Movable paintings in the mod- 
ern sense were doubtless unknown to the 
Hebrews. See Paint. In Isa. 2:16 the 
word translated "pictures" may be ren- 
dered "objects," or perhaps "flags" of a 
ship; compare Ezek. 27:7. 

PIECE OF GOLD, or OF SILVER, a shek- 
el by weight, 1 Sam. 2:36; Psa. 68:30. In 
many Old Testament passages the Hebrew 
text would read, e. g., as in Gen. 20:16, 
" 1 ,000 of silver," and in 2 Kin. 5:5, " 6,000 
of gold." The A. V. translators often sup- 
438 



plied the word pieces, and sometimes shek- 
els, the usual Hebrew weight for precious 
metals — coined money being unknown in 
Palestine till a late period, Gen. 45:22; 
Judg. 17:2-4, 10. 

In Luke 15:8, 9, "piece of silver" is the 
translation of " drachma," a Greek coin 
answering to the Roman " denarius." The 
same coin is probaby meant in Acts 19:19. 
See Penny. In Matt. 26:15; 27:3, 5, 6, 9, 
a term is used denoting the material of the 
coin rather than its value ; probably, how- 
ever, as in Matt. 17:27, staters or shekels 
are meant; compare Zech. 11:12, 13; Exod. 
21:32. See Money and Measures. 

PI'ETY, 1 Tim. 5:4, filial affection and 
reverence. 

PIG'EONS. See Doves. 

PI-HAHI'ROTH, mouth of caverns, or of 
deliverance, the place of the 3d and last 
encampment of the Israelites before cross- 
ing the Red Sea, Exod. 14:2, 9; Num. 
33:7, 8. Robinson and Lepsius place it at 
Adjrud, now a watering-place for camels 
12 miles northwest of Suez; other high 
authorities at Jebel Ataka, a curving ridge 
ending in a promontory, Ras Ataka, which 
projects into the sea some 8 miles south of 
Suez. See Exodus. 

PI'LATE, Pon'tius, under whom our 
Lord taught, Luke 3:1, suffered, and died, 
Matt. 27; Mark 15; Luke 23; John 18:28 to 
19:42, was the 5th Roman procurator in the 
province of Judaea after the banishment of 
Archelaus, A. D. 6. He was appointed 
A. D. 26, and continued 10 years. He be- 
came odious both to the Jews and to the 
Samaritans for the arbitrary offensiveness 
and cruelty of his administration. One of 
his first acts was to transfer the soldiers' 
headquarters from Caesarea to Jerusalem, 
where the presence of the military stand- 
ards bearing images of the emperor, ob- 
jects of idolatrous worship to the army, so 
enraged the Jews that they thronged to 
Pilate at Caesarea demanding their remo- 
val. Wearied with their importunity, he 
caused his soldiers to surround them, and 
threatened them with instant death if they 
did not disperse ; but when they declared 
their readiness to die rather than submit to 
the defilement of the Holy City, he became 
frightened and yielded. The slaughter of 
the Galileans, Luke 13:1, must have oc- 
curred at some feast, in the outer court of 
the temple. His official residence was at 
Caesarea, but during the great festivals he 
stayed at Jerusalem to preserve order, 
probably occupying the palace built by 



PIL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PIN 



Herod the Great. Though the revenues 
were the chief concern of such a ruler, the 
procurator of JucUea, which was subordi- 
nate to the province of Syria, was at the 
head of the entire local administration, 
military and judicial. When therefore Je- 
sus had been condemned by the high-priest 
and the Sanhedrin, he was brought before 
Pilate the governor, without whose consent 
he could not be executed. Pilate saw in 
Jesus an innocent victim of Jewish malice, 
and desired to save him. Though dull and 
ignorant as to religious truth, he had some 
dim sense of the superiority of Christ's 
character, and feared to wrong him. All 
that he saw of Christ deepened this feel- 
ing, and he tried every method to soften 
the obduracy of the Jews. But he had not 
the firmness of character, the deep-rooted 
principle of justice, and the consciousness 
of rectitude necessary to carry him through ; 
and after repeated efforts, Luke 23:7, 14- 
22; John 18:31-39; 19:4-6, 9-12, 15, he at 
length gave way, and sacrificed a righteous 
man rather than to provoke complaints 
against his administration and an investi- 
gation by the emperor. His washing of his 
hands and his inscription upon the cross 
only condemned himself. He would un- 
doubtedly, as law and custom required, 
send a detailed report of his procedures to 
Tiberius ; and the early defenders of Chris- 
tianity, Justin and Tertullian, publicly re- 
fer the Roman authorities to these docu- 
ments, and quote from them as existing in 
their own time. The " Acts of Pilate," 
however, now in existence, are a subse- 
quent fabrication. The Roman historian 
Tacitus, speaking of Christians, says, " The 
author of this name was Christ, who was 
capitally punished in the reign of Tiberius, 
by Pontius Pilate." 

In A. D. 36 the Samaritans, whose turbu- 
lence Pilate had quelled with bloody meas- 
ures, accused him before Vitellius, gov- 
ernor of Syria, by whom Pilate was sent to 
Rome to answer before the emperor. Be- 
fore his arrival Tiberius died; and Pilate 
is said to have been banished by Caligula 
to Vienna on the Rhone, in Gaul, and there 
to have killed himself; another wild legend 
links his name to the mountain now called 
Hiatus on the south of Lake Lucerne.' 

PIL'DASH, aflame, a son of Nahor and 
Milcah, Gen. 22:22. The place of his set- 
tlement is unknown. 

PIL'GRIM, a sojourner in a foreign land; 
metaphorically, the believer while absent 
from his heavenly home, Gen. 47:9; Psa. 



119:54; Heb. 11:13; 1 Pet. 2:11. Some- 
times rendered "stranger," Gen. 17:8; 
1 Pet. 1:1. 

PILLAR sometimes means a monument- 
al column, Gen. 35:20; 2 Sam. 18:18; or a 
column of cloud or smoke, Exod. 13:21; 
Judg. 20:40. The stately column which 
adorns and supports the front of a temple, 
Judg. 16:25-30; Job 9:6; 26:11, illustrates 
the position of prophets, Jer. 1 : 18, apos- 
tles, Gal. 2:9, believers, Rev. 3:12, and the 
church itself, respecting the truth, 1 Tim. 

The "plain of the pillar," Judg. 9:6, is 
properly " the oak of the pillar," as in the 
margin, A. V. 

PIL'LAR OF SALT. See SALT. 

PILLED, peeled, as a tree of its bark, 
Gen. 30:37. 

PIL'LOW, I., 1 Sam. 19:13, 16, probably 
a goat's hair mat or mattress rolled up. 
Pillow in Mark 4:38 is rendered "cush- 
ion " in the R. V. The ancient Egyptians 
used a low wooden frame to support the 
head in sleep, as do the Japanese. Com- 
pare Gen. 28:11, 18. 

II. The " pillows " which the lying proph- 
etesses of peace to Jerusalem sewed to 
their own elbows and to those of the per- 
sons who consulted them, Ezek. 13:17-20, 
were appliances of physical ease and em- 
blems of the false security produced by pre- 
dictions of prosperity; or, as some think, 
amulets or charms worn on the arm; a 
similar practice prevails among the mod- 
ern Egyptians and Nubians. 

PINE, Isa. 41:19; 60:13. It is uncertain 
what tree of Lebanon is here meant; the 
Hebrew word, however, indicating dura- 
tion or curvature, is thought to exclude the 
pine. The elm, also found on Mount Leb- 
anon, the oak, etc., have been suggested. 
Thomson thinks the "fir" of the A. V., 
Hebrew berosh, means the " stone-pine " 
which abounds on Lebanon. In Neh. 8:15 
" pine-branches " stands for another He- 
brew term, elsewhere properly rendered 
"oil-tree," which see. 

PIN'NACLE, Matt. 4:5; Luke 4:9, liter- 
ally the wing of the temple, the last word 
including the whole of the sacred inclo- 
sure and buildings. The place indicated 
may have been the roof, accessible by 
stairs, of the eastern colonnade, " Solo- 
mon's porch," which overlooked the deep 
valley of the Kidron at a height, according 
to Josephus, of 600 feet, or the southeast 
corner of the lofty southern colonnade, 
Herod's " royal portico," of which Josephus 

439 



PIP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PIT 



says that if one " looked down from the 
top of the battlements " into the Kidron 
valley he would become dizzy and unable 
to see to the bottom. 

PIPE, the principal musical wind instru- 
ment of the Hebrews, consisting of a tube 
with holes, like a flute or clarionet. It was 
made of reed, copper, or bronze, and was 
used on all occasions, in religious worship, 
processions, feasts, and mourning, i Sam. 
10:5; 1 Kin. 1:40; Psa. 87:7; Isa. 5:12; 
30:29; Jer. 48:36; Matt. 9:23; Luke 7:32. 
Pipes, both single and double, were as 
much used in Egyptian social life as among 
the Hebrews. The double pipe had 2 
tubes, sometimes uniting in the mouth- 
piece ; the tube played with the left hand 
had few holes, emitted a few deep sounds, 
and served as a bass. The right-hand pipe 
had more holes and sharper tones. The 
Scotch Deputation of Inquiry speak of 
overtaking among the hills of Judaea "an 
Arab playing with all his might upon a 
shepherd's pipe made of 2 reeds. This 
was the first time we had seen any marks 
of joy in the land, for certainly ' all joy is 
darkened, the mirth of the land is gone,' " 
Isa. 24:11. See Music. 

PIR'ATHON, princely, in Ephraim, the 
home and burial-place of Abdon the judge, 
Judg. 12:15; a l so of one of David's mighty 
men, 2 Sam. 23:30; 1 Chr. 11:31; 27:14. 
Robinson and others identify it with the 
village Fer'ata, on an eminence among low 
hills, 6 miles west-southwest of Nablus. 

PIS'GAH, fragment, the summit from 
which Moses viewed the Promised Land, 
Deut. 34:1-4. It was east of the mouth of 
the Jordan, a part of the Abarim range, 
associated with Nebo, and within the lim- 
its of Reuben, Num. 21:20; 27:12; Deut. 
3:27; 4:49; 32:49. There were level spa- 
ces upon it, as " the field of Zophim," 
Num. 23:14. It commanded a view of the 
Israelitish camp on the east bank of the 
Jordan and of the heights of the entire 
Holy Land. 

Until recently the precise position of 
Pisgah and Nebo was unknown. Robin- 
son and De Saulcy heard of a Jebel Neba 
in the neighborhood indicated in the Bible. 
In 1864 Tristram visited, and described, 
1865, the height which lay about 3 miles 
southwest of Hesban, and 1% miles due 
west of Main, and which he took for Pis- 
gah. There was a long ridge command- 
ing a magnificent view of Mount Hor and 
the Dead Sea and Jordan valley, Jerusa- 
lem, Gerizim, Carmel, Tabor, Gilboa, and 
440 



snowy Hermon. Prof. Paine, of the Amer- 
ican Palestine Exploration Society, in 1873. 
claims to have identified the range which 
includes both Nebo and Pisgah as rising 
in a promontory overtopping all the near 
hills, about 5 miles southwest of Hesban — 
running westward in a series of flat sum- 
mits, and suddenly falling away into the 
valley. The eastern and highest portion 
of the range is called Jebel Neba, Mount 
Nebo. Its western end is composed of 3 
summits in a cluster, of which one, lying 
to the southwest and called Jebel Siaghah. 
he identifies with the Pisgah of Moses. It 
is 2,360 feet above the sea-level, and com- 
mands an extensive view of Palestine east- 
ward and northward, and westward and 
southward, as described Deut. 34:1. The 
Due de Luynes, in a visit to the spot in 
1864, arrived independently at the same 
identification of Nebo and Pisgah. Prof. 
Porter of Belfast concurs in this opinion, 
and comparing the prospect from the moun- 
tain with the description of Moses' view, 
was impressed with its faithfulness in every 
particular. 

PIS'GAH, SPRINGS OF, Deut. 4:49, the 
same as ASH'DOTH-PIS'GAH, Deut. 3:17; 
Josh. 12:3; 13:20, a valley or town at the 
base of Pisgah, in the territory of Sihon, 
assigned to Reuben, near the portion of 
Gad. 

PISID'IA, a district of Asia Minor, sep- 
arated from the Mediterranean by Pam- 
phylia, lying on Mount Taurus and the 
high table-land north of it, and running up 
between Phrygia and Lycaonia as far as 
Antioch its chief city. The Pisidians, like 
most of the inhabitants of the Taurus range, 
were an unsubdued and lawless race ; 
through the deep defiles of their mountains 
swift torrents poured; and Paul, in his 2 
journeys through Pisidia, Acts 13:14; 14 '• 2 4> 
may have been in peril by " waters " (R. V. 
"rivers") as well as by "robbers," 2 Cor. 
11:26. He refers to the persecution en- 
dured at Antioch, Acts 13:44-50, in a letter 
to Timothy, 2 Tim. 3:11. Churches con- 
tinued to exist here for 7 or 8 centuries. 

PI'SON, streaming, one of the 4 rivers 
that watered Paradise, Gen. 2:11, 12, and 
which ran through all the land of Havilah, 
where excellent gold was found. It has, 
of course, been placed as variously as the. 
garden of Eden, to which article and Eu- 
phrates the reader is referred. 

PIT, a cistern for rain-water. Dry pits 
were sometimes used as dungeons, Gen. 
37:20; Jer. 38:6; or being slightly covered 



PIT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PLO 



and baited, they served as traps to catch 
wild beasts, a device which illustrates the 
plots of designing men and women, Psa. 
119:85; Prov. 22:14; 26:27; Ezek. 19:4. In 
Isa. 51:1, "pit" seems to mean the quarry 
or cavern whence huge stone columns and 
blocks are cut ; like that under Jerusalem, 
from which some of the beautiful temple 
stones were quarried. The word pit is also 
used to denote Hades, the under-world of 
spirits, Psa. 28 : 1 ; 30 : 3, 9, and hell, the pris- 
on of wicked spirits, Rev. 20:1; compare 
Luke 8:31, where the same word is trans- 
lated " deep." 

PITCH, Gen. 6:14; Exod. 2:3, translated 
''slime" in Gen. 11:3; 14:10, is properly 
bitumen or asphaltum, anciently found on 
and near the Dead Sea, which was hence 
called the Lake Asphaltites. It abounded 
in the vicinity of Babylon, and was used 
as fuel. The ark of Noah and that of Mo- 
ses were rendered waterproof by it; and 
the bricks of the tower of Babel Were ce- 
mented with it. It is commonly found in 
a solid state, of a shining black, and brit- 
tle ; but being liquefied by heat and used 
as a mortar, it becomes as hard as the 
rocks it cements together. It is still thrown 
up by earthquakes from the bottom of the 
Dead Sea, and floats to the shore some- 
times in large masses. See Sea, III. 

PI'THOM, house of Turn (the sun-god of 
On), a "treasure-city," or provision-depot, 
built by the Israelites for Pharaoh in Go- 
shen, Exod. 1:11. It has been regarded 
as the Pathumos mentioned by Herodotus 
as near Pi-beseth, on the canal between 
the Nile and the Red Sea. Recent exca- 
vations in a mound at Tel el-Maschuta, in 
Wady et-Tumeilat, between Ismailia and 
Tel el-Kebir, have revealed the site of what 
seems to have been a store city, contain- 
ing a small temple dedicated by Rameses 
II. to Turn, and a large crude-brick build- 
ing, 650 feet square, with walls 8 feet thick 
and many rooms without doors, apparent- 
ly used as a granary. This site, which 
local inscriptions call both Pithom and 
Succoth, Brugsch and Poole identify with 
Pithom, and with Succoth, the Israelites' 
first camping-place, Exod. 12:37. 

PITIFUL, Lam. 4:10; Jas. 5:11; 1 Pet. 
3:8, not pitiable, but compassionate. 

PLACE, 1 Sam. 15:12, monument or pil- 
lar. 

PLAGUE. See Exodus, Pestilence. 

PLAIN, any level tract of land, as in 
1 Kin. 20:23; 2 Chr. 26:10. With the arti- 
cle in Heb., the high level plateau of Moab. 



Deut. 3:10; 4:43; Josh. 13:9, 16; 20:8; Jer. 
48:8, 21. The "plains of Moab" were on 
the east bank of the Jordan, opposite Jeri- 
cho, Num. 22:1; 26:63; Josh. 13:32. For 
other uses of the word plain see Arabah, 
Canaan, Moreh, Oak, Shephelah. 

PLAITING the hair, 1 Pet. 3:3. Jewish 
writers mention elaborate hair-dressing as 
a special art practised by women; compare 
Isa. 3:18-22. Arab ladies of the present 
day in Palestine often spend a whole day 
in arranging their hair in minute braids, 70 
or 80 in number, which hang around their 
shoulders and are frequently ornamented 
with gold and jewels. 

PLAN'ETS, 2 King, 23:5. The Hebrew 
word means inns or lodgings, and is used 
with reference to the sun, denoting the 12 
constellations of the zodiac, the houses of 
the sun in its annual apparent course round 
the heavens. These constellations are here 
spoken of as objects of idolatrous worship 
in Judah. See Mazzaroth. 

PLAS'TER was used by the Hebrews on 
the walls of houses, Lev. 14:42, 48; and as 
a coating of stones on which inscriptions 
had been or were afterwards to be made, 
Deut. 27:2, 4; Josh. 8:32. The tiles of an- 
cient Babylon were coated or enamelled 
with stucco. 

PLEDGE. The Mosaic law protected the 
poor who were obliged to give security for 
a loan or the fulfilment of a contract. If a 
man pawned his robe, the usual covering 
for the cool nights, it must be returned on 
the same day, Exod. 22:26, 27. The cred- 
itor could not enter a house and take what 
he pleased; and the hand-mill, being a 
necessary of life, could not be taken, Deut. 
24:6, 10, 11. Compare Job 22:6; 24:3, 7. 
These prohibitions were sometimes disre- 
garded, Amos 2:6-8. See Loans. Pledges 
are necessary from the heedless and vi- 
cious, who cannot be trusted, Prov. 20: 16. 

PLE'IADES, a cluster of 7 stars in the 
neck of Taurus, or the Bull, one of the 12 
signs of the zodiac. The sun now enters 
the constellation Taurus about the middle 
of May, anciently much earlier; and the 
appearance of the Pleiades marked the re- 
turn of spring, Job 9:9; 38:31 ; Amos 5:8. 

PLOUGH, a slight and inefficient instru- 
ment in the East, but used from the earli- 
est times, Gen. 45 : 6 ; Deut. 22 : 10 ; Job 1:14. 
See cut in Merom. The plough now gen- 
erally used in Syria consists substantially 
of but 3 parts : the beam or pole fastened 
to the yoke, the ploughshare, and the han- 
dle. The 2 latter parts, and even all 3, are 

441 



POE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



POE 




ANCIENT PLOUGH, YOKES, SHARES, AND GOAD. 

sometimes formed of a single branch of a 
tree with 2 limbs projecting in opposite 



directions. The ploughshare is sometimes 
defended by a strip or point of iron, Isa. 
2:4; Joel 3:10. As the handle was single, 
and with attention was easily managed by 
one hand, Luke 9:62, the ploughman bran- 
dished in the other a formidable goad. 6 or 
8 feet long, armed at the point with a pike, 
and at the heavy end, which was 2 inches 
thick, with a small iron spade for clearing 
the share from clay, Judg. 3:31; 1 Sam. 
13:21; Acts 9:5. Ploughs were drawn by 
oxen, asses, and heifers, Deut. 22:10; Judg. 
14: 18; at this day camels and cows are also- 




PLOUGHING AND SOWING: FROM AN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PAINTING. 



used in Palestine. Ploughing commenced 
soon after the autumnal rains set in, to- 
wards the last of October. The Arabs of 
Palestine often plough in somewhat large 
companies, as of old, 1 Kin. 19:19. 

PO'ETRY of the Hebrews. Poetry 
combined with music was an attendant 
upon many of the scenes of Hebrew life as 
pictured in the Bible. Moses and Deborah 
celebrated victory with songs, Exod. 15:1- 
21; Judg. 5; death was lamented in like 
manner, 2 Sam. 1 : 17-27 ; feasts were accom- 
panied by music and singing, Amos 6:5; 
and the chanting of sacred songs formed 
an important part of the temple worship. 
Under the inspiration of the Almighty the 
Hebrews carried religious poetry to the 
highest degree of perfection. The poetry 
of this people was almost wholly lyric; 
whether didactic, elegiac, pastoral, or pro- 
phetic, it was still lyric. The essence of 
lyric poetry is the vivid expression of inter- 
nal emotions. It is therefore subjective, 
in opposition to epic poetry, which treats 
of external objects, and is therefore objec- 
tive. The chief subject of Hebrew poetry 
was religion, and then patriotism, which, 
under the theocracy, was very nearly allied 
to religion. The most obvious and stri- 
king characteristic of the poetry of the He- 
442 



brews is sublimity. The present prevail- 
ing views of the nature of Hebrew poetry 
were first developed in the last century by 
Bishop Lowth in his Lectures on the Poe- 
try of the Hebrews. 

Hebrew poetry differs -from Hebrew 
prose in 3 respects: 1. In the peculiar po- 
etical nature of the contents, of which the 
characteristics are sublimity, boldness, ab- 
ruptness, lofty metaphors, personifications, 
etc. 2. In the peculiarities of the poetic 
dialect or diction, which, however, are not 
so striking as among the Greeks and, Ro- 
mans. 3. In rhythm, which differs from 
metre — the latter importing a measure of 
syllables or feet, the former a harmonious 
arrangement of words and members. It is 
the opinion of those. best acquainted with 
the subject that the Hebrews had no pros- 
ody, that is, no measure of syllables into 
poetic feet, as dactyles, trochees, and spon- 
dees. It is believed that the Hebrew poe- 
try, much of which was designed to be 
sung or chanted, was characterized by a 
certain melodious flow and cadence which 
is now irrecoverably lost, together with the 
true pronunciation of the language. 

But aside from this, the rhythm of He- 
brew poetry consists in what is called its 
parallelism, of which the fundamental 



POE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



POE 



principle is .that every verse must consist 
of at least two corresponding parts or 
members. 

The parallelism of Hebrew poetry occurs 
either in the thought, or solely in the form. 
Of the former there are 3 kinds: namely, 

1. Synonymous; where the 2 members 
express the same idea in different, but 
closely, and often literally, corresponding 
words : as for example, 

What is man, that thou art mindful of him? 
And the son of man, that thou dost visit him? 

Psa. 8:4. 

Why do the heathen rage ? 

And the people imagine a vain thing? 

Psa. 2: 1. 

He that sitteth in the heavens shall laugh ; 
The Lord shall have them in derision. 

Psa. 2 : 4. 

Doth the wild ass bray when he hath grass? 
Or loweth the ox over his fodder? Job 6 : 5. 

So also the song of Lamech, Gen. 4:23, 
and Job 7:1, etc. 

2. Antithetical ; where an antithesis of 
thought is expressed by corresponding 
members: as for example, 

The house of the wicked shall be overthrown, 

But the tabernacle of the upright shall flourish. 

Prov. 14: 11. 

A soft answer turneth away wrath ; 

But grievous words stir up anger. 

Prov. 15 : 1. 

3. Synthetic ; which is a mere juxtaposi- 
tion ; or rather, the thought is carried for- 
ward in the 2d member with some addition, 
the correspondence of words and construc- 
tion being as before: as for example, 

The law of the Lord is perfect, converting the 
soul: 

The testimony of the Lord is sure, making wise 
the simple. 

The statutes of the Lord are right, rejoicing the 
heart : 

The commandment of the Lord is pure, enlight- 
ening the eyes. 

The fear of the Lord is clean, enduring for ever : 

The judgments of the Lord are true and right- 
eous altogether. Psa. 19 : 7, 8, 9. 

Mere rhythmical parallelism is that in 
which no similarity or correspondence of 
thought exists, but the verse is divided by 
the ccesura, as it were, into corresponding 
numbers. This is the most imperfect spe- 
cies of parallelism, and may be compared 
with the hexameter, divided by the caesura : 
as for example, 



Yet have I set my king 
Upon my holy hill of Zion. 



Psa. 2 : 6. 



Many there be which say of my soul, 
There is no help for him in God. 

Psa. 3 : 2. 

This is most common in the book of Lam- 
entations, where there is hardly any other 
species of parallelism. 

Thus far we have had regard to the sim- 
plest and most perfect parallelisms of 2 
members, such as are more usually found 
in the Psalms, Job, etc. But in the proph- 
ets and a few of the Psalms we find a less 
regular and sometimes compound paral- 
lelism. Thus the parallelism is irregular 
when one member is shorter than the other,, 
as Hosea 4:17: 

Ephraim is joined to idols ; 
Let him alone. 

Of compound parallelisms there are vari- 
ous kinds, as when the verse has 3 mem- 
bers either parallel with each other, as in 
Job 3:4, or 2 of them standing opposed to 
the 3d: as for example, 

For the ways of the Lord are right, 

And the just shall walk in them, 

But the transgressors shall fall therein. 

Hos. 14:9. 

Or when the verse has 4 members, either 
compounded of 2 simple parallels, or the 
1st line answering to the 3d and the 2d to 
the 4th, or all 4 nearly parallel to each 
other: as for example, 

The ox knoweth his owner, 
And the ass his master's crib ; 
But Israel doth not know, 
My people doth not consider. 

Isa. 1:3. 

As the heaven is high above the earth, 

So great is his mercy towards them that fear 

him; 
As far as the east is from the west, 
So far hath he removed our transgressions from 

us. Psa. 103 : 11, 12. 

They have mouths, but they speak not ; 
Eyes have they, but they see not ; 
They have ears, but they hear not; 
Neither is there any breath in their mouths. 
Psa. 135 : 16, 17. 

We may name Psalms 2 and 15 as afford- 
ing examples of most of the species of po- 
etic parallelism. 

In the common manuscripts and editions 
of the Hebrew Bible the members of the 
parallelisms in the poetical parts are not 
written or printed separately, but the ac- 
cents serve to divide them. In other edi- 
tions, however, the members are printed 
separately. It is matter of regret that this 
mode was not adopted in our English 
version, since in many cases the common 

443 



POL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



POO 



reader has now no means of distinguishing 
whether what he reads is poetry or prose 
in Hebrew. 

The preceding principles refer solely to 
the rhythm of Hebrew poetry. Besides 
this, there are other peculiarities; as, for 
example, the strophe, as in Psa. 107 and in 
Psa. 42, 43, where ver. 5, 11, and 5 are a 
burden or refrain, repeated at the end of 
each strophe. So also the alphabetic Psalms 
and poems (see Letter), and the Psalms 
of degrees, in which the chief words of each 
verse are taken up and repeated at the be- 
ginning of the next verse. See Degrees. 

More than a third of the Old Testament 
is poetry in Hebrew, including most of 
Job, the Psalms, Solomon's books, and the 
greater part of the prophets ; technically, 
however, in the usage of the Jews; the 3 
poetic books of the Old Testament are Job, 
Psalms, and Proverbs, which have a sys- 
tem of accentuation peculiar to themselves. 
Poetic fragments are also found here and 
there in the historical books, as in Gen. 
4:23, 24; Exod. 32:18; Num. 21:14, 15, 18, 
27-30; 23:7, 18; 24:3, 15. In the New Tes- 
tament also many passages occur in which 
this Hebrew style seems to be transferred 
to the Greek, Matt. 8:20; Luke 1:46, 47; 
Rom. 11:33-35; Rev. 18; 19:1-3. 

POLL, the head, Num. 1:2, 18; 3:47. To 
poll the head is to cut off the hair, 2 Sam. 
14:26; Ezek. 44:20; Mic. 1:16. 

POL'LUX. See Castor. 




POMEGRAN'ATE, from the Latin Po- 
rn um granatum, grained apple, the fruit 
containing many seeds. The tree or bush 
belongs to the myrtle family, and is the 
Punica granatum of Linnaeus. It is rarely 
over 10 feet high, has a straight stem, red- 
dish bark, many spreading branches, small, 
lance-shaped, glossy leaves, which remain 
green through the winter, and large, bril- 
liant scarlet or orange blossoms. The 
444 



fruit, which ripens in August, or Septem 
ber, is of the size of an orange, with a red- 
dish-brown, hard, astringent rind, used in 
making morocco leather. Within is a very 
juicy and beautiful pink pulp, Song 4:3: 
6:7, containing an abundance of seeds, 
each with its own coating of pulp. This 
pulp has a very agreeable flavor in the 
cultivated tree, some specimens of which 
bear sweet fruit and some acid. The juice 
was made into wine or sherbet, Song 8:2. 
The fruit of the wild pomegranate is small, 
very sour, and worthless. The tree grows 
wild in Persia and Syria, the south of Eu- 
rope, and the north of Africa. It was early 
cultivated in Egypt, Num. 20 : 5, and abound- 
ed in Palestine, Num. 13:23; Deut. 8:8; 
Joel 1:12; Hag. 2:19, where " Rimmon," 
the Hebrew term for pomegranate, was 
the name of several places. The value of 
the fruit and the beauty of the flower made 
the tree welcome in gardens, Song 4:13; 
6:11. Artificial pomegranates were used 
as ornaments on the robe of the high-priest, 
Exod. 28:33, and as an architectural orna- 
ment in Solomon's temple, 1 Kin. 7:18, 20, 
41, 42. Carved pomegranates may often 
be seen on broken columns in Oriental 
temple ruins. See Rimmon. 

POM'MELS, or "bowls," as in 1 Kin. 
7:41, globular ornaments affixed to the 
capitals of columns, 2 Chr. 4:12, 13. 

PON'TUS, the sea, the northeastern prov- 
ince of Asia Minor, bounded north by the 
Euxine Sea, west by Galatia and Paphla- 
gonia, south by Cappadocia and part of 
Armenia, and east by Colchis. It was orig- 
inally governed by kings, and was in its 
most flourishing state under Mithridates 
the Great, who waged a long and celebra- 
ted war with the Romans, but was at length 
subdued by Pompey, B. C. 66; after which 
Pontus became a province of the Roman 
Empire. The geographer Strabo was born 
in Amasia, its capital ; and one of its prin- 
cipal towns, Trapezus, still flourishes un- 
der the name of Trebizond. Many Jews 
resided there, and from time to time " went 
up to Jerusalem unto the feast," Acts 2:9. 
The devoted Aquila was a native of Pon- 
tus, Acts 18:2; and the gospel was planted 
there at an early period, 1 Pet. 1:1. It was 
conquered by the Turks, its present mas- 
ters, A. D. 1461. 

POOLS, large reservoirs for spring or 
rain water, for the public benefit, while cis- 
terns were for private use. See Cisterns. 
The failure of the water supply in the pools 
was an irreparable calamity, Jer. 14:3. 




•Am* i:> 
POOL OF HEZEKIAH: JERUSALEM. 



POO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



POS 



There were numerous pools in and 
around Jerusalem, the most noted being 
these: (i) The "Upper Pool of Gihon," 
2 Kin. 18:17; Isa. 7:3; 36:2, on the west 
side of the city, south of the Jaffa road and 
more than % of a mile from the Jaffa gate. 
It is now the " Birket Mamilla," lies at the 
head of the Gihon valley, and is connected 
by conduits with (2) " Hezekiah's Pool," 
2 Kin. 20:20; 2 Chr. 32:30, now " Birket el 
Hammara," not far within the Jaffa gate. 
(3) The " Lower Pool of Gihon," Isa. 22:9, 
lay down in the valley, west of Zion, and 
is now called " Birket es^Sultan." (4) The 
" Pool of Siloah," Neh. 3:15; John 9:7, now 
Birket Silwan, near the opening of the Ty- 
ropceon ; and (5) the " Old Pool," Isa. 22 : 1 1, 
a smaller pool, south of the other and re- 
ceiving water from it. (6) The " King's 
Pool," Neh. 2 : 14, now the " Fountain of the 
Virgin," on the east side of Ophel, identi- 
fied by some with " Solomon's pools " and 
with " Bethesda," (7) though the "Pool of 
Bethesda," John 5:2, has usually been sup- 
posed to mean Birket es-Serain or Israel, 
within the western wall of the city, and 
north of the temple area. Under this area 
also were vast reservoirs cut in stone. See 
Solomon's Pools. 

POOR, Psa. 12:5; 41 : 1-3, especially cared 
for in the Old Testament dispensation, 
Exod. 23:6; Psa. 112:9; Prov. 14:31, and 
even more so under the gospel, Matt. 
25:42-45; Jas. 2:5. The slight offerings 
required of them by the law were as ac- 
ceptable as the hecatombs of the rich, Lev. 
5:7-13; Mark 12:41-44. The gleanings of 
the fields, the olive-trees, and the vines 
were to be left for them, Lev. 19:9, 10; 
Deut. 24:19, 21 ; Ruth 2:2. Every 7th year 
the spontaneous products of the ground 
were free to all, Lev. 25:6; and in the Ju- 
bilee their alienated inheritance returned 
to their possession. Compare also Lev. 
25 ; Deut. 24. Beggars ought to have been 
rare under Hebrew institutions ; yet they 
increased as the State decayed, and in 
Christ's day stationed themselves in public 
places, Mark 10:46; Luke 16:20; Acts 3:2. 
Neglect and oppression of the poor were 
severely reproved by the prophets, Isa. 
10:2; Jer. 5:28; Amos 2:6. Judges were 
not to favor them unjustly on account of 
their poverty, Lev. 19:15; but charity to 
the poor was an eminent virtue among 
primitive Christians, Matt. 6:2-4; Luke 
Io: 33-35; I9 ; 8; Acts 9:36-39; 10:2; 11:29, 
30, and an essential evidence of piety, 
1 John 3:17. The word "poor" is spiritu- 



ally used in Matt. 5:3; Rev. 3:17. See 
Tithes. 

POP'LAR, Gen. 30:37; Hos. 4:13, proba- 
bly the white poplar, so called from the 
whiteness of the under side of the leaves. 
It is a beautiful and shady tree, common 
in Palestine and its vicinity. According to 
some the storax-tree is intended; this, 
however, being only a shrub from 9 to 12 
feet high, does not so well suit the passage 
in Hosea. See Stacte. 

PORCH. See House and Temple. 

POR'TERS kept the gates of private 
houses and of cities, 2 Sam. 18:26; 2 Kin. 
7:10; Mark 13:34; John 10:3. The word 
as used in the Bible is from port, a gate, 
Neh. 2 : 13, A. V., not from " porto," to carry. 
The porters of the temple were Levites, at 
one period 4,000 in number, divided into 
courses, 1 Chr. 16:42; 23:5. They stood 
on guard at every gate, while on duty with- 
in the temple in their regular courses, with 
leaders, 1 Chr. 26 : 1-19 ; 2 Chr. 8:14; 31:14; 
35-: 15. By night also they cheered the 
lonely hours with songs of praise, Psa. 134. 
We read in 2 Chr. 23:2-19 of the faithful 
service they rendered in protecting Joash 
and slaying Athaliah, and in 1 Chr. 9:17-27 
of their reorganization after the Captivity ; 
compare Ezra 2:42; Neh. 7:45; 12:44-47. 

POSSESSED'. See Devil, II. 

POSTS, I., in Heb. runners, special mes- 
sengers charged to bear important tidings 
swiftly ; such were early employed in the 
East, Job 9:25. A body of runners were 
in attendance on Saul. See Footmen and 
Guard. Swift couriers were employed to 
carry messages in David's time, 2 Sam. 
18 : 22-27. Such may have been the " posts " 
of Hezekiah, 2 Chr. 30:6, 10, and of Baby- 
lon, Jer. 51:31. Experienced runners will 
tire and outrun a horse in long journeys. 
The Persian kings appointed sentinels at 
proper distances to transmit public tidings 
by shouting one to another. Cyrus, how- 
ever, established a system of " posts " that 
rode on horses, camels, etc., night and 
day to convey important despatches, fresh 
relays of men and animals being stationed 
at convenient distances, Esth. 3:13, 15; 
8:10, 14. The Persians and Romans im- 
pressed men and beasts into this public 
service, a custom hated by the Jews; see 
Matt. 5:41. The Roman posts were noted 
for swiftness and regularity. 

II. The "door-post" or "side -post," 
Heb. Mezuzah, on which the door hinged 
and turned, Exod. 12:7, 22, 23; 21:6; Judg. 
16:3; Prov. 8:34, was peculiarly sacred 

445 



POT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



POU 



among the Hebrews, not only because the 
blood of the passover was sprinkled upon 
it, but because the name of God and some 
word from him were inscribed on it, Deut. 
6:4-9; 11:18-21. In time the name mezu- 
zah was applied to the sacred words them- 
selves; and the pious Jew on going out or 
.in would touch the divine name with his 
finger, which he would then kiss, and re- 
peat Psa. 121:8. The Moslems also do not 
regard a new gate, fountain, bridge, or 
house as complete without inscribing on it 
a passage from the Koran or one of their 
best poets. 

POT'IPHAR, devoted to Phar, a high offi- 
cer of Pharaoh, who purchased Joseph of 
the Midianites, and made him overseer of 
his house, but afterwards imprisoned him 
on. a false charge, Gen. 37:36; 39. Accord- 
ing to Prof. Ebers, Egyptian monuments 
show that a " captain of the guard " was 
commander of a regiment of 2,000 men 
serving as the king's body-guard ; and dur- 
ing his regiment's term of service its cap- 
tain was chief inspector of State prisoners 
and chief executioner of corporal and cap- 
ital punishment. The " captain of the 
guard" mentioned Gen. 40:3 may have 
been a successor of Potiphar. 

POTI-PHE'RAH, belonging to the sun, the 
priest of On, city of the sun, whose daugh- 
ter Asenath was the wife of Joseph, Gen. 
41 :45. The name is found in various forms 
on ancient Egyptian monuments. 

POTS, Job 41 : 20, applied in Scripture to a 
great variety of domestic vessels, of earth- 
enware, iron, brass, and gold, used for 
cooking and serving food, etc., Judg. 6:19; 
2 Kin. 4:40; Psa. 58:9; Eccl. 7:6; Heb. 
9:4. Large stone water-pots, of 20 to 27 
gallons, were seen by Clark at Cana. 
Similar pots for wine, amphorae, are fre- 
quently found in Pompeii. In Psa. 68:13, 
" though ye have lain among the pots," the 
Hebrew word means originally cattle-folds, 
almost the same Hebrew word being trans- 
lated "sheep-folds" in Judg. 5:16, and 
"hooks" in Ezek. 40:43, A. V., where 
movable inclosures for sacrificial lambs, in 
the outer court of the temple, seem to be 
meant; and in Psa. 81:6, " his hands were 
delivered from the pots," the baskets used 
by the Hebrews in the hard service exact- 
ed of them in Egypt, Exod. 1:14. 

POT'SHERDS, broken pieces of earthen- 
ware, Job 2:8; Isa. 30:14, fit types of the 
worthlessness and fragility of man, Psa. 
22:15; Prov. 26:23; Isa. 45:9. The ruins 
of many of the most ancient cities of the 
446 



world show little but such fragments of 
pottery covering the ground; it is usually 
coarse in grain, but well glazed. Such 
fragments are used by the poor in various 
ways, if not utterly broken into bits, Isa. 
30:14. At this day it is common to find 
pieces of broken jars at Eastern wells and 
pools to drink from, and to see hot embers 
and coals carried in them from one spot to 
another. 

POT'TAGE. See Edom and Food. 

POT'TER, a maker of earthenware, Gen. 
24:14, 15; Judg. 7:16, 19; Psa. 2:9. Ancient 
Egyptian paintings represent the potter 
turning and shaping, on his small and sim- 
ple wheel made to revolve rapidly by the 
foot, the lump of clay which he had previ- 




ously kneaded with his feet. A pan of 
water stands by his side, with which he 
kept the clay moist. After the body of the 
vessel was worked into shape and beauty, 
the handle was affixed to it> devices traced 
upon it, and after being coated with glaze 
it was taken to the oven and baked. The 
potter's control over the clay illustrates 
the sovereignty of God, who made us of 
clay, and forms and disposes of us as he 
deems good, Jer- 18:1-6; Rom. 9:20, 21. 
The ease with which earthen vessels are 
broken furnishes striking illustrations of 
God's power, Isa. 30:14; Rev. 2:27. 

POT'TER'S FIELD. See ACELDAMA. 

POUND, a weight and a sum of money, 
put in the Old Testament, 1 Kin. 10:17; 
Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:71, for the Hebrew ma- 
neh, which see; and in the New Testa- 
ment, Luke 19:12-27, for the Attic mina, 
which was equivalent to 100 drachmae, or 
about $16. See Measures. 



POW 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PRA 



POWER, 2 Chr. 32:9, force or army. 
For the use of this word in 1 Cor. 11:10, 
see Veil. 

PR^TO'RIUM, the headquarters of a 
Roman military commander or governor. 
Three are mentioned in Scripture: 1. Mark 
15 : 16, the residence of the Roman governor 
of Judaea when in Jerusalem ; in the R. V. 
'• palace ;" in the A. V. called the " common 
hall," Matt. 27:27, or "judgment-hall," John 
18:28, 33; 19:9. This was probably the 
magnificent palace erected by Herod the 
Great on the western hill of Jerusalem, 
and communicating with the temple on the 
eastern hill by a causeway across the Ty- 
ropoeon valley. The extensive rectangu- 
lar space occupied by this palace contained 
barracks for soldiers. A military force 
also garrisoned the fortress Antonia, " the 
castle " of Acts 21 :34, t>j, etc., north of the 
temple ; and some regard this as the prae- 
torium of Pilate. — 2. The official residence 
at Caesarea of the governor Felix, where 
Paul was imprisoned 2 years, Acts 23:35. 
This palace also was built and formerly 
•occupied by Herod the Great. — 3. At Rome, 
Phil. 1:13, in the R. V. "praetorian guard." 
Some interpret this of the palace of the 
Caesars on the Palatine hill, garrisoned by 
the emperor's guard, called Praetorians ; 
others refer it to the general camp of the 
Praetorian guard, which was established by 
Tiberius just outside of the city walls, on 
the northeast of Rome. 

PRAYER is the offering of the emotions 
and desires of the soul to God, in the name 
and through the mediation of our Lord and 
Saviour Jesus Christ, John 16:23-27. It 
is the communion of the heart with God 
through the aid of the Holy Spirit, Rom. 
8:26, 27, and is to the Christian the very 
life of the soul. Without this filial spirit 
no one can be a Christian, Job 21:15; P sa - 
10:4. 

In all ages God has delighted in the 
prayers of his saints. In the Mosaic law 
the duty of prayer is taken for granted, as 
an adjunct of sacrifice, rather than directly 
enjoined, except where it is prescribed in 
the offering of the first-fruits, Deut. 26:12- 
15. But at the first, as in later ages, public 
prayer by the priests and Levites doubt- 
less accompanied public sacrifice, 1 Chr. 
23:30; Neh. 9:5738; 11:17; Luke 1:10. 
Compare also 1 Kin. 8:22-61, and the 
Psalms of David for temple worship. Pray- 
er formed a part of the synagogue services 
in Jerusalem and elsewhere ; and in places 
where a synagogue was not maintained a 



place of prayer, sometimes a slight struc- 
ture, and often roofless, was resorted to by 
resident Jews, Acts 16:13. 

Pious men were accustomed to pray 
thrice in the day, at fixed hours, Psa. 55: 17; 
Dan. 6:10. See Hour. Social, family, 
and secret prayer were all habitual with 
Bible saints, as well as brief ejaculations 
in the midst of their ordinary business, 
Neh. 2:4; 5:19. No uniform posture in 
prayer is enjoined in the Bible; standing 
with the hands outspread, 1 Kin. 8:22; 
bowing the head, Gen. 24:26; sitting on the 
ground. 2 Sam. 7:18; 1 Chr. 17:16; kneel- 
ing, Luke 22:41; and prostration on the 
ground, Matt. 26:39, were all practised. 
Prayer should be offered with submission 
to God's will, fervently, perseveringly, and 
with a confiding reliance on God in Christ; 
it should be accompanied by humble con- 
fession and hearty thanksgiving, and with 
supplications for all living men, as well as 
for our friends and those nearest to us. 
Habitual prayer to God is a duty enjoined 
upon us by sound reason and by right 
affections; and he who lives without it 
thereby reveals the atheism of his heart. 
God requires all men thus to worship him, 
Ezek. 36 : 37 ; Matt. 7:7-11 ; Phil. 4:6; 
1 Tim. 2:1-3; Jas. 1:5; and for neglecting 
this duty there can be no sufficient excuse. 
It is often said that prayer cannot alter the 
unchangeable purposes of God; but the 
great scheme of his providence embraces 
every prayer that shall be offered as well 
as the answer it shall receive. It is object- 
ed that prayer cannot increase his knowl- 
edge of our wants, nor his readiness to 
supply them ; and that in any case he will 
do what is for the best. But he deems it 
best to grant many blessings in answer to 
prayer which otherwise he would with- 
hold : " He will be very gracious unto thee 
at the voice of thy cry; when he shall hear 
it he will answer thee." The words of 
David will be those of every truly praying 
man: " This poor man cried, and the Lord 
heard him, and saved him out of all his 
troubles," Psa. 34:6. 

The whole tenor of the Bible certifies 
that God always hears the prayers offered 
in the right spirit, and many specific prom- 
ises taken literally seem to assure us that 
every such request shall be granted, Matt. 
17:20; 21:21, 22; John 14:13, 14; 16:23. 
But Christian experience as well as com- 
mon sense show that God cannot thus 
place omnipotence in the hand of any crea- 
ture. It would be a curse to the suppliant 

447 



PRE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PRE 



and to the universe. Nothing better can 
be conceived than to know, when we pour 
out our hearts to God, that infinite wisdom, 
love, and power direct the answer. The 
true design of these passages is to encour- 
age the most undoubting assurance that 
God hears every true prayer, and will 
grant it if it is best. If not, we ought not 
to wish it granted ; so that every right pe- 
tition has in it, " Not my will, but thine, be 
done." Yet God undoubtedly has power 
to awaken in a believer's heart the desire 
for a specific favor which He designs to 
bestow, and to give him an assurance of 
His purpose. It was so in the miracles 
wrought by ancient prophets and apostles, 
and is so now no doubt in occasional cases, 
though the need of miracles is past. We 
may well rejoice when He thus testifies 
anew that he is the hearer of prayer, but 
must beware of mistaking our enthusiasms 
for the witness of his Spirit. 

False and formal religion makes a merit 
of its prayers, as though " much speaking " 
and "vain repetitions" could atone for 
heartlessness. Hypocrites also are wont 
to pray chiefly that they may have praise 
of men. These sins Christ reproves in 
Matt. 6:5-15, and gives to his disciples the 
form of the Lord's Prayer as a beautiful 
model. In Eph. 6:18; iThess. 5:17; 1 Tim. 
2:8, Paul directs that believers should pray 
in all places and at all times, lifting up 
pure hands towards heaven, and blessing 
God for all things, whether in eating, drink- 
ing, or whatever they do ; and that every- 
thing be done to the glory of God, 1 Cor. 
10:31. In a word, our Saviour has recom- 
mended to us to pray without ceasing, Luke 
18:1; 21:36; and he has set us the exam- 
ple, Mark 1:35; Luke 3:21; 6:12; 9:29; 
11:1; 22:44; see especially his wonderful 
intercessory prayer, John 17. 

PREACH'ING, the public and oral incul- 
cation of the truths of religion, especially 
of the gospel of Christ, Isa. 61:1; Acts 8:4; 
2 Cor. 5:20; Eph. 3:8. Public instruction 
in religion was no doubt given in the ear- 
liest ages. Enoch prophesied, Jude 14, 15; 
and Noah was a preacher of righteousness, 
2 Pet. 2:5. Frequent instances of religious 
addresses occur in the history of Moses, 
the Judges, and the prophets ; and these 
were to some extent in connection with the 
Jewish ritual, Neh. 8. The Psalms sung in 
the temple conveyed instruction to the peo- 
ple. After the Captivity numerous syna- 
gogues were erected, in which the Word of 
God was read and expounded from Sab- 
448 



bath to Sabbath. Under the gospel dis- 
pensation, the preaching of Christ crucified 
by those whom he calls to be his ambassa- 
dors is an established ordinance of prime 
importance — God's chief instrumentality 
for the conversion of the world, Mark 16:15; 
1 Cor. 1:21 ; 2 Tim. 2:2; 4:2. 

PREPARATION, a term applied to the 
6th day of the week, because on it prepara- 
tion of meals, etc., was made for the ensu- 
ing Sabbath, which commenced at sunset, 
Matt. 27:62; Mark 15:42; Luke 23:54; 
John 19:14, 31, 42. The day on which 
Christ was crucified, Friday, the 15th of 
Nisan, is called "the Preparation of the 
Passover," John 19:14, because it prece- 
ded the Sabbath that occurred in Passover 
week. 

PRES'BYTERY, 1 Tim. 4:14, a body of 
elders, translated "elders "in Luke 22:66; 
Acts 22:5. See Elders. 

PRES'ENTLY, immediately, Prov. 12:16; 
Matt. 21:19; Phil- 2:2 3- See Straight- 
way. 

PRESS, WINE -PRESS, WINE -FAT, 
PRESS-FAT, or VAT, Prov. 3:10; Isa. 5:2; 
63:2; Hag. 2:16. Wine-presses were often 
constructed on a hillside, and with 2 parts : 
the upper trough, into which the grapes 
were thrown, and trodden by the bare feet 
of men, and the lower trough, into which 




the expressed juice flowed. Both are re- 
ferred to in Joel 3:13. These vats were 
sometimes excavated in the rock, or in 
the ground and lined with masonry, Matt. 
21:33. Robinson describes one which he 
saw in Palestine, the upper vat being 8 feet 
square and 15 inches deep, and the smaller 
vat, 2 feet below, 4 feet square and 3 feet 
deep. The treaders shouted and sang, Isa. 
16:10; Jer. 25:30, and their garments and 
skin became stained, Isa. 63:1-3; Rev. 
19:13-15. In such presses travellers in 



PRE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PRI 



Syria often see one man, or a company of 
2 to 5 men, treading grapes in the season. 
A similar press was used for olives, Mic. 
6:15. The Hebrew word for wine-press, 
gath, appears in several names of places. 
An ancient Egyptian mode of expressing 
grape juice was by placing the grapes in a 
bag set horizontally in a frame, and twisted 
by several men, the juice being caught in a 
large vessel below. See Wine. 

PRESSED in spirit, Acts 18:5, engrossed 
or " constrained by the word," R. V. 

PREVENT', in the A. V. means, not to 
hinder, but to precede, Psa. 59: 10; 1 Thess. 
4:15; to anticipate, Psa. 119:147, 148; Matt. 
17 : 25 : or to seize, 2 Sam. 22:6; Job 30 : 27. 

PRICKS, the points with which ox-goads 
were armed, by kicking against which a 
refractory bullock only hurt itself the more. 
Hence a proverb, found in Greek and Lat- 
in as well as in Hebrew, applied to those 
who resist lawful authority or the power of 
God, Acts 9:5, A. V. ; 26: 14. Compare Job 
15:25, 26. See Goad, Plough. 

PRIDE, Psa. 31 :2o, in the R. V. plottings. 

PRIEST, from presbyter, elder, one who 
officiated in the public worship of God, es- 
pecially in making expiation for sin, being 
" ordained for men in things pertaining to 
God, to offer both gifts and sacrifices for 
sins." The priesthood was not annexed 
to a certain family till after the promulga- 
tion of the law by Moses. Before that time 
the firstborn of each family, the fathers, the 
princes, the kings, were priests in their 
own cities and in their own dwellings. 
Cain and Abel, Noah, Abraham, and Job, 
Abimelech and Laban, Isaac and Jacob, 
offered personally their own sacrifices. In 
the solemnity of the covenant made by the 
Lord with his people at the foot of Mount 
Sinai, Moses performed the office of medi- 
ator, and young men were chosen from 
among Israel to perform the office of priests, 
Exod. 24:5. But after the Lord had cho- 
sen the tribe of Levi to serve him in his 
tabernacle, and the priesthood was an- 
nexed to the family of Aaron, the right of 
offering sacrifices and oblations to God 
was reserved to the priests of this family, 
Num. 16:40. The punishment of Uzziah 
king of Judah is well known: having pre- 
sumed to offer incense to the Lord, he was 
suddenly smitten with leprosy, 2 Chr. 26: 19. 
See also the case of Saul, 1 Sam. 13:7-14. 
However, it seems that on certain occa- 
sions the Hebrew prophets offered sacri- 
fice to the Lord, especially before a con- 
stant place of worship was fixed at Jerusa- 
29 



lem. See 1 Sam. 7:9, where Samuel, who 
was not a priest, offered a lamb for a burnt- 
sacrifice to the Lord. See also 1 Sam. 9:13; 
16:5; 1 Kin. 18:31, 33. 

The Lord having reserved to himself 
the firstborn of Israel because he had pre- 
served them from the hand of the destroy- 
ing angel in Egypt, by way of exchange 
and compensation he accepted the tribe of 
Levi for the service of his tabernacle, Num. 
3:41. Thus the whole tribe of Levi was 
appointed to the sacred ministry, but not 
all in the same manner ; for of the 3 sons 
of Levi, Gershom, Kohath, and Merari, the 
heads of the 3 great families, the Lord chose 
the family of Kohath, and out of this fam- 
ily the house of Aaron, to exercise the func- 
tions of the priesthood. All the rest of the 
family of Kohath, even the children of Mo- 
ses and their descendants, remained among, 
the Levites. 

The high-priest, who inherited his office 
as the eldest son, was at the head of all re- 
ligious affairs, and was the ordinary judge 
of all difficulties that belonged thereto, and 
even of the general justice and judgment 
of the Hebrew nation, as being at the head 
of all the priests by whom this was admin- 
istered, Deut. 17:8-12; 19:17; 21:5; 33:8,. 
10; Ezek. 44:24. He alone had the privi- 
lege of entering the sanctuary once a year, 
on the day of solemn expiation, to make 
atonement for the sins of the whole people, 
Lev. 16:2, etc. He was to be exempt from 
corporal defect. In general, no priest who 
had any such defect could offer sacrifice or 
enter the holy place to present the show- 
bread. But such were to be maintained by 
the sacrifices offered at the tabernacle, Lev. 
21 : 17-22. The priests also received a tithe 
from the Levites, Num. 18:28. 

God appropriated to the high-priest the 
oracle of" his truth, so that when he was 
habited in the proper garments of his 
office, and with the Urim and Thummim, 
God answered questions proposed to him, 
and disclosed to him secret and future 
things. He was to marry only a virgin of 
his own people, Lev. 21:13, 14, not even 
the widow of a priest. He was forbidden 
to mourn for the death of any of his rela- 
tions, even for his father or mother, or to 
enter into any place where a dead body 
lay, that he might not contract or hazard 
the contraction of uncleanness, Lev. 21 : 10- 
12. Less stringent rules regulated the 
mourning of the priests. 

The priests served immediately at the 
altar. They slew and dressed the public 

449 



PRI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PRI 



sacrifices, or at least it was done by the 
Levites under their direction. Private of- 
ferers slew their own victims, except in 
the case of turtle-doves or young pigeons, 
Lev. i. But all offerings upon the altar, 
the sprinkling of blood included, were 
made by the priests alone. They kept up 
a perpetual fire on the altar of burnt sacri- 
fices, and in the golden lamps in the sanc- 
tuary; they kneaded the loaves of show- 
bread, baked them, offered them on the 
golden table in the holy place, and changed 
them every Sabbath day. Compare Exod. 
28 ; 29 ; Lev. 8. They were forbidden to 
drink wine while on duty, Lev. 10:9. In 
the time of David a division of the priests 
was made into 24 courses, which served 
in turn a week at a time, 1 Chr. 24:1-19; 
2 Chr. 23:18. During the Captivity this 
arrangement seems to have been somewhat 
disordered, Ezra 2:36-39; Neh. 7:39-42. 
Every day, night and morning, a priest, 
appointed by casting of lots at the begin- 
ning of the week, brought into the sanc- 
tuary a smoking censer of incense, and set 
it on the golden altar, otherwise called the 
altar of incense, Luke 1:9. 




The sacred dress of the priests consist- 
ed of the following articles: short linen 
drawers; a close-fitting tunic of fine linen, 
woven in square or diamond-shaped fig- 
ures — " broidered " — reaching to the feet, 
and furnished with sleeves; a girdle of 
fine linen, interwoven with blue, purple, 
and scarlet, Exod. 28; 39. Plain linen 
ephods are also ascribed to them, 1 Sam. 
22 : 18 ; and a bonnet or turban, also of fine 
linen, in many folds. The priests always 
officiated with uncovered feet. The high- 
450 



priest wore nearly the same dress with the 
priests, and 4 articles in addition: an outer 




ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PRIEST, WITH INCENSE. 

tunic, called the robe of the ephod, woven 
entire, blue, with an ornamented border 
around the neck, and a fringe at the bot- 
tom made up of pomegranates and golden 
bells: an ephod of blue and purple and 
scarlet and fine linen, with golden threads 
interwoven, covering the body from the 
neck to the thighs ; having shoulder-pieces 
joined on the shoulders b) r clasps of gold 
in which were set onyx-stones graven with 
the names of the 12 tribes of Israel; and 
also a girdle of fine linen, woven with blue, 
purple, scarlet, and gold : a breastplate, 
attached at its 4 corners to the ephod, and 
likewise bearing the names of the 12 tribes 
on 12 precious stones: and the mitre, a 
high and ornamented turban, having on 
the front a gold plate with the inscription, 
" Holiness to the Lord." Neither he 
nor the priests wore their sacred dresses 
out of the temple, as we infer from Ezek. 
42:14; 44:17-19; Acts 23:5. 

The Lord had given no lands of inher- 
itance to the tribe of Levi in the Land of 
Promise. He intended that they should 
be supported by the tithes, Num. 18:26-28; 
Deut. 14:28 ; 26:12, the first-fruits, the offer- 
ings made in the sanctuary, and by their 
share of the sin-offerings and thanksgiv- 



PRI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PRO 



ing-offerings sacrificed in the sanctuary, of 
which certain parts were appropriated to 
them. In the peace-offerings they had the 
shoulder and the breast, Lev. 7:33, 34, in 
the sin-offering they burned on the altar 
the fat that covers the bowels, the liver, 
and the kidneys; the rest belonged to 
themselves, Lev. 7:6, 10. The skin or 
fleece of every sacrifice also belonged to 
them. When an Israelite sacrificed any 
animal for his own use, he was to give the 
priest the shoulder, the stomach, and the 
jaws, Deut. 18:3. The priest had also a 
share of the wool when sheep were shorn, 
Deut. 18:4. Thus, though the descendants 
of Levi had no lands or inheritances, their 
temporal wants were moderately supplied. 
God provided them houses and accommo- 
dations by appointing 48 cities for their 
residence, Num. 35:1-8. In the precincts 
of these cities they possessed 1,000 cubits 
beyond the walls. Of these 48 cities, 6 
were appointed as cities of refuge for those 
who had committed casual and involuntary 
manslaughter. The priests had 13 of these 
cities ; the others belonged to the Levites, 
Josh. 21:10-19. 

A principal employment of the priests, 
next to attending on the sacrifices and the 
temple service, was the instruction of the 
people and the deciding of controversies, 
distinguishing the several sorts of leprosy, 
divorce causes, the waters of jealousy, 
vows, causes relating to the law, and un- 
cleanness, etc. They publicly blessed the 
people in the name of the Lord. In time 
of war their duty was to carry the ark of 
the covenant, to consult the Lord, to sound 
the holy trumpets, and to encourage the 
army, Num. 10:8, 9; Deut. 20:2; 2 Chr. 
13:10-12, 14. 

After the division of the kingdom under 
Rehoboam, B. C. 975, the true Aaronic 
priests, and the Levites, left the dominions 
of Jeroboam — who established an idola- 
trous priesthood— and settled in the king- 
dom of Judah, 1 Kin. 12:26-32; 13:33; 
2 Chr. 11:13-15; 13:9. 

The " chief priests " of the Gospels and 
Acts were heads of the courses and ex- 
high-priests, the high-priesthood at that 
time being no longer held for life, but ob- 
tained by appointment and subject to fre- 
quent changes. 

The priesthood of Christ is the substance 
and truth, of which that of the Israelites 
was but a shadow and figure. Christ, the 
everlasting priest according to the order of 
Melchizedek, abides for ever, as Paul ob- 



serves ; whereas the priests according to 
the order of Aaron were mortal, and there- 
fore could not continue long, Heb. 7. The 
Lord, to express to the Hebrews what 
great favors he would confer on them, said 
he would make them kings and priests, 
Exod. 19:6; and Peter repeats this prom- 
ise to Christians, or rather, he tells them 
that they are in truth what Moses prom- 
ised to Israel, 1 Pet. 2:5, 9. See also Rev. 
1:6. In an important sense every Chris- 
tian offers himself a spiritual sacrifice, " ac- 
ceptable to God through Jesus Christ;" but 
in the Christian church there is no priest 
to make expiation for sin by a sacrifice but 
Christ alone, Heb. 9:11-26. 

PRINCE, Prov. 19 : 6, a liberal man. 
"Prince of the host," Dan. 8:11, Jehovah; 
in ver. 25 "the Prince of princes" seems 
to denote Christ, Josh. 5:14; Rev. 1:5. In 
Dan. 11:8, for "princes," read "molten 
images." 

PRINT'ED, Job 19:23, inscribed. 

PRIS'CA, ancient, Rom. 16:3, R. V.; 2 Tim. 
4:19, and its diminutive PRISCIL'LA, Acts 
18:2, 18; 1 Cor. 16:19, the name of Aquila's 
wife, whose hospitality and Biblical teach- 
ing to Apollos and wise counsels to the 
young pastor Timothy show how useful a 
mother in Israel may be. 

PRIS'ON. The Egyptians had prisons 
in charge of military officers, Gen. 39:20; 
40:3. Dry wells or pits were sometimes 
used as places of confinement, Gen. 37:24; 
Jer. 38:6-11. Two persons were put "in 
ward" during the wilderness journeys of 
the Israelites, Lev. 24:12; Num. 15:34. But 
imprisonment as a punishment was not 
prescribed by the Mosaic law. In the 
times of the kings, however, a prison was 
connected with the palace, 1 Kin. 22:27; 
Jer. 32:2; 37:21; compare Neh. 3:25. This 
was the case with the Herods also, Matt. 
14:3-11; Acts 12:4. By the Romans the 
fortress Antonia was so used, and the prae- 
torium at Caesarea, Acts 23:10, 35. The 
sacerdotal authorities also had a prison in 
Jerusalem, Acts 5:18-23; 26:10. 

PROBA'TION. See Prove. 

PROCH'ORUS, leader of the choir, one of 
the 7 original deacons, Acts 6:5, of whom 
nothing more is known. 

PROGNOS'TICATORS, Isa. 47:13, Chal- 
daeans who pretended to foretell future 
events by the varying aspects of the moon, 
or month by month. 

PROM'ISE, used by Paul to denote the 
spiritual gifts of God, chiefly the Messiah, 
the Holy Spirit, and the fulness of gospel 

451 



PRO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PRO 



blessings, of which an assurance was given 
to Abraham and other saints in behalf of 
themselves and of believers who should 
come after them, Rom. 4:13, 14; Gal. 3:14- 
29. The "children of the promise" are 
either the posterity of Isaac and Jacob, as 
distinguished from Ishmael and Esau, 
Rom. 9:8-13, Jews converted to Christian- 
ity, or all true believers who by faith lay 
hold on the promise of salvation in Christ. 
In Heb. n :39, " promise " means the thing 
promised, Acts 1 .4. The " exceeding great 
and precious promises " of God include 
all good things for this life and the future, 
which are infallibly secured to his people 
in Christ, 2 Cor. 1:20; 1 Tim. 4:8; 2 Pet. 
1:4. On the ground of the infinite merits 
of their Redeemer, infinite love, unbounded 
wisdom, and almighty power are pledged 
for their benefit; and having given them 
his only Son, God will with him freely give 
them every inferior blessing he sees to be 
desirable for them, Rom. 8:32. 

PROP'ER, Heb. 11:23, goodly or hand- 
some. In 1 Chr. 29:3; Acts 1:19; 1 Cor. 
j:j, it means one's own. 

PROPH'ET. The Hebrew term thus ren- 
dered seems to mean a pourer forth, i. e., 
of communications received from God. 
Two other Hebrew terms meaning seer are 
often applied to men thus commissioned, 
1 Chr. 29:29. The general meaning of the 
English word prophet, which is transferred 
from the Greek, is a speaker for another, 
especially an utterer of the will of God. 
Thus Abraham is called a prophet, Gen. 
20:7, and Aaron the prophet of Moses, 
Exod. 7:1. The special but more frequent 
meaning of the word is a foreteller of fu- 
ture events, which the expounders of God's 
will were often empowered by him to re- 
veal. Prophecy in this sense, the fore- 
telling of future events by inspiration from 
God, is very different from a sagacious and 
happy conjecture as to futurity, and from 
a vague and equivocal oracle, without any 
certain meaning. A true prophecy can 
come only from God, and is the highest 
proof of the divine origin of the message 
of which it is a part, Isa. 41:21-23; 45:21; 
46:9, 10. A true prophecy may be known 
by these marks : being announced at a 
suitable time before the event it foretells ; 
having a particular and exact agreement 
with that event ; being such as no human 
sagacity or foresight could produce; and 
being delivered by one claiming to be un- 
der the inspiration of the Almighty. Manv 
of the prophecies of Scripture foretold 
452 



events ages before they occurred — events 
of which there was then no apparent prob- 
ability, and the occurrence of which depend- 
ed on innumerable contingencies, invol- 
ving the history of things and the volitions 
of persons not then in existence ; and yet 
these predictions were fulfilled at the time 
and place and in the manner prophesied. 
Such were the predictions respecting the 
coming and crucifixion of the Messiah, the 
dispersion and preservation of the Jews, 
etc. The Scripture prophecies are a scheme 
of vast extent, the very earliest predictions 
reaching down to the end of the world's 
history — a scheme gradually and harmoni- 
ously developed from age to age, and by 
many different persons, some of them not 
fully apprehending, and "searching dili- 
gently what the Spirit of Christ which was 
in them did signify," 1 Pet. 1:11, the whole 
manifestly the work of Jehovah, and mar- 
vellous in our eyes. A degree of obscurity 
rests on the prophetic writings, which pa- 
tient and prayerful study alone can dispel, 
while those which are yet unfulfilled must 
await the coming of the events which will 
make all at length clear. Many predic- 
tions relating primarily to events and de- 
liverances near at hand were also designed 
of God as sure prophecies of yet more illus- 
trious events in the future ; and events re- 
mote from each other in time are by the 
prophet beheld and described as side by 
side, as are near and remote objects in a 
landscape painting. Thus in Isaiah 10 and 
11 the deliverance of Judah from the As- 
syrians is connected with the deliverance 
wrought by the Messiah; in Zechariah 9 
the triumphs of Alexander the Great are 
connected with the Messiah's coming; in 
Joel 2:28-31 the Pentecostal effusion of the 
Spirit is connected with the last day, as 
also by Peter, Acts 2 ; and in Matthew 24 
events connected with the destruction of 
Jerusalem and distinctive features of the 
end of the world are blended in the gen- 
eral view of the coming of Christ. Re- 
specting the New Testament phrase, " This 
was done that it might be fulfilled," see 
Fulfilled. 

The Old Testament prophets, of whom 
Moses was a noble example, Deut. 18:15, 
18, were special agents of Jehovah, raised 
up and sent as occasion required, to incite 
to dutv, convict of sin, call to repentance 
and reformation, instruct kings, and de- 
nounce against nations the judgments of 
God, 2 Kin. 17:13. During the period of 
the Judges, the priests and Levites had ap- 



PRO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PRO 



parently become degenerate and corrupt. 
A reformation was needed. To effect this 
Samuel was raised up, i Sam. 3:20, and 
from his time the prophets appear as a reg- 
ular and important order in the Hebrew 
theocracy. Saul, David, and Solomon, 
though partakers of the prophetic gift, were 
admonished by them; compare Acts 2:29- 
31. After the division of the kingdom they 
were active in Israel, from which the true 
priests of the Lord withdrew, 2 Chr. 11:13, 
and where the prophets preserved to some 
extent the pure worship of Jehovah, 1 Kin. 
18; 19:10, 14, 18; 2 Kin. 4:9, 23, 42; 2 Chr. 
28 : 8-15. The most illustrious of the proph- 
ets of Israel were Elijah and Elisha, Jonah, 
Amos, and Hosea. In Judah a series of 
prophets declared the will of God to suc- 
cessive kings, and to the priests and peo- 
ple. Some prophets were also historians, 
2 Chr. 9:29; 26:22; 32:32. Most of the 
prophets whose writings have been pre- 
served belonged to the southern kingdom. 
There were false and idolatrous prophets, 
Jer. 23 ; 28, and some who, though true in- 
terpreters of the will of God, were disobe- 
dient in life, Num. 22-24 ', but most of the 
genuine prophets of God were humble, 
faithful, self-denying, fearless men, 2 Kin. 
1:8; 5:15, 16, often persecuted and slain, 
Acts 7:52; Heb. 11:32-38; Jas. 5:10, but 
exerting a powerful influence as witnesses 
for God, and forming a link between the 
Mosaic and Christian dispensation. 

Fervid and vehement utterance some- 
times burst from persons under the influ- 
ence of the Spirit of God; speech similar 
in mode, though widely different in matter, 
might be called prophesying when it came 
from persons filled with an evil spirit, as 
Saul, 1 Sam. 18: 10. 

" Schools of the prophets " are first men- 
tioned in Samuel's time, and may have 
been founded by him. One was then es- 
tablished at Ramah, 1 Sam. 19:19, 20; later 
we find them at Gilgal, Bethel, Jericho, and 
elsewhere, 2 Kin. 2:1, 3, 5; 4:38; 6:1, 2. 
Under the superintendence of an elderly 
prophet, styled "father" or "master," 
1 Sam. 10:12; 2 Kin. 2:3, young men were 
instructed in the Law and its interpreta- 
tion, and in music and sacred poetry, both 
of which were always associated with 
prophecy, Exod. 15:20, 21; Judg. 4:4; 5:1; 
1 Sam. 10:5; 1 Chr. 25:1-6; 2 Kin. 3:14, 15. 
Though this training might fit men to be- 
come the instruments of God, the prophetic 
gift of inspiration was something outside 
and independent of it, having been con- 



ferred, e. g., on Amos, who had received 
no prophetic education, Amos 7:14, 15. 

The prophets received their messages 
from God, sometimes in visions, trances, 
and dreams. Compare Num. 24:2-16; Isa. 
6; Joel 2:28; Acts 10:11, 12; Rev. 1:10-20. 
These revelations were at times attended 
with overpowering manifestations of the 
Godhead, and at other times were simply 
breathed into the mind by the Spirit of 
God. Their messages were delivered to 
the kings, princes, and priests whom they 
most concerned, or to the people at large, 
in writing, or by word of mouth and in 
public places, often with miracles, or with 
symbolic actions designed to explain and 
enforce them, Isa. 20; Jer. 7:2; 19; Ezek. 
3:10. 

Besides scattered prophetic utterances, 
the Old Testament contains the inspired 
writings of 16 of the Hebrew prophets, 4 
of whom, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and 
Daniel, are called the greater prophets, 
and the other 12 the minor prophets. See 
each name in its place for further particu- 
lars. 

The canonical prophets cover about 430 
years, from B. C. 850 to 420. See Table 
in the Appendix. 

Some time after the close of the Old 
Testament canon the Jews grouped their 
Scriptures into 3 grand divisions, the 2d 
being styled "the Prophets," Luke 24:44. 

Prophets are represented as extinct in 
1 Mace. 4:46; 9:27; 14:41, and Ecclus. 
36 : 15. Prophetic inspiration was conferred 
on Zacharias and Simeon, Luke 1:67-79; 
2:25-32. The prophetic order was again 
signally represented by John the Baptist, 
Matt. 11:7-18; Mark 1:2-8; Luke 3:2. 
Christ, of whom all the prophets bore wit- 
ness, Luke 24:27, 44; Acts 10:43; 1 Pet. 
1 : 10, 11, is eminently the Prophet of his 
church in all ages, Deut. 18:15-19; Acts 
3:22-24, revealing to them, by his inspired 
servants, by himself, and by his Spirit, all 
we know of God and immortality. His 
apostles exercised a prophetic activity as 
inspired teachers for God, bearing " the 
testimony of Jesus," Rev. 19:10, and fore- 
telling future events. They were peculiar- 
ly privileged above all the Old Testament 
prophets in having seen the Messiah, Matt. 
13:16, 17. The writer of the Revelation is 
the counterpart of the Old Testament 
prophets to whom visions of the future 
were revealed. In the apostolic church the 
"prophets " were a class of men supernat- 
urally endowed, and standing next to the 

453 



PRO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PRO 



apostles, x Cor. 12:28; Eph. 4:11. They 
seem to have spoken from immediate inspi- 
ration, whether in reference to the future, 
as Agabus, Acts 11:28; 21:10, 11, or to cur- 
rent time, as in the mission of Paul and 
Barnabas, Acts 13:1-3, or in publicly ex- 
pounding the mind of the Spirit or the 
oracles of God already given as to doctrine 
and practice, Acts 15:27, 28, 32; compare 

1 Cor. 11:4, 5; 12:10, 11; 14:1,3-6, 22-26, 
29-33; Eph. 3:5. 

The Greeks gave to their poets the name 
of "prophets" or interpreters "of the mu- 
ses;" and in this sense Paul applies the 
term to the poet Aratus, Tit. 1 : 12. 

PROPH'ETESS, the wife of a prophet, 
Isa. 8:3, or a woman who has the gift of 
prophecy, as in the Old Testament Miriam, 
Exod. 15:20, Deborah, Judg. 4:4, Huldah, 

2 Kin. 22 : 14, and apparently Hannah, 
1 Sam. 2:1; in the New Testament Anna, 
Luke 2:36-38, Elisabeth and Mary for a 
time, Luke 1:41-55. The 4 daughters of 
Philip the evangelist " did prophesy," Acts 
21:9; compare Acts 2:17, 18; 1 Cor. 11:5. 
Noadiah was a false prophetess, Neh. 6:14. 

PROPITIA'TION, the offering which ap- 
peases the wrath of one against whom an 
offence has been committed. Christ is 
" the propitiation for our sins," Rom. 3:25, 
inasmuch as his sacrifice alone removes 
the obstacles which prevented the mercy 
of God from saving sinners, and appeases 
the just wrath of the law, 1 John 2:2; 4:10. 
The same Greek word is used in the Sep- 
tuagint to denote an "atonement," Num. 
5:8; a "sin-offering," Ezek. 44:27; and the 
covering of the ark of the covenant, Lev. 
16:14; Heb. 9:5. See Mercy-seat. 

PROS'ELYTE, a new comer ; among the 
Jews a convert from heathenism to Juda- 
ism. The Mosaic law, and afterwards the 
prophets, enjoined kind treatment of the 
"stranger" — Septuagint, proselutos — i. <?., 
one not born an Israelite but dwelling in 
Israel, Lev. 19:33, 34; Deut. 10:18, 19; 
Jer. 22:3; Zech. 7:10. He was required to 
keep the Sabbath, Exod. 20:10, and to ab- 
stain from idolatry and blasphemy, Lev. 
20:2; 24:16; was entitled to protection in 
the cities of refuge, Num. 35:15, and might 
celebrate the day of atonement, Lev. 16:29, 
the feast of weeks and of tabernacles, Deut. 
16:11, 14, but could not keep the passover 
without submitting to circumcision, Exod. 
12:48; Num. 9:14 — thus completely joining 
himself to the congregation of Israel and 
engaging to observe their law in all its 
particulars. The dispersion of the Jews 
454 



through many lands in the period between 
the Captivity and the rise of Christianity 
made their faith known among the heathen, 
many of whom, especially women, were 
won to a more or less complete adoption of 
it, Acts 2:10; 16:13; compare Esth. 8:7. 
The Jews in their zeal to make proselytes 
sometimes employed objectionable means. 
Thus in the time of the Maccabees John 
Hyrcanus forcibly proselyted the Idumae- 
ans, B. C. 130. And our Saviour rebukes 
the Pharisees for their blind zeal in making 
proselytes to ceremonial Judaism without 
caring for the circumcision of the heart, 
Matt. 23 : 15 ; Rom. 2 : 28, 29. The later rab- 
bins, 2d century A. D. and onward, classify 
proselytes as, 1. "proselytes of the gate," 
Exod. 20:10, who, without being circum- 
cised or adopting the full Jewish ritual, 
embraced the monotheism and the Mes- 
sianic hopes of the Jews, and observed 
what the rabbins called " the 7 precepts of 
Noah " — against idolatry, blasphemy, hom- 
icide, incest, robbery, resistance to magis- 
trates, and eating blood — or animals with- 
out shedding their blood. To this class 
probabty belonged the centurion of Luke 
7, the Greeks of John 12:20, Cornelius, 
Acts 10, and possibly other non-Jewish per- 
sons mentioned as "devout" and "fearing 
God." 2. " Proselytes of righteousness," 
i. e., complete proselytes, who bound them- 
selves to a full observance of the Mosaic 
law, and by circumcision, baptism, and an 
offering obtained all the rights of Jews by 
birth, whom they often exceeded in fanat- 
icism, Matt. 23:15; compare Acts 13:50. 
Many proselytes became converts to Chris- 
tianity, Acts 6:5; 13:43; 16:14; I7 : 4; J 8:7- 
PROVE has 2 meanings : to verify or de- 
monstrate, Acts 9:22; 25:7; and to test or 
make trial of, Exod. 16:4; 20:20; Luke 
14 : 19. Our word probation usually has 
this 2d meaning. Adam was placed on 
probation, and fell, Gen. 2:15-17; 3:1-6; 
and every child of Adam is on trial, Psa. 
7:9; 11:4, with the opportunity of turning 
to God and being saved, Job 2>3 '• H~3° J 
Prov. 28: 13 ; 1 John 1 :g. Probation implies 
a sense of right and wrong, of the obliga- 
tion to obey conscience, and of the desert 
of punishment for disobedience ; a period 
of temptation and of divine aids to holi- 
ness, and the final acceptance or continued 
rejection of the divine warnings against 
sin and the divine calls to turn from sin 
and live. Scripture gives no sanction, but 
decided contradiction, to the idea that pro- 
bation in any case continues beyond this 



PRO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PRU 



life, Prov. 1:24-31; Matt. 25:10; Rom. 2:12- 
16; Rev. 22:11; compare Eccl. 11:3. A 
distinct knowledge of the way of salvation 
is not necessary before one can exercise 
that godly sorrow for sin and that cast- 
ing one's self on the mercy of God which 
insure salvation; for he imparted these 
saving graces to multitudes in Old Testa- 
ment times who had no clear knowledge 
of Christ, and to many, we may trust, in 
heathen lands, Acts 10:35; Rom. 2:12, 13. 

PROVERBS of Solomon, one of the 
poetical books of the Old Testament; a 
collection of pointed and sententious moral 
maxims, the fruit of human sagacity and 
experience, but above all, of the inspira- 
tion of God. Solomon, who uttered 3,000 
proverbs, 1 Kin. 4:32; Eccl. 12:9, is the 
chief author, about B. C. 1000; but the book, 
which may have been compiled in its pres- 
ent form in Hezekiah's reign, Prov. 25:1, 
contains proverbs of later date and other 
authorship than Solomon. There is no 
book of the Old Testament whose canoni- 
cal authority is better attested, and the 
New Testament often quotes or alludes to 
it; see Rom. 12:20; 1 Thess. 5:15; Heb. 
12:5, 6; Jas. 4:6; 1 Pet. 4:8; 2 Pet. 2:22. 
Its " winged words" are a rich storehouse 
of heavenly wisdom, and few questions 
can arise in actual life on which they do 
not shed light. A missionary in India says 
that no book in the Bible is so popular 
among the natives as this, being wonder- 
fully adapted to the customs and needs of 
Oriental people. 

Its principal parts are as follows : 
1 Ch. 1 to 9. A connected series of prov- 
erbs commending and describing true wis- 
dom, which comes from above and begins 
in the fear of God; with warnings against 
folly. 

2. Ch. 10 to 22:17. A collection of sep- 
arate ethical and practical maxims, with 
frequent reference to the Lord as the wit- 
ness and recompenser of human conduct. 

3. Ch. 22:18 to 24:22. A connected se- 
ries commending justice and prudence. 

4. Ch. 24:23-34. Unconnected sayings of 
several sages. 

5. Ch. 25 to 29. Another collection of 
proverbs by Solomon, copied out by the 
men of Hezekiah. 

6. Ch. 30. " The words of Agur the son 
of Jakeh," affording examples of the enig- 
matic proverbs so popular in the East. 

7. Ch. 31 : 1-9. " King Lemuel's " exhor- 
tations to temperance and justice. 

8. Ch. 31:10-31. An alphabetic acrostic 



poem, setting forth the qualities and praise 
of a virtuous woman. 

PROVIDENCE, Acts 24:2, a superintend- 
ing and forecasting care. The providence 
of God upholds and governs every created 
thing. Its operation is coextensive with 
the universe, and as unceasing as the flow 
of time. All his attributes are engaged in 
it. He provideth for the raven his food, 
and satisfieth the desire of every living 
thing. The Bible shows us all nature look- 
ing up to him and depending upon him, 
Job 38:41; Psa. 104; 145:15, 16; 147:8, 9; 
and uniformly declares that every occur- 
rence, as well as every being, is perfectly 
controlled by him. There is no such thing 
as chance in the universe; "the lot is cast 
into the lap, but the whole disposing there- 
of is of the Lord," Prov. 16:33. Not a 
sparrow, nor a hair of the head, falls to the 
ground without his knowledge, Isa. 14:26, 
27; Matt. 10:29, 30; Acts 17:24-29. Noth- 
ing that was not too minute for God to cre- 
ate is too minute for him to preserve and 
control. The history of each man, the rise 
and fall of nations, and the progress of the 
church of Christ reveal at every step the 
hand of Him who " worketh all things after 
the counsel of his own will." 

PROVINCE, 1, is probably used in the 
sense of "tribe" in 1 Kin. 20:14-19. 

2. Elsewhere it denotes the divisions of 
the Chaldaean Empire, Dan. 2:49, and of 
the Persian Empire, Ezra 2:1; Esth. 1:1, 

3, 22, these latter being smaller sections of 
the satrapies, each having its own govern- 
or. 3. Acts 23:34; 25:1. After the battle 
of Actium, B. C. 27, Augustus divided the 
Roman provinces into senatorial and im- 
perial provinces, assigning to the Senate 
those that Avere easily governed, and re- 
taining the turbulent for himself. Over a 
senatorial province a proconsul, A. V. 
" deputy," with purely civil powers, was 
yearly appointed by the Senate. An im- 
perial province was ruled by a legate or 
president, or in some cases by a procura- 
tor, A. V. " governor," appointed by the 
emperor. Among the imperial provinces 
was Syria, of which Judaea was a sub-prov- 
ince governed by a procurator, who was 
assisted in his judicial functions by a 
"council," Acts 25:1, 12. It was a Roman 
citizen's right to appeal from a provincial 
governor to the emperor, ver. n. 

PROVOKE', in 2 Cor. 9:2; Heb. 10:24, 
challenge or stimulate. 

PRU'DENT, skilful, Isa. 10 : 13 ; Matt. 
11 :25; Luke 10:21. 

455 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PSA 



PSALMS, the book of. The Hebrew 
name for this book is tehillim, praises, 
though a part of the book is really ele- 
giac. Many of the psalms have the su- 
perscription viizmbr, a poem, song. This 
word is rendered in the Septuagint by 
psalmos, that is, a song sung to music, a 
lyric poem. The Greek psalterion means 
a stringed instrument ; hence by a meta- 
phor the book of Psalms is called Psalter. 
For the poetical characteristics of the 
Psalms see Poetry. 

Classification. — Some writers have 
classified the psalms according to their po- 
etic character, into odes, elegies, etc. A 
preferable method is to divide them ac- 
cording to their contents. In this way they 
have been arranged in 7 classes. 

I. Hymns in praise of Jehovah; tehillim 
in the proper sense. These are directed 
to Jehovah as the God of all nature and 
the Creator of the universe, Psa. 8, 104; as 
the protector and patron of Israel, Psa. 20, 
29, 33, or of individuals, with thanksgiving 
for deliverance from evils, Psa. 18, 30, 46, 
47 ; or they refer to the more special attri- 
butes of Jehovah, Psa. 90, 139. These 
Psalms express thoughts of the highest 
sublimity in respect to God, providence, 
redemption, etc. 

II. Temple hymns; sung at the conse- 
cration of the temple, the entrance of the 
ark, etc., or intended for the temple ser- 
vice, Psa. 24, 132. So also " pilgrim songs," 
sung by those who came up to worship in 
the temple, etc ; as, for example, the " songs 
of degrees," Psa. 120-134. See Degrees. 

III. Religious and moral songs of a gen- 
eral character, containing the poetical ex- 
pression of emotions and feelings, and 
therefore subjective ; as, for example, con- 
fidence in God, Psa. 23, 62, 125; devoted- 
ness to God, Psa. 16 ; longing for the wor- 
ship of the temple, Psa. 42, 43 ; prayers for 
the forgiveness of sin, etc. To this class 
belong the penitential Psalms, Psa. 6, 25, 
32, 38, 51, 130, 143. Also didactic songs; 
the poetical expression of some truth, max- 
im, etc., Psa. 1, 34, 128; Psa. 15, 32, 50, etc. 
This is a numerous class. 

IV. Elegiac Psalms, that is, lamentations, 
psalms of complaint, generally united with 
prayer for help. 

V. Messianic Psalms, as 2, 8, 16, 22, 40, 
45. 69, 72, 97, no, 118. 

VI. Historical Psalms, in which the an- 
cient history of the Israelites is repeated 
in a hortatory manner, Psa. 78, 105, 106, 
114. 

456 



VII. Imprecatory Psalms, exhibiting the 
justice of God as pledged to punish impen- 
itent opposers of his kingdom, Psa. 35, 52, 
58, 59, 69, 109, 137. 

But it is impossible to form any perfect 
arrangement, because some Psalms belong 
in part to 2 or more different classes. Be- 
sides the proper Messianic Psalms, predic- 
tions of the Messiah are widely scattered 
through this book, and the attention of the 
devout reader is continually attracted by 
passages foretelling His character and His 
works. Not a few of these are alluded to 
in the New Testament; and it is unques- 
tionable that the language and structure of 
many others not quoted were intended to 
bear witness to the Son of God. David 
himself was an eminent type of the Saviour, 
and many events of his life shadowed forth 
his Son and Lord. The mention of these 
in the inspired writings is not undesigned ; 
the recorded trials and victories of David 
find in their reference to the Messiah their 
highest claim to a place in the sacred 
writings. Lord Bacon has remarked that 
many prophetic passages in the Old Testa- 
ment are "of the nature of their Author, to 
whom a thousand years are as one day; 
and therefore they are not fulfilled punctu- 
ally at once, but have springing and germ- 
inant accomplishment through many ages, 
though the height or fulness of them may 
refer to some one age." 

Inscriptions.— With the exception of 
24 Psalms, called in the Talmud orphan 
Psalms, all the rest have inscriptions of 
various kinds. They refer to the author, 
the occasion, different kinds of song, the 
melody or rhythm, the instrumental accom- 
paniment, the choir who shall perform, etc. 
These are mostly very obscure, because 
the music and musical instruments of the 
Hebrews are almost unknown to us. They 
are of very high antiquity, if not as old as 
the Psalms themselves, and in the Hebrew 
are not detached from the Psalms, as in 
modern translations. They appear with 
numerous variations in the ancient Greek 
and Syriac versions. Many words in these 
inscriptions remain untranslated, and can 
only be conjecturally interpreted. See 
Higgaion, Maschil, etc. 

Authors and age of the Psalms — 
To David are assigned 73 Psalms in the 
Hebrew, and in the Septuagint 11 more. 
Psalm 90 is ascribed to Moses. As to the 
i authorship of the other Psalms much di- 
versity of opinion has prevailed among 
Biblical critics. 



PSA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PTO 



In the Hebrew Bible the Psalms were 
divided into 5 books, each of which closes 
with a doxology. 

Book I. comprises Psalms 1-4] 
" II. " " 42-72. 

" III. " " 73-89. 

" IV. " " 90-106. 

" V. " 107-150. 

One Psalm occurs twice, Psa. 14 ; compare 
Psa. 53. Some occur as parts of other 
Psalms ; as for example, Psa. 70 forms also 
a part of Psa. 40. So also some Psalms are 
repeated from other books of Scripture; 
thus Psa. 18 is the same with 2 Sam. 22. 
Books IV. and V. contain some Psalms 
which evidently were composed after the 
Captivity. The final compilation of the 
whole collection is generally referred to 
Ezra, about 450 B. C. 

These invaluable sacred songs exhibit 
the sublimest conceptions of God as the 
Creator, Preserver, and Governor of the 
universe, to say nothing of the prophetical 
character of many of them, and their rela- 
tion to the Messiah and the great plan of 
man's redemption. They present us with 
the most perfect models of childlike res- 
ignation and devotedness, of unwavering 
faith and confidence in God. They are an 
inspired epitome of the Bible for purposes 
of devotion, and are peculiarly dear to the 
people of God as expressing every phase 
of religious experience. Luther, in his 
preface to the Psalter, has the following 
beautiful language : " Where canst thou 
find nobler words of joy than in the Psalms 
of praise and thanksgiving? There thou 
mayest look into the hearts of all good men 
as into beautiful and pleasant gardens, 
yea, as into heaven itself. How do grate- 
ful and fine and charming blossoms spring 
up there from every kind of pleasing and 
rejoicing thoughts towards God and his 
goodness ! Again, where canst thou find 
more deep or mournful words of sorrow 
than in the Psalms of lamentation and 
woe? There thou mayest look again into 
the hearts all good men as upon death, 
yea, as if into hell. How dark and gloomy 
is it there from anxious and troubled views 
of the wrath of God! I hold, however, 
that no better or finer book of models, or 
legends of saints and martyrs, has existed, 
or can exist on earth, than the Psalter. 
Far we find here not alone what one or two 
saints have done, but what the Head of all 
saints has done, and what all holy men 
still do, in what attitude they stand to- 
wards God and towards their friends and 



enemies, and how they conduct themselves 
in all dangers and sufferings. And besides 
this, all sorts of divine doctrines and pre- 
cepts are contained in it. Hence it is that 
the Psalter is the book of all good men ; 
and every one, whatever his circumstan- 
ces may be, finds in it psalms and words 
suited to his circumstances, and which are 
to him just as if they had been put there 
on his very account, and in such a way 
that he himself could not have made or 
found or wished for better." 

In Luke 24:44, the word "psalms" de- 
notes one of the 3 divisions of the Hebrew 
Bible, the Hagiographa or devotional wri- 
tings. See Bible. Of the 804 quotations 
or allusions to the Old Testament in the 
New Testament, 104 are to passages in 
the Psalms. With regard to alphabetical 
Psalms and Psalms of degrees, see De- 
grees and Letter. 

PSAL/TERY. See Harp and Music. 

PTOLEMA'IS. See Accho. 

PTOL'EMY, or PTOLEM^E'US, the dy- 
nastic name of the Greek kings of Egypt. 

I. Ptolemy, I., So'ter, B. C. 323-285, the 
founder of the dynasty, probably a son of 
Philip of Macedon, was one of the generals 
of Alexander the Great. After the con- 
queror's death Ptolemy seized Egypt, B. C. 
323, and held it against Perdiccas, 321, De- 
metrius, 312, and Antigonus, 301 B. C. In 
an expedition against Syria, probably B. C. 
320, he took Jerusalem on a Sabbath day, 
and carried captive many Jews into Egypt, 
where, however, he treated them kindly, 
founding a flourishing Jewish colony. He 
is supposed to be referred to in Dan. 11:5 
as " the king of the south." 

II. Ptolemy II., Philadel'phus, B. C. 285- 
247, son of the preceding. He was a lover 
of learning, founded the library and muse- 
um at Alexandria, and is said to have oc- 
casioned the Septuagint translation of the 
Old Testament. He sought to find a com- 
mon ground on which the Hebrew religion 
and Greek philosophy could stand togeth- 
er. In a war with Antiochus II. of Syria he 
secured peace, B. C. 350, by marrying his 
daughter Berenice to the king of Syria. 
See Dan. 11:6. 

III. Ptolemy III., Euer'getes, B. C. 247- 
222, son of the former, invaded Syria about 
B. C. 246, to avenge the repudiation and 
murder of his sister Berenice. He extend- 
ed his conquests to Antioch and Babylon, 
offered sacrifices in the temple at Jerusalem, 
and carried back to Egypt Egyptian idols 
taken toBabylon by Cambyses, Dan. 11:7-9. 

457 



PUB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PUL 



IV. Ptolemy IV., Philop'ator, B. C. 222- 
205, son of the preceding. After the inva- 
sion of Egypt by Antiochus the Great, Ptol- 
emy gained a great victory over the Syrian 
king at Raphia, near Gaza, B. C. 215, Dan. 
11:10-12; and having offered sacrifices of 
thanksgiving in the temple at Jerusalem, 
he attempted to enter the sanctuary, but 
was suddenly paralyzed. 

V. Ptolemy V., Epiph'anes, B. C. 205- 
181, was only 5 years old at the death of 
his father, Ptolemy IV. During his mi- 
nority Antiochus the Great captured Coele- 
Syria, Phoenicia, and Judaea, where there 
was a strong Syrian faction among the 
Jews ; and many of the Jews who favored 
the Ptolemaean dynasty took refuge in 
Egypt. By the mediation of Rome and the 
marriage of Antiochus' daughter Cleopa- 
tra to Ptolemy, B. C. 193, Egypt and Syria 
were reconciled, but the power of Egypt 
was rapidly declining, Dan. 11:13-17. Ptol- 
emy was poisoned while preparing an ex- 
pedition against Seleucus, the son of Anti- 
ochus the Great. 

VI. Ptolemy VI., Philome'tor, B. C. 181- 
146, was 6 years old when his father died. 
Under the regency of his mother Egypt 
enjoyed peace with Syria; but after her 
death, B. C. 173, Antiochus Epiphanes in- 
vaded Egypt, B. C. 171, and took Ptolemy 
prisoner. His throne was then occupied 
by his younger brother, Ptolemy Physcon, 
with whom, after his release, he shared the 
kingdom. Another invasion of Egypt by 
Antiochus, B. C. 168, was checked by the 
Romans, Dan. 11:25-30. During his reign 
the high -priest Onias sought refuge in 
Egypt from the disorders at Jerusalem, 
and the Jewish temple at Leontopolis was 
built, affording a religious centre to the 
Jews in Egypt. 

PUB'LICAN, an officer of the revenue 
employed in collecting taxes. Among the 
Romans there were 2 sorts of tax-gather- 
ers : some were general receivers, who in 
each province had deputies ; they collected 
the revenues of the empire, and accounted 
to the emperor. These men were of great 
consideration in the government; and Cic- 
ero says that among these were the flower 
of the Roman knights, the ornaments of 
the city, and the strength of the common- 
wealth. But the deputies, the under-col- 
lectors, the publicans of the lower order, 
were looked upon as so many thieves and 
pickpockets. Theocritus being asked 
which was the most cruel of all beasts, an- 
swered, " Among the beasts of the wilder- 
458 



ness, the bear and the lion ; among the 
beasts of the city, the publican and the 
parasite." Among the Jews the name and 
profession of a publican were especially 
odious. They could not, without the ut- 
most reluctance, see publicans exacting 
tributes and impositions laid on them by 
foreigners, the Romans. The Galileans, 
or Herodians, especially, submitted to this 
with the greatest impatience, and thought 
it even unlawful, Deut. 17:15. Those of 
their own nation who undertook this office 
they looked upon as heathen, Matt. 18:17. 
It is even said that they would not allow 
them to enter the temple or the synagogues, 
to engage in the public prayers or offices 
of judicature, or to give testimony in a 
court of justice. 

There were many publicans in Judaea in 
the time of our Saviour ; Zacchaeus, proba- 
bly, was one of the principal receivers, 
since he is called " chief among the publi- 
cans," Luke 19:2; but Matthew was only 
an inferior publican, Luke 5:27. The Jews 
reproached Jesus with being a "friend of 
publicans and sinners, and eating with 
them," Luke 7:34; but he, knowing the 
self-righteousness, unbelief, and hypocrisy 
of his accusers, replied, " The publicans 
and harlots go into the kingdom of God 
before you," Matt. 21:31. Compare also 
the beautiful demeanor of the penitent 
publican in the temple and the self-justify- 
ing spirit of the Pharisee, Luke 18:10-14. 

PUB'LIUS, the governor of Melita when 
Paul was shipwrecked on that island A. D. 
60, Acts 28 : 7-9. 

PUL, I., an Assyrian king, about 765 
B. C, when Assyria is first mentioned in 
Scripture after the time of Nimrod. He 
invaded Israel during the reign of Mena- 
hem, but was induced to retire by a pres- 
ent of 1,000 talents of silver, equivalent to 
at'least. $1,500,000, 2 Kin. 15:19, 20; 1 Chr. 
5:26. He is identified with Phul-lukh of 
the Nineveh tablets, where he is said to 
have invaded Syria and received tribute 
from Samaria. See Tiglath-Pileser. 

II. A name given in Isa. 66:19 to a re- 
gion associated with Tarshish and Lud. 
Bochart and others suppose it to be the 
island Philae in the Nile near Ethiopia, 
with the surrounding country ; others place 
it in some remote region of Africa ; by the 
Septuagint it is identified with Phut, named 
with Lud in Egypt, in Ezek. 27:10; 30:5. 
margin. See Phut. 

PULSE, a general name for peas, beans, 
and other podded seeds, occurs only in 



PUN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PUR 



Dan. 1:12, 16, as the translation of 2 He- 
brew words meaning seeds ; the reference 
is probably to vegetable food in general. 
In 2 Sam. 17:28, where "pulse" is sup- 
plied, probably parched peas, still a favor- 
ite food in the East, are denoted. 

PUN'ISHMENTS. The penalties inflict- 
ed in ancient times for various crimes and 
offences varied in different nations and at 
different times. • Capital punishment for 
murder was permanently instituted at the 
origin of the human race; and Cain was 
only saved from it by a special interposi- 
tion of God, Gen. 4: 14, 15. It was reenact- 
ed, with reasons, after the deluge, Gen. 
9:5, 6, and in the wilderness, Num. 35:9- 
34, and was early and widely recognized 
among mankind. 

Other offences for which the Mosaic law 
prescribed the death -penalty were blas- 
phemy, Lev. 24:14-16, 23; idolatry, Lev. 
20:2; Deut. 13:5-15; dishonoring a parent, 
Exod. 21:15, 17; Deut. 21:18-21; adultery, 
Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:22, 25; man-stealing, 
Exod. 21:16; false witness in capital cases, 
Deut. 19:16, 19. Modes of capital punish- 
ment prescribed in the Mosaic law were 
stoning, Exod. 19:13; Deut. 13:10; John 
8:5, 7, 59; Acts 7.58, 59; spearing or sword- 
thrust, Exod. 19:13; 32:27; Num. 25:7, 8; 
1 Kin. 2:25; hanging, Num. 25:4; Deut. 
21:22; 2 Sam. 21:6-9; burning, Lev. 20:14; 
21:9; compare Gen. 38:24. Some main- 
tain that hanging and burning were sel- 
dom used by the Jews until after death 
had been otherwise inflicted, as in Achan's 
case, Josh. 7:24, 25. According to the Mo- 
saic law, accusation must be substantiated 
by more than one witness, and in capital 
cases the witnesses must themselves begin 
to execute the death-sentence, Deut. 13:9; 
17:6, 7; 19:15; John 8:7; Acts 7:58. Vari- 
ous other modes of inflicting death were 
practised by the Hebrews, or became 
known to them by intercourse with other 
nations : as decapitation, 2 Kin. 10 : 6-8 ; 
Matt. 14:8-12; precipitation, 2 Chr. 25:12; 
Luke 4:29; cutting asunder, Dan. 2:5; 
3:29; Heb. 11:37; beating on a wheel-like 
frame, Heb. 11:35; exposure to wild beasts, 
Dan. 6; 1 Cor. 15:32; drowning, Matt. 18:6; 
and crucifixion, John 19:18. The Egyp- 
tians practised hanging, Gen. 40:19, 22, 
and apparently stoning, Exod. 8 : 26. Hang- 
ing was in use among the Persians, Esth. 
2:23; 7:10; and burning among the Baby- 
lonians, Jer. 29:21, 22; Dan. 3. 

Secondary punishments prescribed in 
the Law were retaliation in kind for in- 



jury, Exod. 21:23-25; Deut. 19:19; see also 
Judg. 1:7; Jer. 52:11; Ezek. 23:25; com- 
pensation for loss of time, power, property, 
or honor, Exod. 21:18-36; Lev. 24:18-21; 
Deut. 19:21, double to 5-fold restitution 
being required for theft, Exod. 22; scour- 
ging, Lev. 19:20; Deut. 22:18, the limit 
being 40 stripes, Deut. 25:3; 2 Cor. 11:24. 
Sentences being executed immediately, the 
Mosaic law did not prescribe imprison- 
ment, but it was in use under the kings, 
2 Chr. 18:26; Jer. 37:15, and later, Ezra 
7:26; Matt. 4:12. Stocks were in use 
among the Hebrews, Jer. 20:2, and the 
Romans, Acts 16:24. Banishment among 
the Hebrews in some cases consisted of 
confinement to a prescribed locality, or 
exclusion from the king, 2 Sam. 14:24; 
1 Kin. 2:36. It was practised by the Ro- 
mans, Rev. 1:9. 

The exact meaning of the punishment 
described as " cutting off from the congre- 
gation " or "the people," etc., is disputed; 
it seems, however, to have been a sentence 
of death, which was sometimes executed, 
sometimes remitted or commuted. 

On future punishment, see Retribu- 
tion. 

PU'NON, darkness, a station near the 
end of the wilderness wanderings, between 
Zalmonah and Oboth, Num. 33:42, 43. Je- 
rome identified it with the Idumaean Phae- 
no, between Petra and Zoar, where were 
copper-mines worked by convicts. Palmer 
thinks it may be represented by the station 
now called 'Anezeh, on the pilgrim road 
from Damascus to Mecca. 

PUR'CHASE, 1 Tim. 3:13, A. V., gain or 
acquire, not buy. 

PURIFICATIONS, in the legal and cere- 
monial sense, were prescribed by the Mo- 
saic law for a variety of occasions, and 
were effected by the use of water applied 
by bathing or sprinkling, combined, in the 
graver cases of ceremonial defilement, with 
sacrifices offered at the Lord's house, Lev. 
12 to 15; Num. 19; Luke2:22-24. The spir- 
itual truth thus emphasized was man's need 
of cleansing from sin, and the requisite- 
ness of an expiatory sacrifice to effect this, 
Isa. 1:16; Ezek. 36:25; Zech. 13:1; Heb. 
9:10, 13, 14, 19-23; 10:22. After the return 
of the Jews from the Captivity purifications 
were multiplied beyond the requirements 
of the Law, especially by the Pharisees, and 
were performed as constituting in them- 
selves a saving ritual, their spiritual mean- 
ing being disregarded, Mark 7:1-8, 18-23. 

PU'RIM, lots, a festival instituted about 
459 



PUR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PUR 



B. C. 474 by Esther and Mordecai. in the 
reign of Ahasuerus or Xerxes, king of Per- 
sia, to commemorate the Jews' providen- 
tial deliverance from the massacre devised 
by Haman, Esth. 9:20-32. The festival 
derived its name from the casting of lots, 
in Hainan's presence, for an auspicious 
day for destroying the Jews, Esth. 2>'-7- 
The day thus indicated being distant 11 
months from that of promulgating the roy- 
al decrees, ver. 8-15, a sufficient interval 
was providentially afforded to Mordecai 
for devising and executing measures for 
the preservation of his people, Esth. 4:1-8, 
14; 9:1-19; thus Hainan's superstition was 
instrumental in procuring his own destruc- 
tion; compare Prov. 16:33. This festival 
was observed on the 14th and 15th of Adar, 
Esth. 9:16-19, and was preceded by a fast 
on the 13th in memory of Esther's fast, 
Esth. 4:16. The roll of Esther was read 
publicly in the synagogue, the congrega- 
tion joining in cursing Haman and Ze- 
resh and in blessing Mordecai and Esther. 
After the synagogue services on the even- 
ing and morning of the 14th, the feast was 
further celebrated on that day and the 
next by private festivities, mutual pres- 
ents, alms, play, and self-indulgence. It 
is still observed by the Jews in the month 
of March. " The temple may fail, but Pu- 
rim never," is a Jewish proverb. Some 
think Purim is alluded to in John 5:1, but 
more probably it was the Passover. 

PUR'PLE. The famous and costly Tyr- 
ian purple, the royal color of the ancients, 
is fabled to have been discovered by the 
god Melkat, the Tyrian Hercules, whose 
dog having by chance eaten a shell-fish 
called Purpura, and returning to his mas- 
ter with his lips tinged with a purple color, 
occasioned the discovery of this precious 
dye. Two kinds of purple are mentioned 
in the Old Testament: 1. Argaman, ren- 
dered in our version "purple," denoting a 



^^ 




TYRIAN ROCK-SHELL: MUREX TRUNCULUS. 

reddish purple obtained from one or more 
species of muscle or shell-fish found on the 
460 



coasts of the Mediterranean, undoubtedly 
the Murex Trunculus of Linnaeus, and 




dog-whelk: purpura lapillus. 
probably the Purpura Lapillus. 2. Te- 
cheleth, rendered in the English Bible 
" blue." This was a bluish or cerulean 
purple, likewise obtained from another 
species of shell-fish. 

The "scarlet" or "crimson," for the 2 
words denote essentially the same color, 
was produced from the coccus insect, coc- 
cus ilicis. All these were sacred colors 
among the Hebrews, and were used in col- 
oring the priestly garments and the furni- 
ture of the tabernacle, Exod. 26:1, 14, 31, 
36; 28:31; Num. 4:6-12; 15:38. 

The "purple" of the ancients seems to 
have included many different tints derived 
originally from shell-fish, and modified by 
various arts in which the Tyrians excelled. 
As each fish yielded but a few drops of 
coloring matter, the choicest purple bore a 
very high price. Purple robes were worn 
by the kings and first magistrates of an- 
cient Rome, and Nero forbade their use 
by his subjects under pain of death. Our 
Saviour was clothed with a royal robe of 
purple in mockery of his title, " The King 
of the Jews," John 19:2, 5. Compare also 
Judg. 8:26; Esth. 8:15; Prov. 31:22; Dan. 
5:7; Luke 16:19. Moses used much mate- 
rial, chiefly woollen, dyed of a crimson and 
purple color, in the work of the taberna- 
cle and in the ornaments of the high-priest, 
Exod. 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36; 39:1; 2Chr. 3:14. 
The Babylonians also clothed their idols 
in robes of a purple and azure color, Jer. 
9:10; Ezek. 23:15; 27:7, 16. 

PURSE. Besides the bag used for car- 
rying money, and by merchants for carry- 
ing weights^ Deut. 25:13; Prov. i:i4;Isa. 
46:6; Mic. 6:11; Luke 10:4; 12:33; 22:35, 
36, the girdle anciently, as now in the 
East, served as a purse, Matt. 10:9; Mark 
6:8, being provided with a double fold in 
which there was an opening, closed with a 
cover or strap. 

PUR'TENANCE, A. V., Exod. 12:9, the 
viscera, or " inwards " as rendered in Exod. 
29:13, 22; Lev. 1:9, 13; 3 : 3, 9. x 4- In Psa - 
64:6 the same word is used, the word 
thought being supplied by the translators. 



PUR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



QUA 



PURVEY'ORS, in A. V. "officers," I Kin. 
4:5, 7, literally men appointed by Solomon, 
one for each month of the year, to collect 
from their several portions of the kingdom, 
12 in number, the large supplies of food 
required for the royal houshold — the wives, 
guests, and attendants. Whether they were 
purchasers or tax-gatherers, or stewards of 
the royal domain, is not known. 

PUT, 1 Chr. 1:8; Nah. 3:9, A. V. See 
Phut. 

PUTE'OLI, sulphurous wells, was on the 
northern shore of a small bay running 
northward on the west of the somewhat 
larger Bay of Naples. Baiae was on the 
west shore. The city anciently gave its 
name to the whole bay, including that of 
Naples. It was a favorite watering-place 
of the Romans, who resorted to its hot 
springs for the cure of various diseases ; 
but especially it was the great port of 
Rome, though 141 miles southeast from 
it. The Alexandrian corn-ships unloaded 
here, and enjoyed the peculiar privilege of 
entering the harbor under full sail. Here 
Paul was landed, and found Christians, 
with whom he spent a week. Acts 28: 13, 14. 
The ancient Greek name of the place was 
Dicaearchia. Cicero had a villa near Pute- 
oli; Nero planned his mother's murder 
here; Vespasian gave the city peculiar 
privileges ; Hadrian was buried here. Poz- 
zuoli, the modern Puteoli, is a small town 
7 miles west of Naples. Remains of the 
ancient city are an aqueduct, reservoirs, 
an amphitheatre, baths, a building called 
the temple of Serapis, and 13 of the 25 
arches which supported the great pier 
where passengers and merchandise were 
landed. 

PU'TIEL, afflicted of God, the father-in- 
law of Eleazar the priest, Exod. 6:25. 

PY'GARG, white-rump, Deut. 14:5, the 
Septuagint, Vulgate, and A. V. rendering 
of a Hebrew term believed to denote some 
species of the antelope, perhaps the Oryx 
addax, or the Addra ruficollis of Africa; 
the latter is a fine beast, about 3 feet 3 
inches high, and 5 feet 4 inches long, often 
seen in flocks in Nubia and Gondola. 

PYR' RHUS, fiery-haired, the name of the 
father of Sopater of Bercea, Acts 20:4, is 
restored in the R. V., after the best Greek 
manuscripts. 

PY'THON, Acts 16 : 16, margin. This 
name of Apollo, the Greek god of divina- 
tion, was applied also to all oracular spir- 
its, or to persons supposed to be inspired 
by them. 



Q. 

QUAILS supplied the Israelites with flesh 
on 2 occasions, in the 1st and 2d years of 
the wilderness journey ings, Exod. 16:1, 8, 
12, 13; Num. 10:11, 2>Z J II: 4> I0 > !8-23, 31- 
34; Psa. 78:26-28; 105:40; 106:15. The 
season in each case was spring, when 
quails, which abound in most parts of the 




the quail: coturnix communis. 
Old World, migrate in immense flocks from 
Africa northward. The miracle seems to 
have consisted in a special adaptation of 
the natural order of things to suit the emer- 
gency. It is the custom of quails to fly at 
night, and before the wind. Borne by a 
providential southwest wind across the 
western gulf of the Red Sea, the birds, 
being weak of wing, were exhausted on 
reaching the Israelites' camp ; and flying 
low — which is believed to be the meaning 
of "two cubits," etc., Num. 11:31 — were 
readily taken by hand, as is frequently the 
case now. " Homers," ver. 32, is believed 
to bear here its indefinite sense of " heaps." 
Herodotus reports that the Egyptians pre- 
served quails by drying them, and this is 
still the custom of the Arabs. Quails are 
still common in the Arabian deserts and 
near the Dead Sea and the Jordan, and are 
brought in great quantities to market at 
Jerusalem. They abound on the Mediter- 
ranean coasts, 100,000 having been taken 
in a single day at Nettuno, on the west 
shore of Italy. The quail of the eastern 
hemisphere, Coturnix communis, is about 
7 inches long, and similar to, though not 
identical with, the Ortyx Virginianus, called 
"quail "in New England and "partridge" 
in the Middle and Southern States. 

QUARANTA'NIA./or/j', a mountain about 
7 miles northwest of Jericho, not named in 
the Bible, is indicated by tradition as the 
scene of our Lord's temptation, Matt. 4. 
It is exceedingly steep, from 1,200 to 1,500 
feet high ; its rocky, precipitous sides con- 

461 



QUA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



QUO 



tain many caves, once the retreats of her- 
mits and of robbers. Its summit, accessi- 
ble only from the western side, affords a 
fine view. There was a monastery on the 
mountain in the time of the Crusades. 

QUAR'RIES, Judg. 3:19, 26, A. V. The 
same Hebrew word is elsewhere rendered 
"carved" or "graven images," as in the 
margin. 

QUAR'TUS, fourth, a Christian residing 
at Corinth, but according to his name of 
Roman origin, whose salutation Paul sends 
to the brethren at Rome, Rom. 16:23. 

QUATER'NION of Soldiers, a detach- 
ment consisting of 4 men, Acts 12:4. The 
Romans assigned a quaternion of 4 men 
for a night guard, and divided the night 
into 4 watches, so that each soldier should 
in his turn be on guard 3 hours. See 
Hour. When therefore Herod, who adopt- 
ed the Roman customs, is said to have de- 
livered Peter to 4 quaternions of soldiers, 
it is to be understood that he was guarded 
by 4 men at a time, namely, 2 in the prison 
with him, and 2 before the doors (compare 
ver. 6), and that they were relieved every 
3 hours by 4 others, making in all 16 men. 

QUEEN. Under the kings of Israel, ow- 
ing to their polygamy, queenly dignity and 
power were enjoyed, not as now in Chris- 
tian countries by a royal consort, but rath- 
er by the king's mother. Compare the 
interviews of Adonijah and Solomon with 
Bath-sheba, 1 Kin. 2:13-22. The title of 
queen, literally mighty one, mistress, is 
given to the mother or rather grandmother 
of Asa, 1 Kin. 15:13; compare ver. 1, 2; 
2 Chr. 11:20-22; and to the mother of Je- 
hoiachin, 2 Kin. 24: 12, 15; Jer. 13:18; 22:26; 
29:2. Two other Hebrew words are trans- 
lated " queen " in the A. V. : one, the femi- 
nine of king, being applied to the queen- 
regnant of Sheba, 1 Kin. 10, and to the 
superior wives of a king, Esth. 1:9; 2:22; 
Song 6:8, 9, etc.; the other, literally wife, 
being also applied to queen-consorts, Neh. 
2:6; compare Dan. 5:2, 3, "wives." 

QUEEN OF HEAVEN, a name under 
which the idolaters in Judah worshipped 
the moon, Jer. 7:18; 44:17-27. 

QUICK, in the old English sense, means 
alive, or living. Num. 16:30; Psa. 124:3; 
Acts 10:42; 2 Tim. 4:1; Heb. 4:12; and 
quicken, to make alive, John 5:21. God 
bestows spiritual life on men dead in tres- 
passes and sins, Eph. 2:5, through Christ 
the 2d Adam, who is a quickening Spirit, 
1 Cor. 15:45- 

QUICK'SANDS, Acts 27 : 17, properly " the 
462 



Syrtis," as in the R. V., a name given to 2 
sandy gulfs on the northern coast of Africa, 
whose dangerous shallows and uncertain 
currents made them dreaded by ancient 
navigators. These gulfs were called the 
Greater and the Lesser Syrtis. Paul's ship 
being off the southern coast of Crete, the 
northeast wind would naturally drive it 
into the Greater Syrtis, southwest from 
Crete, now the Gulf of Sidra, north of Trip- 
oli. The Lesser Syrtis is now the Gulf of 
Cabes, on the eastern shore of Tunis, south- 
west of Malta. 

QUIRI'NUS, or in R. V. QUIRIN'IUS, 
Luke 2:2. See Cyrenius. 

QUIT, 1 Sam. 4:9; 1 Cor. 16:13, acquit, 
or behave. In Exod. 21:19, 2 ^; Josh. 2:20, 
absolve, or set free. 

QUIVER, a case of arrows, Gen. 27:3; 
Isa. 49:2; Lam. 3:13. The destruction 
wrought by the Chaldaeans invading Judah 
is figuratively expressed in Jer. 5:16. The 
Assyrians had their quivers suspended be- 
tween their shoulders, or at the side of the 
war-chariot. The Egyptian archer slung 
his quiver nearly horizontally at his side. 

QUOTATIONS in the Bible are of 3 class- 
es: 1. Those made by the later Old Testa- 
ment writers from the earlier, as are many 
sections of the Chronicles, and late Psalms 
from the older. Chief among parallel pas- 
sages of this class are Num. 26 with Gen. 
46; Deut. 5 with Exod. 20; 1 Chr. 17 with 
2 Sam. 7; Ezra 2 with Neh. 7; Psa. 18 with 
2 Sam. 22; Isa. 2:1-4 with Mic. 4:1-3; Isa. 
36-39 with 2 Kin. 18-20 ; Jer. 52 with 2 Kin. 
24, 25; Obad. 1:8 with Jer. 4:9; Jonah 2:3 
with Psa. 42:7; Jonah 2:5 with Psa. 69:2; 
Hab. 2 : 14 with Isa. 11:9. 

2. Quotations from heathen writers: Acts 
17:28 from Aratus ; 1 Cor. 15:33 from Men- 
ander; Tit. 1:12 from Callimachus or Epi- 
menides; Gal. 5:23 from Aristotle. Per- 
haps also Acts 14: 17 and Jas. 1 : 17. 

3. Quotations from the Old Testament 
in the New Testament. These are numer- 
ous, and are generally taken from the Sep- 
tuagint, which see. In the time of Christ 
this version was widely spread and much 
used by the Jews, especially by those out 
of Palestine. It was also intelligible to 
the Greek -speaking Gentile world; and 
hence the New Testament writers, in re- 
ferring to the Old Testament, naturally 
quoted the Septuagint rather than their 
own rendering of the Hebrew original. In 
cases where the Septuagint translation va- 
ries from the Hebrew without important 
difference, the New Testament writers fre- 



RAA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



RAB 



quently retain its variation, as in Matt. 
15:9; compare Isa. 29:13. In other cases, 
where the errors of the Septuagint cause 
discrepancy in the sense, they are correct- 
ed by the Hebrew, as in Matt. 21 15 ; 1 Pet. 
4:8. Often the Hebrew is quoted directly, 
as in Matt. 4:15, 16; John 19:37. And in 
some instances the Hebrew and the Septu- 
agint are combined, as in Mark 12:30. Be- 
sides direct quotations, the New Testament 
writers abound in references and allusions 
to the Old Testament — often pointing out 
some prophecy or type relating to Christ 
or to the spiritual dispensation introduced 
by him ; the familiar phrase, "that it might 
be fulfilled," and the like, showing how full 
the Old Testament is of germs of truth un- 
folded in the New Testament. Compare 
Isa. 49:8 and 2 Cor. 6:2. The quotations 
and references to the contents of the an- 
cient Scriptures in the New Testament are 
said to be 804 in number. 



R. 

RA'AMAH, quivering, Ezek. 27 : 22, a 
commercial people trading with Tyre, prob- 
ably named from Raamah, a son of Cush, 
Gen. 10:7; 1 Chr. 1:9, whose descendants 
are supposed to have settled on the south- 
west shore of the Persian Gulf, very near 
the town Daden, representing the ancient 
Dedan. The Septuagint renders Raamah 
in Gen. 10:7 Rhegma, a name mentioned 
b.y Ptolemy, the Egyptian geographer in 
the 2d Christian century, as that of a place 
in the territory of thej Anariti, an Arabic 
tribe in that region. 

RAAM'SES, Exod. 1:11, a treasure-city 
or grain-magazine built by the Israelites 
during their servitude in Egypt. The 
name is almost identical with Rameses, the 
province in Egypt — apparently the same 
as Goshen, Gen. 47:11; compare ver. 4, 6, 
and ch. 45:10— in which the Israelites set- 
tled, and which was their starting-point at 
the Exodus, Exod. 12:37; Num. 33:3, 5. 
At the west end of Wady et-Tumeilat. Ra- 
meses, son of the sun, was the name of sev- 
eral Pharaohs before and after the Exodus, 
and the oppressor of the Israelites is now 
generally identified with Rameses II. of 
the 19th dynasty. See Pharaoh and cut 
p. 150. 

RAB, RAB'BI. The word rab in He- 
brew and Chaldee signifies great or chief; 
thus Nebuzar-adan is the chief or captain 
of the guard, 2 Kin. 25:8, in Hebrew rab- 



tabbachim; so Ashpenaz is the rab, chief 
or master, of the eunuchs, and Daniel of 
the magi, Dan. 1:3; 5:11. See Rab-mag. 
At a later period it was introduced as a 
solemn title of honor in the Jewish schools, 
meaning master, teacher, doctor. There 
were various distinctions and degrees ; the 
term rab was accounted the least honora- 
ble; that of rabbi, signifying my master, 
being of higher dignity. Another form of 
the word was rabban or rabbon, from which 
comes also rabboni, Mark 10:51, R. V.; 
John 20: 16 ; this was regarded as the high- 
est title of honor, and was never formally 
bestowed on more than 7 persons, who all 
belonged to the celebrated school of Hillel, 
and were preeminently distinguished by 
their rank and learning. See Gamaliel. 
The more common and usual appellation 
afterwards was rabbi ; and this has de- 
scended among the Jews to the present 
day, Matt. 23:7, 8. It was a title often giv- 
en to the Saviour both by his disciples and 
the people, Mark 9:5; 11:21; John 1 : 38, 49 ; 
4:31; 6:25. 

RAB'BAH or RAB'BATH, greatness, I., 
Rabbath of the Ammonites, Deut. 3:11; 
Josh. 13:25, the chief city of the Ammon- 
ites, was in a small valley about 22 miles 
east of the Jordan, 14 miles northeast of 
Heshbon, and 19 southeast of Ramoth- 
Gilead, now es-Salt. A small stream, now 
Nahr Amman, tributary to the Jabbok, 
flowed through the town. The Ammonites 
having provoked war with Israel, Joab be- 
sieged Rabbah, and here Uriah was killed 
by David's arrangement, 2 Sam. 11:14-17; 
12:9. After a long siege Joab took "the 
city of waters," i. e., probably the lower 
city traversed by the stream ; he then sent 
for David, who came with reinforcements 
and captured the citadel on the hill to the 
north, 2 Sam. 12:26-31 ; 1 Chr. 20:1-3. Da- 
vid afterwards received timely aid from a 
citizen of Rabbah, 2 Sam. 17:27-29. The 
Ammonites regained their independence,, 
and at various times encroached upon the 
rightful possessions of Israel, gloried over 
the desolations of both kingdoms, and mal- 
treated those who fell under their power ; 
hence severe judgments were denounced 
against Rabban, Amos 1 : 13-15 ; Jer. 49: 1-3 ; 
Ezek. 25:1-5; compare Jer. 40:14. Proba- 
bly Nebuchadnezzar subjugated the Am- 
monites after his conquest of Judah, Ezek. 
21:19-21; compare Jer. 25:8, 9, 15, 21. Rab- 
bah was a place of importance under the 
Ptolemies, the 2d of whom, Philadelphus, 
B. C. 285-247, rebuilt and renamed it; it is 

463 



RAC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



RAC 



spoken of as Philadelphia by Greek and 
Roman writers. Here caravans supplied 
themselves with water before crossing the 
desert of Arabia, and it contained a garri- 
son for repelling the incursions of the des- 
ert tribes. Antiochus the Great took it 
from Ptolemy Philopator, B. C. 218. Her- 
od the Great took it from the Arabs B. C. 
30. In New Testament times it was a chief 
city of Decapolis, and held its importance 
till the 4th century, when it was the seat of 
a Christian church. At the Moslem con- 
quest of Syria it was already in ruins, hav- 
ing suffered from earthquakes. 

The site of Rabbah, now Amman, is occu- 
pied by imposing ruins scattered over sev- 
eral acres on both sides of the stream ; most 
of them belong to the Graeco-Roman pe- 
riod ; they include the remains of a theatre 
which would accommodate 6,000 persons, 
baths, temples, churches, and other public 
buildings, also dwelling houses and an an- 
cient citadel. Coins of the city bear the 
image of Astarte, and the inscription "Hera- 
cleion," from Hercules, whose worship suc- 
ceeded that of Moloch, formerly " the king " 
of Rabbah. Amman is the resort of im- 
mense flocks and herds of the Arabs, which 
there find water and shelter from the noon- 
day heat, thus strikingly fulfilling the proph- 
ecy, " I will make Rabbah a stable for cam- 
els, and the Ammonites a couching-place 
for flocks," Ezek. 25:5. 



II. A town in the hill-country of Judah, 
Josh. 15:60, perhaps Kh. Rubba, south of 
Socoh, 12 miles northwest of Hebron. 

RAB'BATH-MO'AB. See Ar. 

RAB'BI and RABBO'NI. See Rab. 

RAB'BITH, a multitude, Josh. 19:20, un- 
identified. 

RAB'-MAG, chief magicia?i or priest, ap- 
parently an official title of Nergal-sharezer 
(see), one of the princes present with Neb- 
uchadnezzar at the taking of Jerusalem, 
Jer. 39:3, 13. See Magi. 

RAB'SARIS, chief of the eunuchs, I., title 
of an officer whom Sennacherib, king of 
Assyria, sent to Hezekiah, 2 Kin. 18:17. 

II. Title of an officer of Nebuchadnez- 
zar, king of Babylon, Jer. 39:3, 13. His 
personal name may have been Sarsechim 
or Nebushasban. From the mural tablets 
of Nineveh such officers appear to have 
enjoyed high honor and trust. See cut 
under Shalmaneser. 

RAB'-SHAKEH, chief butler or cup-bear- 
er, title of an officer sent from Lachish by 
Sennacherib, king of Assyria, to summon 
Hezekiah to surrender ; which message he 
delivered in a most audacious and insolent 
manner, 2 Kin. 18 : 17, etc ; 2 Chr. 32 : 9, etc. ; 
Isa. 36. See Nineveh and Sennache- 
rib. 

RA'CA, Matt. 5:22, a strongly contempt- 
uous expression derived from the Chaldee 
reka, signifying empty, worthless. 




RACE, Psa. 19:5, Eccl. 9:11. Various 
games were instituted among the Greeks 
and Romans in honor of their gods, and 
with the design of training young men to 
personal vigor and activity, and to intre- 
pidity and skill in war. These games were 
celebrated at stated places and times with 
great pomp ; renowned statesmen, legisla- 
464 



tors, and kings engaged in them; and it 
was deemed the highest of all honors to be 
crowned with a simple chaplet of laurel, 
olive, pine, or parsley in the presence of 
the vast assemblage of witnesses who de- 
lighted to honor the victor. The prepar- 
atory training was very severe, and ev- 
ery weakening indulgence was forbidden. 



RAC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



RAI 



Among the most famous games were those 
celebrated on the Isthmus of Corinth, hence 
called the Isthmian games; and to these 
Paul alludes in his letters to Corinth, i Cor. 
4:9; 9:24-27. See also Acts 20:24; Gal. 
5:7. The foot-race was a game of the first 
rank; other games were the torch -race 
on foot or on horseback, the chariot-race, 
wrestling, boxing, leaping, and throwing 
the quoit or the javelin. The foot-race 
well illustrates the Christian warfare, the 
sacrifices to be made, the diligent bring- 
ing of the body under subjection, the lay- 
ing aside every weight, the myriads of 
spectators lining the course, and among 
them those previously crowned victors, the 
exhausting efforts required (from which 
the word agonize is derived), and the glo- 
rious prize, Phil. 3:13, 14; 2 Tim. 4:7, 8; 
Heb. 12:1. 

RA'CHEL, ewe, Ruth 4:11, Leah's young- 
er sister, Laban's daughter, and Jacob's 
chosen and best-beloved wife, though Leah 
was favored with more children. Rachel, 
though attractive, was tinged with the idol- 
atrous superstition and cunning of her fam- 
ily. She was the adoptive mother of Dan 
and Naphtali, and the mother of Josepl: 
and Benjamin, and died soon after the lat- 
ter's birth. See her history in Gen. 29 to 




RACHEL'S TOMB, NORTH OF BETHLEHEM. 

35. Jacob marked her burial-place with a 
pillar, Gen. 35:16, 19, 20; 48:7, and it was 
still a waymark 600 years later, in the days 
of Samuel and Saul, 1 Sam. 10:2; Jeremi- 
ah, 31:15-17, poetically represents her as 
mourning over the calamities of her pos- 
terity, the tribes of Ephraim and Manas- 
seh, previously led captive by Assyria, and 
of Benjamin, then suffering with Judah 
under the sword and chains of Babylon; 
compare Jer. 40:11; and as receiving a 
consoling promise of their restoration. A 
further fulfilment of the prophet's imagery 
occurred at Herod's slaughter of the in- 
fants of Bethlehem and the surrounding 
villages, Matt. 2:17, 18. It is supposed 
that one of the many places called Ramah 
3o 



was near Rachel's grave and Bethlehem. 
The traditional site of her burial-place is 
still shown, as it has been for ages, about ^ 
a mile north of Bethlehem, and is revered 
by Mohammedans, Jews, and Christians, 
and visited by pilgrims. It is marked by 
a Mohammedan wetys sepulchre, with a 
dome and a stone inclosure. The build- 
ing has been often repaired, and was prob- 
ably first erected in the 15th century on 
the place before marked by a pyramid of 
stones. 

RAFT'ERS, Song 1:17, ceilings. 

RA'GAU, Luke 3:35, the same as Reu, 
R. V. See Gen. 11:20, 21. 

RAGU'EL, Num. 10:29, or rather RE- 
U'EL, as in Exod. 2:18, 21, friend of God. 
The Hebrew word is the same in both 
places. Compare Exod. 3:1; 18:1; Judg. 
4:11. These passages represent him as 
the father of Hobab and Zipporah, and he 
is generally supposed to be the same as 
Jethro, Moses' father-in-law. Some, how- 
ever, think he was Jethro's father, and that 
he is called the father of the others as be- 
ing the head of the family. Compare Gen. 
31:43; 2 Kin. 14:3; 16:2. 

RA'HAB. The English word Rahab rep- 
resents 2 different Hebrew words: I. Ra- 
hab, wide, a Canaanite woman of Jericho 
who gave shelter to the 2 spies sent in 
thither by Joshua, and in return was spared, 
with all her kindred, when the city w r as ta- 
ken and destroyed, Josh. 2:1-21; 6:17-25. 
Her faith in doing this is commended in 
Heb. 11:31; Jas. 2 : 25. The Jews and many 
Christians endeavor to show that Rahab 
was only an honest innkeeper; but more 
probably the designation of "harlot" giv- 
en to her in our Bible is correct. If she 
had at some time led a dissolute life, she 
had evidently repented: and she after- 
wards became a worshipper of Jehovah, 
the wife of Salmon, a prince of the tribe of 
Judah, Ruth 4:21, and so an ancestor of 
our Lord, one of the 4 women, Thamar, 
Rahab, Ruth, and Bath-sheba, all foreign- 
ers, named in Matthew's genealogy of Je- 
sus, Matt. 1:5. The penitent publican and 
sinner are always welcome to Christ; and 
many such, through the renovating power 
of grace, will shine gloriously in heaven, 
while the unbelieving moralist will perish 
in his sins. 

II. Rahab, p?-ide, insolence, a symbolical 
name for Egypt, Psa. 87 : 4 ; 89 : 10 ; Isa. 30 : 7, 
"strength;" Isa. 51:9. 

RAIN. In Scripture the " early " and the 
"latter" rain of Palestine are spoken of, 

465 



RAI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



RAM 



Deut. 11:14; Hos. 6:3. The former falls in 
the latter part of October, the seed-time of 
Palestine ; and the weather then continues 
variable, with more or less rain, the whole 
winter, Ezra 10:9; Song 2: 11, until after the 
latter or spring rain in April, which is im- 
portant for the perfecting of the crops, Joel 
2:23; Amos 4:7. In the Jordan valley bar- 
ley is harvested in the beginning of May, 
wheat a few weeks later; while the fig, 
olive, and grape do not ripen in quantities 
till August and September. In Lebanon 
the harvests are later, and " the former 
rain " earlier. Rain is extremely rare dur- 
ing the time of the grain-harvest, 1 Sam. 
12:16-19; Pro v. 26:1; the earth soon be- 
comes parched, vegetation is destroyed, 
and a season of scorching heat and unbro- 
ken drought succeeds from July, or even 
May, until the coming of the longed-for 
October rains, which again prepare the 
earth for cultivation. Nothing can more 
expressively represent spiritual blessings 
than copious showers of rain after this try- 
ing season is past, Deut. 32:2; Job 29:23; 
Isa. 44:3; Hos. 10:12. See Kishon. 

On the other hand, violent tempests of 
rain, by the devastation they occasion, 
Prov. 28 : 3, furnish a metaphor for the 
judgments of God, Psa. 11:6; Ezek. 38:22. 
Now, as formerly, rain in Palestine comes 
mostly from the west and southwest, 1 Kin. 
18:43-45; Luke 12:54. 

The average annual rainfall at Jerusa- 
lem is now 61.6 inches, more than the aver- 
age fall in the United States, which is 45 
inches. It would seem, therefore, that if a 
portion of this copious rainfall were pre- 
served in reservoirs and used in irrigating 
the ground in the dry season, and if the 
hillsides, which in Southern Palestine es- 
pecially are stripped of soil, were terraced 
and planted with trees, to hinder the rain 
from coursing down the rocks in torrents, 
often ruinous to the crops in the valleys, 
and to cause it to percolate more gently 
and generally through the soil, the old 
verdure and fertility of land might be re- 
stored, and be again the rule instead of, as 
at present, the exception which surprises 
and delights the traveller. 

RAIN'BOW, Gen. 9:13-17; Isa. 54:9, 10. 
This beautiful phenomenon is owing to the 
refraction of the beams of the sun in pass- 
ing the drops of falling rain ; the rays are 
separated into the prismatic colors, and 
then reflected from the cloud opposite to 
the sun and the spectator. We need not 
suppose that the rainbow was unknown 
466 



before the flood; but God then appointed 
it to be the cheering seal of his covenant 
with the earth, which is as steadfast as 
the natural laws from which the rainbow 
springs. The rainbow symbolizes God's 
mercy and faithfulness, Rev. 4:3; 10:1. 

RAI'SINS, grapes dried; often made into 
cakes, like dates ; Num. 6:3; 1 Sam. 25:18; 
30:12; 2 Sam. 16:1; 1 Chr. 12:40. 

RAK'KATH, shore, a fortified city of 
Naphtali, Josh. 19:35, probably not far from 
Tiberias. 

RAK'KON, thinness, a city of Dan, Josh. 
19:46, traced at Tel er-Rekkut, on the 
coast 5% miles north of Joppa. 

RAM, high, I., a Judahite, son of Hezron, 

1 Chr. 2:9, 10; called Aram in the A. V., 
Matt. 1:3, 4; Luke 3:33. 

II. A son of Jerahmeel, 1 Chr. 2:25, 27. 

III. One to whose kindred Elihu be- 
longed, Job 32:2; by some identified with 
Aram, Gen. 22:21. 

See Battering-ram. 

RA'MAH, plural Ra'moth, a high place, 
and hence many places in Palestine are 
named Ramah, Ramath, Ramoth, and Ra- 
mathaim, etc. Sometimes the same place 
is called by one or other of these names 
indiscriminately, all signifying the same, 

2 Kin. 8:28, 29. Sometimes Rama, or Ra- 
moth, is joined to another name, to deter- 
mine the place of such city or eminence; 
and it is sometimes put simply for " a high 
place," and signifies neither city nor vil- 
lage, Ezek. 16:24, 25, 31, 39. 

I. The principal Ramah was a city of 
Benjamin near Gibeah, and 5 miles north 
of Jerusalem, Josh. 18:25; Judg. 19:13. 
After the division of the kingdom, Ramah, 
being a frontier town on a naturally strong 
site, was fortified by Baasha king of Israel, 
but was afterwards retaken by Asa king of 
Judah, 1 Kin. 15: 17, 21, 22. Hosea, 5:8, re- 
fers to it as a point from which tidings of 
an approaching enemy might well be sent. 
It is noticed in Isaiah's prediction of Sen- 
nacherib's march towards Jerusalem, Isa. 
10:29. After the destruction of Jerusalem 
by Nebuchadnezzar's army, Jeremiah was 
liberated at Ramah, Jer. 40:1-4. It was 
reoccupied after the Captivity, Ezra 2 : 26 ; 
Neh. 7:30. Dr. Robinson identified it with 
the village er-Ram, on a conical hill a lit- 
tle east of the road from Jerusalem to She- 
chem. Here are ruins — broken columns, 
large hewn stones, and an ancient reser- 
voir. The site commands an extensive 
view, but the village is mean and contains 
only about 15 families. 



RAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



RAN 



II. Ramatha'im-Zo'phim (so only once), 
Samuel's birthplace, home, and burial- 
place, i Sam. i : i, 19; 2:11; 7:17; 8:4; 
15:34; 16:13; 19:18, 22, 23; 25:1; 28:3. It 
is once described as " of Mount Ephraim," 
a region of vague limits, apparently reach- 
ing southward to the neighborhood of Je- 
rusalem; compare 2 Chr. 13:4, 19; 15:8; 
Judg. 4:5. It is uncertain whether the un- 
named place where Saul was anointed by 
Samuel, 1 Sam. 9:4 to 10:2, was the proph- 
et's home or some other city visited by him 
at intervals in his annual circuit as judge. 
The position of this Ramah is a difficult 
and much disputed question; the follow- 
ing are some of the sites assigned: 1. Neby 
Samwil, the prophet Samuel, a high hill, 
with a village, mosque, and reputed tomb 
of Samuel on it, 4 miles northwest of Jeru- 
salem. At this site, favored by Grove, Ra- 
mah is placed by a tradition at least as 
early as A. D. 700, and common to Mos- 
lems, Jews, and Christians. — 2. Er-Ram, 
Ramah I. — 3. Soba, 6 miles west of Jerusa- 
lem, suggested by Dr. Robinson. — 4. Ram- 
Allah, 5 miles north of Neby Samwil. — 
5. Ramleh, 2 miles southwest of Lydda ; 
improbable. — 6. Beit Sahur, 1 mile east of 
Bethlehem, favored by the British Palestine 
Explorers. 

III. A border city of Asher, Josh. 19:29. 
Robinson placed it at the village now called 
Ramia, 13 miles southeast of Tyre. 

IV. A fortified city of Naphtali, Josh. 
19:36; perhaps represented by the mod- 
ern site Fer'am, 8 miles north of the Sea 
of Galilee and 5 miles west of the Jordan. 

V. A city of Gilead, 2 Kin. 8 : 28, 29. See 
Ramoth-Gilead. 

VI. A place reoccupied by Benjamites 
after the Captivity, Neh. 11:33; perhaps 
Ramah I. 

RAMATHA'IM-ZO'PHIM, double height 
of the watchers, or Zuphiles, the full name 
of Ramah, II., 1 Sam. 1:1. 

RA'MATHITE, 1 Chr. 27:27, a native or 
resident of Ramah. 

RA'MATH-LE'HI, Judg. 15:17. See 
Lehi. 

RA'MATH-MIZ'PEH, height of the watch- 
lower, Josh. 13:26, a town of Gad, usually 
identified with Ramoth-Gilead, which see, 
and Mizpah, II. It seems to have marked 
the northern border of Gad, and Dr. Mer- 
rill would place it at Kulat er-Rubad, a 
prominent point 15 miles north of the Jab- 
bok, on the wady Ajlun, 10 miles east of 
the Jordan. But if south of the Jabbok, it 
would naturally be placed at Jebel Osha, 



■mount of Ho sea, otherwise Jebel Gilad, the 
loftiest peak of Gilead, 3,650 feet above the 
sea and 3 miles northwest of Es-Salt; it 
has traces of a solid wall, with remains of 
towers and angles. 

RA'MATH-NE'GEB, A. V., RAMATH OF 
the South, a city in the south of Simeon, 
Josh. 19:8; 1 Sam. 30:27. Its site has been 
placed at Jebel Barabir, a hill 45 miles 
southwest of Beer-sheba; at the ruins of 
Kurnub, 20 miles southeast of Beer-sheba ; 
and at Tell el-Lekiyeh, 4 miles north of 
Beer-sheba. 

RAME'SES. See Raamses. 

RA'MOTH. See Remeth. 

RA'MOTH IN GIL'EAD, or RA'MOTH- 
GIL'EAD, an important city east of the 
Jordan, in the mountainous district of Gil- 
ead. It was conquered from the Amorites, 
assigned to Gad and to the Merarite Le- 
vites, and appointed a city of refuge, Deut. 
4:43 ; Josh. 20:8; 21:38. During Solomon's 
reign it was the headquarters of one of his 
commissariat officers, 1 Kin. 4:13. Hav- 
ing been taken by the Syrians, Ahab king 
of Israel undertook to recover it, with the 
help of Jehoshaphat king of Judah, but was 
defeated and mortally wounded there, B. 
C. 896, 1 Kin. 22:3-37; 2 Chr. 18. About 
12 years later, Ahab's son Jehoram made 
another attempt to recover it, in alliance 
with his nephew and Jehoshaphat's grand- 
son, Ahaziah king of Judah. He took the 
city, but was wounded and returned to 
Jezreel. Jehu, a chief officer in his army 
at Ramoth, was there anointed by Elisha's 
order as successor of Jehoram, 2 Kin. 8:28 
to 9:15; 2 Chr. 22:5, 6. The city was also 
called Ramah. It has usually been identi- 
fied with Es-Salt, but without certainty. 
Es-Salt is about 25 miles east of the Jor- 
dan, and 13 miles south of the Zerka or 
Jabbok. It is the capital and most popu- 
lous place of the Belka, the district extend- 
ing from the Modjeb or Arnon to the Zerka, 
and is the residence of a Turkish governor. 
It is strongly and picturesquely situated 
on a hill whose summit is crowned by a 
castle. It is 2,740 feet above the sea level, 
and has a healthy climate and a popula- 
tion, mainly agricultural, of about 400 fam- 
ilies of Mohammedan Arabs and 80 fami- 
lies of Greek Christians. There are ruins 
of the Roman period, and the hills show 
many traces of ancient rock-tombs. See 
Ramath-Mizpeh. 

RAN'GES, 2 Kin. 11:8, 15; 2 Chr. 23:14, 
ranks of soldiers. 

RAN'SOM, the price paid for the free- 
467 



RAP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



REC 



dom of a captive or slave, i Cor. 6:19, 20. 
Under the Levitical law an offering was 
required of every Israelite of 20 years and 
upwards at the time when the census was 
taken. This offering was called a ransom 
or atonement - money ( Heb. covering), 
Exod. 30:12-16. It was to be made under 
penalty of the plague, and was settled for 
y 2 a shekel, 25 cents or more, for rich and 
poor alike, 1 Pet. 1:18, 19. Our Saviour 
gave himself as a ransom for our souls' 
life, Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; 1 Tim. 2:6. 
See Redemption. 

RA'PHA, possibly the name of a man, but 
translated "the giant" by both A. V. and 
R.V. in 2 Sam. 21 : 16-22 ; 1 Chr. 20:4, 6, 8. 

RA'PHAEL, the divine healer ; accord- 
ing to Jewish tradition, one — with Michael, 
Uriel, and Gabriel — of four angels supposed 
to stand around the throne of God. The 
name is not in the Bible, but in Tobit 
12:15. 




raven: corvus corax. 
RA'VEN, Heb. 'Oreb, black, Song 5:11, a 
bird similar to the crow, but larger and not 
gregarious. It was unclean by the Leviti- 
cal law, Lev. 11:15, where no doubt are 
included all the crow family found in Pal- 
estine, 8 or more species. It feeds on car- 
rion, and devours first the eyes of a dead 
body, Prov. 30:17, where the disgraceful 
exposure of a corpse in the open field, 
without burial, is implied. The raven in- 
habits desolate places, Isa. 34:11, and 
needs to fly over a large area to satisfy its 
voracious appetite or that of its young, Job 
38:41; Psa. 147:9; Luke 12:24. It builds 
its nest on cliffs or tall trees, and rears 
from 4 to 7 nestlings till they are well able 
to provide for themselves. Elijah was mi- 
raculously fed by ravens, 1 Kin. 17:4, 6. 
468 



It is debated whether Noah's raven re- 
turned to the ark at all, Gen. 8:7; but 
nearly all versions and interpreters under- 
stand the Hebrew phrase " going and re- 
turning" as equivalent to "to and fro" — 
wherever it found a resting-place. 

RAVEN, to prey with savage rapacity, 
Gen. 49:27; Psa. 17:12, margin. Hence 
"ravenous." 

RA'ZOR, Gen. 41:14; Num. 6:5, 18, a 
common instrument among the Hebrews, 
who on completing a vow shaved their 
heads, Acts 21:24. A life-long Nazarite 
was not permitted to shave his head, Judg. 
13:5; 16:17; 1 Sam. 1:11. The razor was 
used in the ceremonial cleansing of a lep- 
er, Lev. 14:8, 9, and to produce one of the 
tokens of mourning, Isa. 15:2; Jer. 41:5. 

REAP'ING in Palestine was usually done 

with the sickle, Deut. 16:9; 23:25; Jer. 

50:16; Joel 3:13; Rev. 14. In some cases, 

however, to increase the supply of fodder, 

the grain was plucked up by the 

roots; which explains Psa. 129:6, 

where the premature withering of 

the wheat " before it be plucked up," 

j- instead of " groweth up " as in the 

jfej A. V., is an emblem of the early de- 

jjgf= cay and fruitlessness of the wicked. 

REAR' WARD, the strong battalion 

that closed and guarded the rear of 

an army, Josh. 6:13; Isa. 52:12; 

58:8. 

REA'SONABLESER'VICE, Rom. 
12:1, rational or spiritual worship. 

RE'BA, four, a Midianite king, 
Num. 31:8; Josh. 13:21. 

REBEK'AH, in New Testament 
REBECCA, a noosed cord, implying 
probably her ensnaring beauty, Gen. 
26:7, a daughter of Bethuel, and sis- 
ter of Laban in Mesopotamia, who became 
the wife of Isaac, and 20 years afterwards 
the mother of Jacob and Esau, Rom. 9: 10- 
12. The manner in which she was sought 
and obtained as the wife of Isaac exhibits 
a striking picture of Oriental manners and 
customs. Through her partiality for Jacob 
she was tempted into the use of unjustifia- 
ble means to secure for him the inherit- 
ance, not having faith to leave to God the 
fulfilment of his own purposes, Gen. 25:22, 
23. Her deceit led to disastrous results: 
Jacob fled from home ; and when he re- 
turned from Mesopotamia, 20 years after- 
wards, his mother, it is supposed, lay bur- 
ied in the cave of Machpelah, Gen. 24-28; 

49:31 - ™ 1 

RECEIPT' OF CUS'TOM, Mark 2:14; 



REC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



RED 



Luke 5:27, a place of toll, R. V. See Pub- 
lican. 

RE'CHAB, a horseman, I., father or an- 
cestor of Jehonadab, 2 Kin. 10 : 15, 23 ; 

1 Chr. 2:55; Jer. 35:6-19. 

II. One of the murderers of Ishbosheth, 

2 Sam. 4:2, 5-12. 

III. Father of Malchiah, Neh. 3:14. 
RE'CHABITES, a tribe of Kenite or Mid- 

ianite origin, descendants of Jehonadab or 
Jonadab, and named from his father or an- 
cestor Rechab, 1 Chr. 2:55; 2 Kin. 10:15; 
compare Judg. 1:16; 4:11, 17- They were 
worshippers of the true God, though not 
fully identified with Israel. Jonadab aided 
Jehu in executing the divine commission to 
exterminate the idolatrous house of Ahab, 
and in destroying the worshippers of Baal, 
2 Kin. 10:15-23. He laid an injunction on 
his posterity not to drink wine, or build 
houses, or sow seed, or plant vineyards, or 
hold lands, but to dwell in tents, Jer. 35:6, 
7. These rules were obeyed by his de- 
scendants, and their nomadic life and sim- 
ple habits may have facilitated their escape 
from the Assyrians, who carried captive 
the Israelites of the northern kingdom, in 
which Jonadab had dwelt. , Nearly 300 
years after Jonadab's day the Rechabites 
took refuge in Jerusalem on Nebuchadnez- 
zar's invasion of Judaea in the reign of Je- 
hoiakim. Jeremiah was commanded by 
God to invite them into the temple and 
offer them wine to drink, that their refusal 
and filial obedience might rebuke the Jews 
for their disobedience to God's commands. 
A divine promise of continued existence as 
a family was conveyed to the Rechabites by 
Jeremiah, Jer. 35:1-19; and was undoubt- 
edly fulfilled, though it may not now be 
possible to distinguish them, as some claim 
to do, among the tribes of Central Arabia. 
It is interesting, however, to note that trav- 
ellers mention a tribe to the northeast of 
Medina who identify themselves with the 
Rechabites, and have the Old Testament 
in Arabic. They call themselves the Beni 
Khaibr, sons of Heber, and their land 
Khaibr. 

RECONCILE, Eph. 2:16, RECONCILIA'- 
TION, Rom. 5:11, R. V. These passages 
refer to the change of relation between 
God and man, from hostility to friendship, 
effected through the mediation of the Son 
of God, Heb. 2:17 with 1:1-3. To make 
human salvation possible, a just God must 
be reconciled to the sinner, and the rebel- 
lious sinner be reconciled to God. This 
reconciliation is effected by the sacrifice of 



Christ, which satisfies the justice of God, 
and through the operation of the Holy 
Spirit discloses to the sinner the love of 
God, and draws from him a response of 
gratitude, trust, and love, Rom. 5:10, n; 
2 Cor. 5:18-20. When the words appear 
in the Old Testament they — with 2 excep- 
tions, 1 Sam. 29:4; 2 Chr. 29:24 — represent 
the Hebrew word more frequently transla- 
ted "atone" and " make atonement," Lev. 
6:30; 8:15; Ezek. 45:15, 17; Dan. 9:24. 
Christ bids the man who has wronged his 
brother to make peace with him by con- 
fession and reparation before presenting 
his gift at God's altar, Matt. 5:23, 24. 

RECORD often means in the A. V. wit- 
ness or testimony, John 1:32, 34; 1 John 
5:7; Rev. 1:2. "Take you to record," A. 
V., in Acts 20:26, is rendered in the R. V. 
"testify unto you." 

RECORD'ER, remembrancer, an officer 
of high rank at the court of David and Sol- 
omon, 2 Sam. 8:16; 1 Kin. 4:3, and later of 
the kings of Judah, 2 Kin. 18:18, 26, 37; 
2 Chr. 34:8, 9. Besides holding the office 
of annalist, the recorder seems to have 
been a counsellor or chancellor of the king, 
Isa. 36:3, 22, was a commissioner in time 
of war, and superintended temple repairs. 

REDEEM'ER, a name given to Jesus 
Christ, the Saviour of the world, because 
he redeems mankind from the bondage 
and guilt of their sins by dying in their 
place, and thus paying their ransom, Matt. 
20:28; Gal. 3:13; Eph. 1:7; 1 Tim. 2:6; 
Tit. 2:14; 1 Pet. 1:18, 19; Rev. 5:9. 

The work of redemption is illustrated 
by the Old Testament uses of the word. 
A participle from gaal, to redeem, viz., 
goel, redeemer, denotes one's nearest male 
blood relative, to whom certain rights and 
duties appertained: 1. To redeem, without 
waiting for the Jubilee year, the property 
or person of one who, having become in- 
volved, was unable to free himself, Lev. 
25:25-28,47-53; Ruth 3: 12; 4:1,10,14. God 
is represented as the nearest kinsman, 
the goel or redeemer of his people, Exod. 
6:6; Job 19:25; 33:27, 28; Psa. 103:4; Isa. 
41:14; 43:1, 14; 44:6, 22; 48:17, 20; 49:7. 
Among the Hebrews this sometimes in- 
volved the marrying of the widow of the 
deceased kinsman. 2. To receive the rep- 
aration due from a 3d person to a deceased 
relative who had been wronged, Num. 5:6- 
8. 3. To avenge the death of a murdered 
kinsman, Num. 35:12, 19, 21, 27; Deut. 19:6, 
12, 13. See Refuge. So Christ, having 
taken our nature upon him, as our nearest 

469 



RED 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



REF 



of kin destroys Satan, our murderer, John 
8:44; Heb. 2: 14, 15. 

Another Mosaic institution provided that 
a man might redeem by a fixed price the 
life of man or beast which were claimed 
as God's, e. g., the firstling of a domestic 
animal, by paying the priest's estimate of 
its value and i-5th more, Lev. 27:27, or a 
slave, Exod. 21:8; Lev. 19:20, or the first- 
born of an Israelite, Exod. 13:13, 15; Num. 
18:15, 16, e.g., of those not exchanged for 
Levites, Num. 3:46, 51. In these cases the 
idea of purchase illustrates Christ's re- 
demption of his people, 1 Cor. 6:20; 7:23; 
Rev. 14:3, 4. See Ransom. 

Another great type of Christ's work was 
the deliverance of Israel from the bondage 
in Egypt, the whole narrative abounding 
in parallels to the redemption and salva- 
tion of sinners, Exod. 15:13; Deut. 7:8; 
9:26; Psa. 74:2; 77:15; 130:7,8; Isa. 48:20; 
59:20; 63:9; Jer. 31:11; Rom. 3:24, 25; 
Gal. 3:13. 

RED SEA. See Sea. 

REED, sometimes a stalk or rod of any 
plant, as of the hyssop, Matt. 27:48; John 
19:29. Usually, however, the word reed 
denotes a reed or cane growing in marshy 
grounds, Job 40:21; Isa. 19:6, slender and 
fragile, and hence taken as an emblem of 
weakness, 1 Kin. 14:15; 2 Kin. 18:21; Isa. 
36:6; Ezek. 29:6, and of instability, Matt. 
11:7. "A bruised reed," Isa. 42:3; Matt. 
12:20, is an emblem of a soul crushed and 
ready to sink in despair under a sense of 
its guilty and lost condition. Such a soul 
the Saviour will graciously sustain and 
strengthen. The reed of spice, or good 
reed (A. V. "sweet calamus," Exod. 30:23, 
"sweet cane," Jer. 6:20), also called simply 
"reed" ("calamus" or "sweet cane"), 
Song 4:14; Isa. 43 : 24 ; Ezek. 27 : 19, may be 
the sweet flag of India, Calamus odoratus, or 
the lemon-grass, Andropogon schasnanthus, 
of Arabia and India. The Arundo donax, 
common in Egypt and Palestine, has a slen- 
der jointed stalk about 12 feet high, with 
a large tuft of bloom at the top, and long 
leaves shaped like those of maize. Wild 
beasts make their lairs in the dense growth 
of this reed about the perennial streams of 
Palestine. Musical instruments are still 
formed of hollow reed tubes. Reeds were 
anciently used as pens and as measuring- 
rods, Ezek. 40:5; 42:16; 3 John 13. The 
Hebrew " reed " is supposed to have been 
about ii feet long. See Measures, Bul- 
rush, Flag, Rush. 

REFI'NER, Job 23:10; Psa. 66:10; Prov. 
470 



17:3; Isa. 48:10. In working the precious 
metals the refiner separated the dross from 
the pure ore, first reducing the mass to a 
fluid state by the application of heat, and 
by the aid of solvents, such as alkali or 
lead, which, amalgamating with the dross, 
permitted the extraction of the pure metal. 
The instruments required were a crucible 
or furnace, and a bellows or blow-pipe. 
The refiner of silver sits at his work, stead- 
ily watching the process, which is comple- 
ted only when he sees his own image re- 
flected in the molten mass, Mai. y.^; com- 
pare Isa. 1:25; Jer. 6:29; Zech. 13:9. So 
Christ sanctifies his people, Rom. 8:29; 
Heb. 12: 10. 

REFRAIN', Prov. 10:19, hold in check. 

REF'UGE, Cities of. To provide secu- 
rity for those who should undesignedly 
kill a man in such ways as are specified in 
Exod. 21:22, 23; 22:2, 3; Num. 35:22, 23; 
Deut. 19:5; 22:8, the Lord commanded 
Moses to appoint 6 cities of refuge, or asy- 
lums, that any one who should thus shed 
blood might retire thither and have time 
to prepare his defence before the judges of 
the place where the slaying occurred, Josh. 
20:4-6, and that the goel, or nearest of kin 
of the deceased, might not pursue or kill 
him, Exod. 21:13; Num. 35 : 1 1-34. Of such 
cities there were 3 on each side of the Jor- 
dan. On the west were Kedesh of Naphtali, 
Shechem, and Hebron; on the east, Golan, 
Ramoth-Gilead, and Bezer, Josh. 20:7, 8. 
These cities served not only for Hebrews, 
but for all strangers who resided in the 
country, Deut. 19:1-10. The Lord also 
commanded that when the Hebrews should 
multiply and enlarge their land, they should 
add other cities of refuge ; but this com- 
mand was never fulfilled, unless, as Jewish 
writers affirm, the Levitical cities were also 
cities of refuge, Num. 35:6. 

The custom of blood-revenge appears to 
have been very early introduced among 
the nomadic Oriental tribes. So firmly 
was this practice established among the 
Israelites before their entrance into the 
promised land, and probably also even be- 
fore their sojourning in Egypt, that Moses 
was directed by Jehovah not to attempt to 
eradicate it entirely, but only to counteract 
and modify it by the institution of cities of 
refuge. Later Jewish writers say that va- 
rious provisions were made to facilitate 
escape to these cities ; the roads were good, 
and sign-posts were erected to point the 
way. The custom of avenging the blood 
of a member of a family or tribe upon some 



REF 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



REG 



member of the tribe or family of the slayer 
still exists in full force among the modern 
Bedouins. Niebuhr informs us that " the 



Arabs rather avenge themselves, as the 
law allows, upon the family of the mur- 
derer, and seek an opportunity of slaying 




its head, or most considerable person, 
whom they regard as being properly the 
person guilty of the crime, as it must have 
been committed through his negligence in 
watching over the conduct of those under 
his inspection. From this time the 2 fami- 
lies are in continual fears, till some one or 
other of the murderer's family be slain. 
No reconciliation can take place between 
them, and the quarrel is still occasionally 
renewed. There have been instances of 
such family feuds lasting 40 years. If in 
the contest a man of the murdered per- 
son's family happens to fall, there can be 
no peace until 2 others of the murderer's 
family have been slain." How far supe- 
rior to this was the Mosaic institution of 
cities of refuge, where the involuntary hom- 
icide might remain in peace till the death 
of the high-priest, and then go forth in 
safety, while a really guilty person did not 
escape punishment, Deut. 19:12. Certain 
skeptical writers claim to have found rea- 
son to believe that the cities of refuge were 
not instituted till late in Jewish history. 
But it is inconceivable that the different 
sacred writers who at various intervals of 
time describe them should have interwo- 
ven in their narratives of contemporane- 
ous events accounts of an institution that 
did not then exist, or that the Jews of the 
later age supposed should permit such an 
interpolation in their own national and 
sacred annals. 



Among most of the nations of antiquity, 
temples, and particularly the altars within 
them, were regarded as proffering an asy- 
lum for -fugitives from violence. Among 
the Hebrews we find indications of the cus- 
tom on the part of the culprit of fleeing to 
the Lord's altar. But this was not allowed 
to screen the guilty from deserved punish- 
ment, Exod. 21:14; 1 Kin. 2:28-34. 

There is an appointed city of refuge for 
sinners exposed to the second death, and 
an altar of refuge sprinkled with atoning 
blood, Heb. 6:18. Happy the soul that 
flees and is safe in Christ ere it is overta- 
ken by the avenging law of God. 

RE' GEM, friend, 1 Chr. 2:47. 

RE'GEM - ME'LECH, the king's friend, 
apparently the title of a commissioner sent 
with Sharezer by the Jews of the Captivity 
to inquire at the temple concerning fast- 
ing, Zech. 7:2, B. C. 517. 

REGENERATION, the new birth; that 
work of the Holy Spirit by which the soul, 
previously dead in sins, is created anew in 
Christ unto righteousness. It is expressed 
in Scripture by being born again, anew, or 
from above, John 3:3-7; becoming a new 
creature, 2 Cor. 5:17; being quickened to 
a new life of holiness, Eph. 2:1 ; being re- 
newed in mind, Rom. 12:2; having Christ 
formed in the heart, Gal. 4:19; and being 
made partaker of the divine nature, 2 Pet. 
1 :\. The sole author of this change is the 
Holy Spirit, John 1:12, 13; 3:5; Eph. 2:8- 

471 



REH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



REH 



10; and he effects it ordinarily by the in- 
strumentality of gospel truth, i Cor. 4:15; 
Jas. 1:18; 1 Pet. 1:23. In this change the 
moral image of God is brought back into 
the soul, and the principle of supreme love 
to him and unselfish love to our neighbor 
is implanted. Regeneration, producing 
faith, is accompanied by justification, and 
by actual holiness of life, or sanctification 
begun, and completed when the "babe in 
Christ" reaches in heaven "the fulness of 
the stature of the perfect man " in Him. 
In Tit. 3:5 " the washing of regeneration " 
denotes the purifying work of the Spirit in 
the new birth. In Matt. 19:28 the refer- 
ence is to the renovation or restoration of 
all things at the glorious external manifes- 
tation of Christ and his kingdom. Com- 
pare Acts 3:21. 

REHABI'AH, whom Jehovah enlarges, a 
grandson of Moses, 1 Chr. 23:17; 24:21; 
26:25. 

RE' HOB, breadth, or a street, I., father 
of Hadadezer king of Zobah, 2 Sam. 8:3, 
12. 

II. A Levite who sealed the covenant 
with Nehemiah, Neh. 10:11. 

III. The northernmost point reached by 
the spies sent out by Moses to explore Ca- 
naan, Num. 13:21. It is also called Beth- 
rehob, Judg. 18:28; 2 Sam. 10:6, 8, and was 
near Dan. Robinson places it west of the 
sources of the Jordan, at the ruined castle 
of Hunin; but Thomson suggests Banias, 
east of Dan or Tell el-Kady, as the site. 

IV. A town of Asher, Josh. 19:30, appa- 
rently towards Zidon. 

V. Another town of Asher, allotted to 
the Gershonite Levites, Josh. 21:31 : 1 Chr. 

6:75- 

One of these is traced at Kulat er-Rahib, 
16 miles east of the waters of Merom. Of 
one the Canaanites long retained posses- 
sion, Judg. 1:31. 

REHOBO'AM, enlarger of the people, the 
son and successor of Solomon, by Naamah, 
an Ammonitess, 1 Kin. 12; 14:21-31; 2 Chr. 
10 to 12. He was 41 years old when he be- 
gan to reign, and reigned 17 years at Jeru- 
salem, B. C. 975-958. At his succession the 
10 tribes, excluding Judah and Benjamin, 
revolted and formed the " kingdom of Is- 
rael " under Jeroboam, 1 Kin. 11:26-40. 
Aside from Ephraim's long-standing jeal- 
ousy of Judah, the immediate cause of this 
secession was Rehoboam's headstrong folly 
in rejecting experienced counsellors and 
claiming tyrannical power, in refusing at 
Shechem the request of the people for re- 
472 



lief from an oppressive taxation. Reho- 
boam fled to Jerusalem on the stoning of 
his chief tax-gatherer, and at once sought 
to recover the revolted tribes by force ; but 
his preparations were checked by a mes- 
sage from God through the prophet She- 
maiah. Yet it is probable that he did not 
long delay hostilities of some sort, which 
continued through his whole reign. In 
spite of the settlement in Judah of the 
priests and Levites driven from Israel by 
Jeroboam's course, Judah, after a brief pe- 
riod of comparative faithfulness to God, 
lapsed into idolatry and heathen immoral- 
ities such as Solomon introduced. Their 
sin was punished, in Rehoboam's 5th year, 




PORTRAIT OF REHOBOAM : FROM THE TEMPLE 
AT KARNAK, EGYPT. 

by the invasion of Shishak, king of Egypt. 
See Shishak. He took the fortified cities 
on his line of march, and despoiled Jeru- 
salem of the treasures accumulated by 
Solomon. On Rehoboam's humbling him- 
self before God he was spared severer 
punishment. He "did evil because he 
prepared (or fixed) not his heart to seek 
the Lord," a lack of sincere devotion to 
God attributable in part to the influence of 
his heathen mother, and to the example of 
his father's idol-service at one period of 
his life, 1 Kin. 11:4-10; 14:21, 3 1 ; 2 chr - 
12:13, 14. It is probable that Solomon 
wrote Eccl. 2 : 18-21 with Rehoboam in 
mind. 

REHO'BOTH, wide places, I., a city of 
Assyria, Gen. 10:11, founded by Nimrod 
in Asshur (A. V., margin), or by Asshur. 
Rawlinson would locate it at Selamiyeh, a 
village on the site of an ancient inclosure 



REH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



REN 



on the west bank of the Tigris, 3 miles 
north of Nimrud. Some, however, trans- 
late "the city Rehoboth " "the streets of 
the city," *'. <?., of Nineveh, as in the A. V. 
margin. 

II. " Rehoboth by the river," the city of 
Shaul, an early king of the Edomites, Gen. 
36:37; 1 Chr. 1:48. The "river" is sup- 
posed to mean the Euphrates. The name 
Rahabah is still borne by 2 places on this 
river, said to contain ancient remains : one 
is a few miles below the mouth of the Kha- 
bour, and 3 miles west of the Euphrates ; 
the other is a little farther down on the 
east bank. 

III. The well dug by Isaac after leaving 
Gerar, Gen. 26:22. At the head of a wady 
20 miles southwest of Beer-sheba is a place 
now known as er-Ruhaibeh, where, near 
some stone ruins, is a well 12 feet in cir- 
cumference, whose massive stone mason- 
ry, with 2 troughs made in huge blocks of 
stone, has an appearance of great anti- 
quity. This is supposed to be the site of 
Rehoboth. 

RE'HUM, compassionate, I., the " chan- 
cellor " or governor of Samaria under the 
king of Persia. By an insidious letter to 
Artaxerxes (Pseudo-Smerdis), B. C. 522, 
he procured an edict for the discontinu- 
ance of the rebuilding of Jerusalem, Ezra 
4 : 8-24. 

II. Four others are mentioned, Ezra 2:2, 
called Nehum in Neh. 7:7; Neh. 3:17; 
10:25; I2: 3> called Harim in ver. 15. 

RE'I, friendly, an officer of David who 
refused to join Adonijah in rebellion, 1 Kin. 
1:8. 

REINS, Jer. 12:2. The Hebrews consid- 
ered the reins or kidneys, as well as the 
heart, to be the seat of various emotions 
and affections which we popularly attrib- 
ute to the heart alone. They ascribed to 
them knowledge, Psa. 16:7; joy, Prov. 
23:16; sorrow, Psa. 73:21 ; desire, as some 
interpret Job 19:27; see margin. Hence 
God is called the searcher of the reins, 
Psa. 7:9; 26:2; Jer. 17:10; Rev. 2:23. 

Agreeable to this ascription of moral 
attributes to the kidneys seems the require- 
ment of the Mosaic law selecting them for 
presentation to God on the altar of burnt- 
offering, in cases where only a part of the 
victim was to be consumed on the altar — 
as in the sin, trespass, and peace offer- 
ings, Exod. 29:13, 22; Lev. 3:4, 10, 15; 4:9; 
7:4. Thus the Israelite seems to have 
been admonished to cause his desires and 
affections to ascend to God, while the out- 



poured blood of the sacrifice made atone- 
ment for his sins, Lev. 17:11. 

RE'KEM, variegation, I., A descendant 
of Machir, 1 Chr. 7:16. 

II. A king of Midian, slain with Balaam, 
Num. 31:8; Josh. 13:21. 

III. Son of Hebron and father of Sham- 
mai, 1 Chr. 2:43, 44. 

IV. A city in Benjamin, Josh. 18 : 27, 
traced in Kh. el-Meraghib, 2^ miles north 
by west from Jerusalem. 

REMALI'AH, protected by Jehovah, the 
father of Pekah, king of Israel, 1 Kin. 
15:25, 27, 30, 32, 37; 16:1, 5; 2 Chr. 28:6. 
The frequent mention of his name seems 
to imply that it was a reproach to his son, 
Isa. 7:4, 5; 8:6. 

RE'METH, height, a city of Issachar, 
Josh. 19:21, perhaps the same with the Le- 
vitical Ramoth, 1 Chr. 6:73, and Jarmuth, 
named as a Levitical city, Josh. 21:29; now 
perhaps Jelameh, 3^ miles north of En- 
gannim. 

REMIS'SION, or forgiveness, of sins is 
granted on the ground of the atoning sac- 
rifice of Christ, Matt. 26:28. The apostles 
were commissioned to proclaim this doc- 
trine, John 20:23; compare Acts 5:31, 32; 
10:43; 1 John 2:1, 2, and were endowed by 
the Holy Spirit with a supernatural in- 
sight, enabling them to discern and declare 
whether one exercised the true repentance 
and faith to which remission of sins was 
granted, Acts 5:1-11 ; 8:21. 

REM'MON, a city of Simeon, Josh. 19:7. 
See Rimmon. 

REM'MON-METH'OAR, a place in Zebu- 
lun, Josh. 19: 13. " Methoar " should prob- 
ably read, " reaching," i. e., to Neah. See 
Rimmon, IV. 

REM'PHAN, or RE'PHAN, R. V., Acts 
7:43. This quotation by Stephen, from 
Amos 5:26, is in almost the exact words of 
the Septuagint version, both substituting 
Rephan for the "Chiun" of the Hebrew. 
These may have been interchangeable 
names for some god secretly worshipped 
by Israelites in Egypt and the wilderness, 
Josh. 24:14; Ezek. 20:7, 8, 10-18. See 
Chiun. On a tablet from Egypt in the 
British Museum is a representation of a 
group of gods, 2 of which are named Ren- 
pu and Ken ; possibly one or both of these 
may have been worshipped by the Israel- 
ites. 

REND'ING one's garments was a sign of 
great sorrow, fear, or contrition, Gen. 2,7 '■ 29, 
34; Ezra 9:3; Matt. 26:65; Acts 14:14. Joel, 
2: 13, bids the people rend their hearts, not 

473 



REP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



REP 



their garments only. See Mourning. On 
Jer. 4:30, see Eye. 

REPENT'ANCE, a change of mind, ac- 
companied with regret and sorrow for 
something done, and an earnest wish that 
it was undone, 2 Cor. 7:8, 10. Such was 
the repentance of Judas, Matt. 27:3; and so 
it is said that Esau found "no place of re- 
pentance " in his father Isaac, although he 
sought it with tears, Heb. 12:17; that is, 
Isaac would not change what he had done, 
and revoke the blessing given to Jacob, 
Gen. 27. God is sometimes said to " re- 
pent" of something he had done, Gen. 6:6; 
Jonah 3:9, 10; not that he could wish it 
undone, but that in his providence such a 
change of course took place as among men 
would be ascribed to a change of mind. 
But the true gospel repentance, or " re- 
pentance unto life," is sorrow for sin, grief 
for having committed it, and a turning 
away from it with abhorrence, accompan- 
ied with sincere endeavors, in reliance on 
God's grace and the influences of the Holy 
Spirit, to live in humble and holy obedi- 
ence to the commands and will of God. 
This is that repentance which always ac- 
companies true faith, and to which is prom- 
ised the free forgiveness of sin through the 
merits of Jesus Christ, Matt. 4:17; Acts 
3:19; 11:18; 20:21; 26:20. It is not an ar- 
bitrary demand of God, but is in the nature 
of things essential. The way of holiness 
is the only way of peace and safety, and it 
cannot be well with one who has strayed 
from this till he returns to it. The appro- 
val of God and of conscience is a first re- 
quisite of happiness, and nothing but true 
contrition can restore it to the transgressor. 

REPETI'TIONS in prayers, which our 
Saviour censures, Matt. 6:7, were short 
forms or particular expressions in prayer, 
which the Jews were accustomed to repeat 
a certain number of times. So Roman- 
catholics still repeat the Lord's Prayer, 
Ave Marias, etc., a great number of times, 
and think that the oftener a prayer is re- 
peated the more meritorious and efficacious 
it is. The repeated cry of a soul in ear- 
nest is indeed welcome to God, Gen. 18; 
Matt. 26:44; Luke 18:1; but he regards 
the heart and not the lips ; and the greater 
the number of prayers one repeats as a 
task by which to acquire merit the greater 
his sin. 

REPH'AIM, sometimes transferred from 

the Hebrew in the A. V., 2 Sam. 5:18, 22; 

23 : 13, sometimes translated " giants," Deut. 

3:11 ; Josh. 15:8; 18:16, is used in 2 senses. 

474 



I. In the time of Abraham Rephaim 
seems to have been the name of a distinct 
tribe, probably of uncommon stature and 
power, settled east of the Jordan, at Ashte- 
roth-Karnaim, where they were defeated 
by Chedorlaomer, Gen. 14:5. Their pos- 
sessions were promised to Abraham's seed, 
Gen. 15:20. Branches of this race were 
driven from their lands east of the Jordan 
by the Moabites and Ammonites, Deut. 
2:9-11, 19-21. Og, king of Bashan, was a 
survivor of the race, Deut. 3:11 ; Josh. 12:4, 
and the occupation of Bashan by Israel, 
Deut. 3:13, was a partial fulfilment of the 
promise to Abraham. They had posses- 
sions also west of the Jordan, in the terri- 
tory assigned to Ephraim, Josh. 17:15, and 
to Judah,Josh. 15:8. Survivors of the race, 
e. g., the family of Rapha, may have been 
among the Philistines in David's time, 
1 Sam. 17:4; 1 Chr. 20:4-8. It is possible 
that the name of this early tribe may later 
have been applied to other tribes resem- 
bling them in size. 

The valley of the Rephaim, or gi- 
ants, was on the northern border of Judah, 
Josh. 15:8; 18:16. David twice defeated 
the Philistines here, 2 Sam. 5 : 17-25 ; 23 : 13 ; 
1 Chr. 11:15, 16; 14:9-16. It was noted for 
its fertility, Isa. 17:5. Josephus describes 
it as " the valley which extends (from Jeru- 
salem) to Bethlehem." Since the 16th cen- 
tury it has been identified with the broad 
cultivated upland plain running southwest 
from Jerusalem into the deep wady el- 
Werd, valley of roses ; it is crossed by the 
road from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, is 4 or 
5 miles long, and is called by the Arabs el- 
Buka'a. 

II. Rephaim, the spirits of the departed, 
dwelling in Sheol or Hades, generally ren- 
dered in our version "the dead" ("dead 
things," Job 26:5), Psa. 88:10; Prov. 2:18; 
5:5; 7 : 27; 9:18; 21:16; Isa. 14:9; 26:14, 
19. See Dead. This application of the 
word may have originated in the idea that 
Sheol was the residence of the fallen spir- 
its or buried giants. 

REPHI'DIM, resting-places, an encamp- 
ment of the Israelites between the wilder- 
ness of Sin and Mount Sinai, where the 
people murmured, and whence Moses went 
to strike the rock in Horeb from which 
God gave them water. Here also the Ama- 
lekites attacked them, and were defeated, 
Exod. 17. Rephidim is placed by Robin- 
son, Keil, Delitzsch, Porter, and others on 
the northern edge of the "wilderness of 
Sinai," Exod. 19:2, in the broad part of the 



REP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



RES 



valley now called wady es-Sheikh, running 
northeast from Sinai, and at 12 miles' dis- 
tance, an easy day's journey, Num. 33:14, 
15. Moses seems to have gone up from 
the camp at Rephidim with the elders only 
to smite the rock ; and the water would 
flow down through es-Sheikh into and 
through its outlet to the west and the sea, 
wady Feiran. Alush, the preceding sta- 
tion, may have been a point now bearing 
nearly the same name, at the northern ex- 
tremity of es-Sheikh ; and the Amalekites, 
occupying wady Feiran, after harassing the 
rear of the Israelite host, Deut. 25: 18, came 
to battle with them at Rephidim. In this 
valley is a rock at the foot of a conspicuous 
hill which the Arabs now call " the seat of 
the prophet Moses." 

The majority of the " British Ordnance" 
party, however, with Stanley, Ritter, Lep- 
sius, and others, prefer for Rephidim a 
location in wady Feiran, where Arab tra- 
dition points out a rock as the one smitten 
by Moses, and where Jebel Tahunah may 
well have been the station of Moses, Aaron, 
and Hur during the battle. It is a broad 
cultivated valley, and was once a resort of 
hermits ; but its distance from Sinai, Jebel 
Musa, 25 miles, and its copious supply of 
water, seem adverse to its claim to be re- 
garded as Rephidim. See Sinai. 

REPORT', reputation or fame, Gen. 37:2; 
Acts 6:3; 10:22; Phil. 4:8; 1 Tim. 3:7. 

REP'ROBATE, rejected as not enduring 
the test of worthiness, Jer. 6 : 30. Some men 
are spoken of as reprobate even in this life, 
being hardened in sin and unbelief, Rom. 
1:28; 2 Tim. 3:8; Tit. 1:16. 

REPROVE', Job 6:25, confute. 

REQUIRE', Ezra 8:22. request. 

RE'SEN, a bridle, as in Isa. 30:28, a very 
ancient Assyrian city between Nineveh and 
Calah, Gen. 10:12. G. Rawlinson, identi- 
fying Asshur with Kileh Shergat, and Ca- 
lah with Nimrud, the Larissa of Xenophon, 
about 20 miles south of Mosul, locates Re- 
sen near the village Selamiyeh, about 3 
miles north of Nimrud, where are Assyr- 
ian remains. Fergusson, identifying Ca- 
lah with Kaleh Shergat, places Resen at 
Nimrud. 

RESPECT' OF* PER'SONS. The judges 
of the Hebrews were directed to give sen- 
tence strictly according to truth and jus- 
tice, without regard to the comparative 
wealth, influence, or other advantage of 
one party over the other, Lev. 19: 15 ; Deut. 
16:17, 19; Prow 24:23. Thus God judges, 
not according to outward appearance or 



station, but according to the heart, Acts 
10:34; Rom. 2:6-11. Thus ought men to 
estimate and treat their fellow-men; and 
to court the favor of the rich and influen- 
tial is sharply censured in Scripture, Prov. 
28:21 ; Jas. 2: 1-9; Jude 16. 

REST, in Acts 9:31, in the R. V. "peace," 
refers to the respite from persecution en- 
joyed by the Christians in Palestine, after 
the conversion of Saul of Tarsus, during 
the last 2 years of Caligula's short reign, 
A. D. 39 and 40, when the Jews were so 
harassed by the attempts of the emperor to 
force them to worship him as a god that 
thev forebore to afflict the followers of 
Christ. 

RESTITUTION, Job 20:10, 18. The re- 
pairing of wrongs done, and the restoring 
of what one has wrongfully taken from an- 
other, are strictly enjoined in Scripture, and 
are a necessary evidence of true repent- 
ance, Exod. 22:1-15; Neh. 5:1-13; Luke 
19 : 8. Restoration should be perfect and 
just, replacing, so far as possible, all that 
has been taken, with interest, Lev. 6:1-6; 
24 : 2i. In Acts 3:21, the " restitution of all 
things," is the time when Christ shall ap- 
pear in his glory and establish his king- 
dom, as foretold in the Scriptures. 

RESURRECTION of Christ. This is 
of fundamental importance in Christianity, 
both historically and doctrinally. As a fact 
indisputably proved, it was the crowning 
demonstration of the truth of all Christ's 
claims, 1 Cor. 15:14-18. He had repeat- 
edly foretold it, Matt. 16:21; 20:19; arK1 
his enemies were careful to ascertain that 
he was actually dead, and to guard his 
tomb for additional security. Yet he rose 
from the dead on the 3d day, and ap- 
peared to numerous witnesses on at least 
12 recorded occasions, as follows: a. Mark 
16:1-8; b. Mark 16:9-1; John 20:11-18; 
c. Luke 24: 34; 1 Cor. 15:5; d. Mark 16:12, 
13; Luke' 24: 13-25; e. Mark 16:14-18; Luke 
24:36, 49; John 20:19-23; 1 Cor. 15:5; 
f. John 20 : 24-28 ; g. John 21 : 1-23 ; h. Matt. 
28:16-20; 1 Cor. 15:6; i. 1 Cor. 15:7; 
J. Mark 16 : 19 ; Luke 24 : 50-52 ; Acts 1 : 3-9 ; 
k. Acts 9:3-9, 17; /.i Cor. 9:1; 15:8, convin- 
cing even those who were the most doubt- 
ful, and after 40 days ascended to heaven 
from the Mount of Olives. This all-im- 
portant fact the apostles attested by their 
altered conduct and in their preaching, 
Acts 1:22; 2:24-32; 4:33; 10:40,41; 1 Cor. 
15:4-8. It is further demonstrated by the 
establishment and continuance of the Chris- 
tian religion, and additional testimony is 

475 



RES 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



RET 



borne to it by the change in the day cele- 
brated as the Sabbath. In its relation to 
Christian doctrine it stands as a rock of 
strength, assuring us of God's acceptance 
of the expiatory Sacrifice, of Christ's divine 
character and mission, of his triumphant 
accomplishment of the work of redemption, 
and of his raising to immortal life the souls 
and bodies of his people. He was buried 
under the load of our offences ; but he rose 
again, almighty to justify and save us. His 
dying proved the greatness of his love ; his 
rising again shows that his love had se- 
cured its object. 

Resurrection of the dead. It is the 
peculiar glory of the New Testament that 
it makes a full revelation of this great doc- 
trine, which was questioned or derided by 
the wisest of the heathen, Acts 17 : 32. In 
the Old Testament also we find, though 
less frequently, the doctrine asserted: as, 
for example, Isa. 26 : 19; Dan. 12 : 2. When 
our Saviour appeared in Palestine, the doc- 
trine of the resurrection of the dead was 
received as a principal article of religion 
by the whole Jewish nation except the Sad- 
ducees. Their denial of it rested on the 
assumption that at death the whole man, 
soul and body, perishes. " The Sadducees 
say that there is no resurrection, neither 
angel ncr spirit," Acts 23:8. Hence the 
refutation of this unscriptural assumption 
was a complete overthrow of the ground on 
which their denial of a future resurrection 
rested ; for if the soul can survive the body, 
it is plain that God can give it another 
body. In this way our Lord met and effec- 
tually refuted them, Matt. 22:31, 32; Mark 
12:26, 27. 

The resurrection of Christ is everywhere 
represented in the New Testament as a 
pledge and an earnest of the resurrection 
of all the just, who are united to him by 
faith, 1 Cor. 15:49; 1 Thess. 4:14, in virtue 
of their union with him as their Head. He 
is "the resurrection and the life," John 
11:25; they "sleep in Jesus," and shall be 
brought to glory "with him," 1 Thess. 
4: 13-17 ; 5:10; their "life is hid with Christ 
in God," Col. t,:^; and because he lives, 
they shall live also, John 14 : 19. The " first- 
fruits " of his great harvest appeared at the 
time of his own resurrection, when the bod- 
ies of many saints arose, Matt. 27:52, 53. 
The Scriptures also teach that there will 
be a resurrection of the unjust. But they 
shall be raised, not to be glorified with 
Christ, but to be judged by him, and sen- 
tenced to eternal punishment, Dan. 12:2; 
476 



John 5:28, 29, compared with Matt. 25:31- 
46; Acts 24:15. 

To cavillers against this doctrine in his 
own day Christ replied, " Ye do err, not 
knowing the Scriptures, nor the power of 
God." The work is miraculous; and He 
who is omniscient and omnipotent will 
permit nothing to frustrate his designs. 
He has not revealed to us the precise na- 
ture of the spiritual body, nor in what its 
identity with the earthly body consists; 
but it will be incorruptible, fashioned like 
Christ's glorious body, Phil. 3:21, and a 
meet companion of the soul made perfect 
in his likeness. 

RETRIBU'TION. This life being one of 
probation, the future life is one of retri- 
bution — when all men shall be for ever 
rewarded or punished "according to the 
deeds done in the body." The eternal 
blessedness of the redeemed, however, is 
" the gift of God ;" not earned by any good 
deeds, but freely bestowed through Christ 
on penitent believers ; while the unending 
woe of the lost is " the wages of sin." The 
Christian church in all ages has substan- 
tially agreed in the belief that " all sinners 
who do not repent and take refuge in the 
divine mercy in the present life shall in the 
future state suffer eternal punishment as 
the necessary and just retribution of their 
sins." Several large classes of Scripture 
passages combine to teach this truth. They 
are thus enumerated by McClintock and 
Strong. 

1. Passages which declare that certain 
sinners shall not enter the kingdom of 
heaven; such as Matt. 5:20; 7:13, 21-23; 
18:3; Mark 10:23-25; Luke 13:24-28; John 
3:3-5; 1 Cor. 6:9, 10; Gal. 5:19-21; Eph. 
5:5; Heb. 3:19; 4:1-3- 

2. Passages which describe the final state 
of good men and bad in contrast : as Prov. 
10:28; Dan. 12:2; Matt. 3:12; 7:13,14,21; 
8:11, 12; 13:30-43,47-50; 24:46-51; 25:23- 
46; Mark 16:16; Luke 6:23, 24,47-49; John 
5:29; Rom. 6:21-23; Gal. 6:7, 8; Phil. 3:17- 
21; 2 Thess. 1:5-12; Heb. 6:8, 9; 1 Pet. 
4:18. 

3. Passages which apply to this future 
state the terms " everlasting," " eternal," 
" for ever," and " for ever and ever :" Dan. 
12:2; Matt. 18:8; 25:41-46; Mark 3:29; 
2 Cor. 4:18; 2 Thess. 1:9; 2 Pet. 2:17; Jude 
6, 7, 13 ; Rev. 14:10, 11; 19:3; 20 : 10. 

4. Passages which express future punish- 
ment by phrases which imply its everlast- 
ing duration: Matt. 10:28; 12:31,32; Mark 
3:29; 9:43-48; Luke 9:25; 14:25; John 



REU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



REV 



3:36; 8:21 ; 17:12; Heb. 6:2; 10:26, 27; Jas. 
2:13; 1 John 5:16. 

5. Passages which teach that a change of 
heart and preparation for heaven are con- 
fined to this life: Prov. 1:24-28; Isa. 55:6, 
7; Matt. 25:5-13; Luke 13:24-29; John 
12:35,36; 2 Cor. 6: 1, 2; Heb. 3:1-10; 12:15- 
25; Rev. 22:11. 

6. Passages which foretell the conse- 
quences of rejecting the gospel : Psa. 2:12; 
Prov. 29:1; Acts 13:40-46; 20:26; 28:26, 
27; 1 Cor. 1:18; 2 Cor. 2:15, 16; 4:3; 
1 Thess. 5:3; 2 Thess. 1:8; 2:10-12; Heb. 
2:1-3; 4 : i~«; 10:26-31, 38, 39; 12:25-29; 
1 Pet. 4:17, 18; 2 Pet. 2:1-21; t>'-7- Com- 
pare Acts 4:12. See Prove, Sadducees. 

RE 'U, friend, Gen. 11:18, 21 ; 1 Chr. 1:25, 
called Ragau in Luke 3:35, a patriarch, an- 
cestor of Abraham. 

REU'BEN, Heb. REU'BEN, behold/ a 
son, the eldest son of Jacob and Leah, 
Gen. 29:32. In consequence of a great 
sin, Gen. 35:22, he was deprived of the 
privileges of primogeniture, which were 
divided between Judah and Joseph, Gen. 
48:3; 49:3, 4, 8-10, 22-26; 1 Chr. 5:1, 2. 
Though impulsive and ungoverned, he gave 
evidence of kind-heartedness in his effort 
to save Joseph's life at Dothan, Gen. 37: 18- 
30; 42:22, and in his well-meant proposal 
in regard to Benjamin, Gen. 42:37, 38. He 
had 4 sons. He was "unstable as water," 
i. e., quickly boiling upon the application 
of heat, and subsiding when it is with- 
drawn. 

REU'BEN, TRIBE OF. This was the 7th 
tribe in numbers at the exodus from Egypt, 
but at the census in the plains of Moab its 
men of war had diminished from 46,500 to 
43,730, Num. 1:1, 18-21; 26:2, 7. Its sta- 
tion in the camp was on the south side of 
the tabernacle, with Simeon and Gad, 
Num. 2:10-16. Members of the tribe were 
prominent in a rebellion against Moses 
and Aaron, Num. 16. The tribes of Reu- 
ben and Gad being rich in cattle, obtained 
an apportionment in the conquered region 
east of the Salt Sea and the Jordan on con- 
dition that they were to aid in conquering 
Canaan west of the Jordan, Num. 32 ; Deut. 
3 : 16-20. After fulfilling this promise, Josh. 
1:12-18, the eastern tribes joined in erect- 
ing by the Jordan a memorial of their unity 
with western Israel as the people of the 
Lord, Josh. 22. As Jacob and Moses pre- 
dicted, Gen. 49:3, 4; Deut. 33:6, the tribe 
never became especially powerful or no- 
ted. They were reproved by Deborah for 
discussing the war by their brooks— A. V. 



"divisions "—amid their flocks, instead of 
aiding it, Judg. 5:15, 16. Yet they are hon- 
orably mentioned for their valor and faith 
shown in conflict with Hagarite hosts, 

1 Chr. 5:1-10, 18-22. After the division 
they formed a part of the kingdom of Isra- 
el, and shared in the prevalent idolatry. 
Their frontier position exposed them to 
many assaults from the east ; they suffered 
from the power of Syria about 884 B. C, 

2 Kin. 10:32, 33, and with Gad and half 
Manasseh were the first captives to Assyria, 
B. C. 740, 1 Chr. 5:25, 26. Previous to this 
cities of their territory seem to have been 
occupied by the Moabites, Isa. 15; 16; Jer. 
48. 

REU'BEN, TERRITORY OF. This lay 
between the Arnon on the south and Gad 
on the north, and stretched from the Salt 
Sea and the Jordan to the eastern desert, 
Num. 32:37, 38; Josh. 13:15-23. The Isra- 
elites took it from Sihon king of the Amo- 
rites, wmo had taken it from the Moabites, 
Num. 21:24-26; Deut. 3:8, 16, 17. It inclu- 
ded a part of the low Jordan valley, the 
mountains on its eastern verge, and the 
high rolling tract beyond, well watered, 
abounding with herbage and forest, and 
gradually sloping into the desert wastes. 
This district was named the Mishor, or 
"plain," Deut. 3:10; 4:43, now the Belka, 
and esteemed by the Arabs their best pas- 
ture-ground. 

RE-U'EL, or RAGU'EL in A. V. Num. 
10:29, friend of God. I. Son of Esau by 
Bashemath, Gen. 36:4, 10, 13, 17; 1 Chr. 
1 : 35> 37- His 4 sons were Edomite chiefs. 

II. See Raguel. 

III. Leader of the tribe of Gad at Sinai, 
also called Deuel, Num. 1:14; 2:14; 7:42, 
47; 10:20. 

IV. A Benjamite, 1 Chr. 9:8. 
RE-U'MAH, elevated, secondary wife of 

Nahor, Abraham's brother, Gen. 22:24. 

REVELA'TION, an extraordinary and 
supernatural disclosure made by God of 
truths beyond man's unaided power to dis- 
cover, Rom. 16:25; Gal. 1:12; Eph. i:^\ 
Rev. 1:1. Its modes have been various, as 
by dreams, Gen. 37 : 5 ; 40 : 5 ; 41 ; 1 Kin. 3:5; 
Dan. 7:1; Matt. 1:20; vision, Gen. 15:1; 
46 : 2 ; Ezek. 1:1; Dan. 8:2; Acts 9:10; 10:3; 
direct communication, Gen. 6:13; Exod. 3; 
Luke 1:11-20, 28-38; 9:35; John 12:28; 
ecstasy or otherwise, 2 Cor. 12:1-7; com- 
pare Num. 12:5-8. Upon the direct and 
full revelation of God in his Word, Psa. 
119:105; 2 Tim. 3:15-17; Heb. 4:12, 13, and 
in the person and work of his Son, John 

477 



REV 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



RHO 



i : 18 ; Heb. 1:1,2; 2 Pet. 1 : 19, the Christian 
religion is founded. A less direct revela- 
tion of God is made in the works of creation, 
Psa. 19:1-4; compare Rom. 1:19, 20; Acts 
14:17; 17:26-28; in the human conscience, 
Rom. 2:14, 15; compare John 1:9; and in 
history, Deut. 29:22-28; Acts 14:17; 2 Pet. 
2:14-19; compare John 1:5, 10. But this 
triple revelation, however valuable as a 
constant witness to the divine nature and 
rule, and as a guide intellectually and 
morally, is only partial, and is besides lia- 
ble to misinterpretation by the human rea- 
son, 1 Cor. 1:21. "The revelation of our 
Lord," 1 Cor. 1:7, R. V., is his glorious 2d 
coming, Luke 17:24-30; 2 Thess. 1:7-10; 
1 Pet. 4:13. 

For the Book of Revelation see Apoc- 
alypse. 

REVEN'GER, or AVENGER OF BLOOD, 
the man who had the right and duty, under 
the Mosaic law, of killing him who had 
killed one of his relatives. Personal retal- 
iation or revenge is the mode of punishing 
crime most popular in a primitive state of 
society, and was anciently, as now, preva- 
lent in the East; compare Gen. 34. The 
Mosaic law, by just and humane provis- 
ions, regulated and restrained this deep- 
rooted and ancient institution, Deut. 24:16. 
Compare 2 Sam. 14:6-11. See Refuge. At 
the same time the spirit and tendency of 
the law, as well as the direct command of 
the gospel, are against all revengeful feel- 
ing or action, Exod. 23:5; Lev. 19:17, 18; 
Prov. 20:22; 24:29; Matt. 5:39; Rom. 12:19, 
20; 1 Pet. 3:9. 

REVIVE', live again, 1 Kin. 17:22; 2 Kin. 
13:21 ; Rom. 14:9. 

RE'ZEPH, a hot stone, as for baking, a 
city conquered by the Assyrians, 2 Kin. 
19:12; Isa. 37:12. Its site may be at Ras- 
appa, about 25 miles west of the Euphra- 
tes, on the road from Rakkah to Hums. 

REZI'A, delight, of the tribe of Asher, 
1 Chr. 7:39. 

RE'ZIN, Jirm, I., a king of Damascene 
Syria, who with his ally, Pekah king of Is- 
rael, invaded Judah in the last days of 
Jotham, B. C. 742, 2 Kin. 15:37, and in the 
reign of Ahaz, 2 Kin. 16:5-9; 2 Chr. 28:5; 
Isa. 7:1-8. Unsuccessful in the siege of 
Jerusalem, Rezin deprived Ahaz of Elath, 
but was soon conquered and slain by Tig- 
lath-pileser II., king of Assyria, whose aid 
Ahaz had procured. Rezin's people also 
were carried captive to Kir, Isa. 7:16; 8:4; 
9:11; 17:1. The Assyrian monuments re- 
cord this conquest of Rezin and Damascus. 
478 



II. The head of a family of Nethinim, 
Ezra 2:48; Neh. 7:50. 

RE' ZON, prince, the founder of a dynasty 
in Syria-Damascus in the time of David, 
and a great annoyance to Solomon, 1 Kin. 
11:23-25. He had been an officer under 
Hadadezer king of Zobah. 

RHE'GIUM, fracture, a city on the coast 
near the southwestern extremity of Italy, 
southeast of Messina in Sicily, from which 
it is separated by a strait 6 miles wide. 
Paul stopped here one day on his voyage 
to Rome, Acts 28:13. A favorable south 
wind, for which the ship waited, would 
take it through the strait and to Puteoli 
within 24 hours. It was a city of consid- 
erable note under the Roman Empire. 
Caligula proposed making it a port for the 
Alexandria grain-ships, but died without 
accomplishing his project. Under its mod- 
ern name, Reggio, it is a flourishing com- 
mercial town of about 10,000 inhabitants. 

RHE'SA. It has been conjectured that 
this is not a proper name, but the title of 
Zerubbabel, answering to the Hebrew rosh, 
head ox prince, Luke 3:27. 

RHO'DA, rose, a maid in the household 
of Mary, mother of John Mark, when Peter 
was miraculously released from prison, 
Acts 12:13-15. 

RHODES, rosy, an island in the Mediter- 
ranean, 13 miles from the southwestern 
coast of Asia Minor. It is of a triangular 
form, 46 miles long and 18 miles wide, with 
an area of 420 square miles. The soil is 
extremely fertile, the air proverbially pure, 
and the climate delightful. The city of 
Rhodes, at the northeast end of the island, 
was founded by the Dorians about 400 B. 
C, and became noted for commerce, liter- 
ature, and the arts. It was famed for its 
Colossus, one of the Seven Wonders of the 
world : a brazen statue of Apollo 105 feet 
high, standing on 60 marble columns at the 
right of the entrance of the harbor, not 
striding across it as often represented. It 
was erected B. C. 290, but was overthrown 
by an earthquake B. C. 224. There were 
Jews at Rhodes during the time of the 
Maccabees. Herod the Great built there a 
beautiful temple to Apollo. Paul touched 
at Rhodes on returning from his 3d mis- 
sionary tour, A. D. 58, Acts 21:1. It was 
then enjoying considerable independence 
under the Romans, not being made a Ro- 
man province until the time of Vespasian. 
In the Middle Ages Rhodes was for over 
200 years, from 1309, the residence of the 
Knights Hospitallers or Knights of St. 



RIB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



RIG 



John. It was captured by the Turks in 
1522, and is still oppressed by them. The 
present population of the island is about 
30,000, two-thirds being Turks, the remain- 
der Greeks and Jews. The modern city 
carries on a considerable trade. 

RIB, literally side, as often translated, 
the part taken from Adam to form Eve, 
Gen. 2:21, 22; Dan. 7:5. In the expres- 
sion, "the fifth rib," 2 Sam. 2:23; 3:27; 
4:6; 20:10, the word rib is supplied. The 
R. V. reads, "in the belly." 

RIB'LAH, fertility, a city on the north- 
eastern border of Israel, Num. 34:10, 11. 
It has generally been identified with " Rib- 
lah in the land of Hamath," el-Buka'a, on 
the great road between Palestine and Bab- 
ylonia naturally traversed by invaders of 
Palestine from the north and east. Here 
Pharaoh-necho, on his way to or from As- 
syria, deposed king Jehoahaz, B. C. 610, 
2 Kin. 23:29-33; and here Nebuchadnezzar 
caused the eyes of Zedekiah to be put out 
and his sons killed, B. C. 588, and many 
of the chief men of Judah to be slain, 2 Kin. 
25:6, 7, 18-21; Jer. 39:5-7; 52:9- XI - Rib " 
lah is identified with the poor modern vil- 
lage called Ribleh, on the east bank of the 
Orontes, the el-Asy, about 35 miles north- 
east of Baalbek, and 20 southwest of Hums. 
About 10 miles south of Ribleh is the great 
fountain-source of the Orontes, still called 
el-Ain, "the fountain," supposed to be in- 
dicated in Num. 34:11. Ribleh is in the 
midst of a large and fertile plain, level as 
the surface of a lake, and was evidently a 
place of much strategic importance. Some 
regard Riblah as the same with Diblath, 
Ezek. 6:14; but Conder finds the latter at 
the modern village Dibl. 

Grove and others think Riblah in Ha- 
math too far north to be the place denoted 
in Num. 34:10, 11, and look for the latter 
near Banias, on the side of Hermon, where 
however no such "place has yet been found. 

RID'DLE. The Orientals have always 
been fond of such exercises of ingenuity 
as the "riddle" calls for. The diversion 
was practised by the Egyptians, and by the 
Greeks and Romans at banquets. The 
Heb. word thus rendered in Judg. 14:12- 
19 means something entangled and intri- 
cate, a "dark saying," Prov. 1:6; "prov- 
erb," Hab. 2:6; or allegory, Ezek. 17:2. It 
is the " dark speech," or riddle, of Num. 
12:8, a passage which Paul may have had 
in mind when writing 1 Cor. 13:12, where 
the margin has " in a riddle " for " darkly," 
*. e., in an obscure allegory. 



RIGHTEOUSNESS, rectitude, justice, 
holiness; an essential perfection of God's 
character, Job 36:3; Isa.5i:5~8; John 17:25, 
and of his administration, Gen. 18 : 25 ; Rom. 
3:21, 22; 10:3. It is the wonder of grace 
that, as the righteous guardian of the law, 
he can acquit the unrighteous. " The right- 
eousness of Christ " includes his spotless 
holiness, his perfect obedience to the law 
while on earth, and his suffering its pen- 
alty in our stead. It is called "the right- 
eousness of God," because accepted by 
him, Rom. 3:25. "The righteousness of 
the law " is that perfect obedience the law 
demands; and the righteousness "without 
the law," or "of faith," is that imputed to 
the sinner who believes in Christ. Justifi- 
cation before the law having become im- 
possible to fallen man, Psa. 143:2, a new 
ground of justification was provided by 
God, Psa. 24:5, "witnessed by the law and 
the prophets," Luke 24:25-27; Rom. 3:21, 
the trust of the pious Jew as well as of the 
Christian of our own day, Hab. 2:4; so 
that all condemnation is removed from the 
believer, and he is "accepted in the Be- 
loved," Rom. 8:1; Eph. 1:6. With refer- 
ence to personal character, righteousness 
is used both for uprightness between man 
and man, and for true religion, Gen. 18:23; 
Lev. 19:15; Isa. 60:17; Rom. 14:17; Eph. 
5:9- 

RIGHT-HAND, the most efficient mem- 
ber of the body, Matt. 5:30, and the ready 
executor of the behests of the will. Hence 
its use as a symbol of power, especially the 
almighty power of God, Exod. 15:6; Psa. 
21:8; 77:10; of honor, Psa. 45:9; Matt. 
25:33, 34; Acts 7:55; of special benedic- 
tion, Gen. 48:14; of friendship, Gal. 2:9; 
and of allegiance, 1 Chr. 29:24, margin. 




See Benjamin. It was raised in the act of 
prayer, and also in taking an oath, Gen. 
14:22; Isa. 62:8: the right-hand of a per- 
jured man, or of a pretended friend, was 

479 



RIM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



RIN 



"a right hand of falsehood," Psa. 144:8. 
At the right hand of a man was a conven- 
ient station for one bent on opposing and 
hindering him, Psa. 109:6; Zech. 3:1. In 
regard to the points of the compass, the 
right-hand in Hebrew denotes the south, 
1 Sam. 23:19, margin, 24, as the left-hand 
means the north, Gen. 14: 15. See East. 

RIM'MON, pomegranate, I., an idol of 
the Assyrians in Damascus, 2 Kin. 5 : 18. 
See Naaman. Some maintain that Rim- 
mon represented the fertilizing principle 
in nature, often symbolized by the pome- 
granate in ancient religions ; others, that 
Rimmon is abridged from Hadad-rimmon 
(see), Hadad being the sun-god of the Syr- 
ians, and in combination with Rimmon per- 
haps the sun-god of the late summer, the 
fruit-ripener — the pomegranate ripening 
in August and September. Gesenius and 
others derive the name of the Syrian idol 
from a Hebrew root meaning "to be high," 
and translate it " the most high." 

II. A Benjamite of Beeroth, father of the 
murderers of Ishbosheth, 2 Sam. 4:2, 5, 9. 

III. A city of Judah, Josh. 15:21, 32, 
afterwards of Simeon, Josh. 19:7; 1 Chr. 
4:32; Neh. 11:29; Zech. 14:10; traced at 
Umm er-Rumanin, 18 miles southwest of 
Hebron, and 10 northeast of Beer-sheba, 
where on a hill-top are rock-cisterns and 
foundations of important buildings. 

IV. A city of Zebulun, assigned to the 
Merarite Levites, Josh. 19:13; 1 Chr. 6:77. 
See Remmon-methoar. It was .probably 
the same as Dimnah, Josh. 21:35, and is 
found in the modern village Rummaneh, 6 
miles north of Nazareth, and 8 or 9 north- 
west of Mount Tabor. 

V. A rocky height to which 600 Benja- 
mites fled, Judg. 20:45-47; 21:13. It lay 
towards "the wilderness," i. e. } the uncul- 
tivated region between the central high- 
lands of Benjamin, where Gibeah stood, 
and the Jordan valley ; found in the pres- 
ent village Rummon, 3^ miles east of Beth- 
el, now Beitin, on a high limestone hill, 
rugged and difficult of access, surrounded 
by deep valleys and commanding a wide 
view. 

RIM'MON-PA'REZ, pomegranate of the 
breach, an encampment of the Israelites in 
the wilderness between Rithmah and Lib- 
nah, Num. 33:19, 20. Jebel Ikhrimm, 80 
miles southwest of Beer-sheba, has been 
suggested as a probable site. 

RINGS, ornaments for the ears, nose, 
legs, arms, or fingers. The antiquity of 
rings appears from Scripture and from 
480 




profane authors. Judah left his ring with 
Tamar, Gen. 38 : 18. When Pharaoh com- 




mitted the government of Egypt to Joseph, 
he gave him his ring from his finger, Gen. 
41:42. After the victory of the Israelites 




over the Midianites, they offered to the 
Lord the rings, the bracelets, and the gold- 




en necklaces taken from the enemy, Num. 
31:50; and as these ornaments were of 



RIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



RIV 



gold and much larger than ours, they were 
highly valued, Job 42:11. The Israelitish 
women wore rings, not only on their fin- 
gers, but also in their nostrils and their 
ears, and on their ankles. See Bracelet, 
Amulets. James distinguishes a man of 
wealth and dignity by the ring of gold on 
his finger, Jas. 2:2. At the return of the 
prodigal son his father ordered that a ring 
should be put on his finger, Luke 15:22. 

The ring was used chiefly as a signet to 
seal with, and Scripture generally assigns 
it to princes and great persons ; as the king 
of Egypt, Joseph, Ahab, Jezebel, king Ahas- 
uerus, his favorite Haman, Mordecai, king 
Darius, etc., 1 Kin. 21:8; Esth. 3:10; Jer. 
22:24; Dan. 6:17. The patents and orders 
of these princes were sealed with their 
rings or signets, an impression from which 
was their confirmation. Hence the ring 
was a token and symbol of authority. See 
Seal. 

RING-STREAKED, marked with circular 
streaks of various colors, Gen. 30:35. 

RI'OTOUS, in A. V., means dissolute, 
revelling, rather than turbulent, Prov. 
23:20; 28:7; Luke 15:13; Rom. 13:13; 
2 Pet. 2: 13. 

RI'PHATH, a son of Gomer, Gen. 10:3; 
1 Chr. 1:6. His descendants have been 
identified by some with the Ripheans, the 
ancient Paphlagonians ; others trace the 
name in the Rhipaean mountains— either 
the Carpathian range or heights north of 
the Caspian Sea. 

RIS'SAH, ruin, 20th station of Israel in 
the wilderness, Num. 33:21, 22. It is found 
by some in the Roman Rasa, 20 miles north- 
west of Ezion-geber ; by others at Ain el- 
Jughamileh, 125 miles south-southwest of 
Beer-sheba, or at el-Kusaby, 55 miles south- 
west of Beer-sheba. 

RITH'MAH, broom (the plant retem, a 
large bush growing in the wilderness), the 
17th station of Israel, Num. ^ : 18, 19. 
There is much reason for identifying Rith- 
mah with Kadesh, Num. 13:26, or its im- 
mediate vicinity. The latest authorities 
find Kadesh or Kadesh-barnea at Ain Ka- 
dis, 50 miles south of Beer-sheba. A few 
miles west is a wady called Aboo Rete- 
mat. 

RIVER. The true perennial streams of 
considerable size in Palestine are limited 
to the Jordan and the Leontes, the other 
streams being either winter torrents dried 
up in the summer, or reduced to very small 
streamlets sunk in narrow beds and con- 
cealed by a dense growth of shrubs. Un- 
3i 



der this general head belong 3 Hebrew 
terms : 

1. Yeor, from an Egyptian word. It 
always designates or alludes to the Nile 
and its various branches and distributing 
canals, as in Gen. 41:1-3, 17, 18, and often 
in Exodus. It is also translated "brooks," 
Isa. 19:6-8; "flood," Jer. 46:7, 8; and 
"streams," Isa. 33:21. In Job 28:10 the 
word is used in a general sense, and in 
Dan. 12:5-7 it denotes the Hiddekel, Dan. 
10:4. 

2. Nahar is applied to constantly flow- 
ing streams, Gen. 2:10-14; Exod. 7:19, 
"streams;" Deut. 1:7; 2 Kin. 5:12; Isa. 
18:1. When used with the article it usu- 
ally denotes the Euphrates, Exod. 23:31; 
Josh. 24:2, 3, in A. V. " flood;" 1 Kin. 4:21 ; 
14:15, but apparently the Nile in Isa. 19:5; 
and the Jordan in Psa. 66:6, "the flood." 

3. Nahal, a torrent-bed or valley, through 
which the water flows only or chiefly in the 
rainy season; also the stream thus flow- 
ing, Lev. 11 :g, 10; Deut. 2:24, 36, t>7', 10:7 ; 
Josh. 16:8 ; Judg. 4:7, 13. We have no ex- 
act equivalent for this word in English, and 
to express the idea the Arabic word wady 
of the same meaning has been adopted. 
Nahal is often translated in the A. V. "val- 
ley," Gen. 26:19; Psa. 104:10, and "brook," 
Gen. 32:23; Num. 13:23, 24; 1 Kin. 17:3-7; 
18:5. Such streams, often sadly disap- 
pointing the thirsty and perishing travel- 
ler, are to the Orientals striking emblems 
of inconstancy and faithlessness, Job 6:15- 
20; Jer. 15:18. 

In Ezek. 31:4 "little rivers" represents 
a Hebrew word elsewhere rendered "con- 
duit," as in 2 Kin. 18:17. In Ezekiel the 
reference seems to be to small streams 
artificially directed for irrigation. Such m 
conduits were easily turned by moulding 
the soil with the foot, and are probably re- 
ferred to in Deut. 11:10; Prov. 21:1. 

RIVER OF EGYPT, Gen. 15:18, Hebrew 
Nahar Mizraim, probably the Pelusiac or 
easternmost branch of the Nile, as the west- 
ern limit of the land promised to Abraham's 
seed — who, however, never extended. their 
sway so far. 

In the other 7 passages where "river" 
or " stream of Egypt" occurs, the Hebrew 
term is Nahal Mizraim, and denotes the 
ancient boundary between Egypt and Is- 
rael, now wady el-Arish, a broad valley 
through which in the rainy season the va- 
rious wadies of the central desert et-Tih 
flow into the Mediterranean about 40 miles 
southwest of Gaza, Num. 34:5; Josh. 15:4, 

481 



RIZ 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ROE 



47; 2 Kin. 24:7; 2 Chr. 7:8; Isa. 27:12. 
This natural boundary was sometimes 
called " Sihor " or " Shihor," Josh. 13:3; 
1 Chr. 13:5, a name elsewhere applied to 
the Nile, lsa. 23:3; Jer. 2:18. 

RIZ'PAH, a live coal, as in Isa. 6:6, a 
concubine of king Saul, taken after his 
death by the ambitious Abner, who bitterly 
resented Ishbosheth's censure of his de- 
sign in this act. Her 2 sons, Armoni and 
Mephibosheth, were afterwards hanged 
with 5 grandsons of Saul, to avenge the 
wrongs he had inflicted on the Gibeonites. 
With the most devoted maternal affection 
Rizpah watched over their remains day 
and night, apparently from April to Octo- 
ber ; and David, being informed of her 
painful, watchings, gathered the bones, of 
all the family of Saul and gave them an 
honorable burial, 2 Sam. 3:7-11 ; 21 : 1-14. 

ROAD, 1 Sam. 27 : 10, a raid or incursion 
on an enemy's country. 

ROB'BERS OF CHURCHES, Acts 19:37, 
rather " robbers of temples," as in the R. V. 

ROB'BERY has ever been one of the 
chief employments of the nomad tribes of 
the East, from the time of Ishmael, Gen. 
16:12, to the present day, when many of 
the Bedouin tribes are robbers by trade. 
Many predatory inroads, large and small, 
are recorded in the Bible : as the incursions 
of the Sabeans and Chaldseans, Job 1 : 14- 
17; the plundering of Shechem by Jacob's 
sons, Gen. 34:27-29; the frequent despoil- 
ing of the Israelites by their enemies, and 
their reprisals in the period of the Judges, 
and the invasion by Micah, Judg. 18 : 11-26. 
Highway robbery was practised in the time 
of the Judges, Judg. 5:6; 9:25. Similar 
disorders in later times were reproved by 
the prophets, Hos. 4:2; 6:9; 7:1; Mic. 
2:2, 8, and continued, more or less, down 
to the Roman period, during which also 
the insecurity of life and property appears 
from incidental mention in the New Testa- 
ment, Luke 10:30; John 18:40; Acts 5:36, 
37; 21:38; compare 2 Cor. 11:26. The 
"thieves" crucified with Christ were prop- 
erly "robbers," Matt. 27:38, R. V. 

A customary camping-place, a day's jour- 
ney north of Jerusalem, is called " the rob- 
bers' fountain," Ain el-Haramiye. 

For "robbery," in Phil. 2:6, some read, 
" a prize," as in the R. V. 

ROBES. See Garments. 

ROCK, Exod. 17:6; Num. 20:8; Judg. 

6:21. Cliffs and caverns abounded in the 

limestone hills of Palestine, and were much 

resorted to for shelter and protection, Judg. 

482 



15:8, 11 ; 20:47; I Sam. 13:6. Hence God 
is styled the Rock of his people, Deut. 32:4, 
15, 18, ^1 ; 2 Sam. 23:3; Psa. 18:2, 31. The 
term is applied to Christ as the source, 
smitten by God, of the water of life, 1 Cor. 
10:4. From the intense heat and glare of 
a tropical sun a rock affords far more 
complete protection than a tree, Isa. 32.2. 
The names Sela and Tyre both mean rock, 
and of the 5 Hebrew words thus translated 
in the A. V. these are the two of most fre- 
quent occurrence. See Sela. 

ROD, a shoot or branch of a tree, Gen. 
30:37; Isa. 11: 1 ; used as a staff in walk- 
ing, Gen. 32 : 10 ; 38 : 18, 25, and so symboli- 
zing support, Lev. 26:26; Ezek. 4:16; used 
by a shepherd in guiding, controlling, and 
defending his flock, Exod. 4:2; compare 
3:1; Lev. 27:32; Mic. 7:14; and by a su- 
perior in correcting a subordinate, Exod. 
21:20, thus symbolizing the guiding, de- 
fending, and chastening providence of God, 
2 Sam. 7:14; Job 9:34; 21:9; Psa. 23:4; 
Mic. 6 : 9. Borne by a ruler as a badge of 
authority, Gen. 49:16; Num. 17:2, 3, 6; Psa. 
2:9; 125:3; Ezek. 19:11, 12, 14; Rev. 19:15- 
Used by the husbandman in threshing 
small seeds, Isa. 28:27; by the diviner, 
Hos. 4:12; by the surveyor in measuring 
land, Rev. 11 :i. The "rod" of God's in- 
heritance, Psa. 74:2; Jer. 10:16, might be 
rendered the "tribe" or people; compare 
Deut. 4:20, the 2 Hebrew words there used, 
meaning scions or rulers' sceptres, being 
also often used for "tribes," as in Gen. 
49:16,28; Exod. 31:2; compare Matt. 24:30. 
Or the reference may be to Israel as under 
the special rod or rule of God; or to the 
measuring and apportionment of the land 
by a rod or reed, Ezek. 40:3, the "rod" 
meaning the land thus measured; compare 
Deut. 32:9, where the "lot" in the A. V. is 
really the surveyor's " cord" or "line," an 
early and usual measuring instrument; 
compare Psa. 78:55; Amos 7:17; Zech. 2:1. 
Sheep passed under the rod to be counted 
as they entered or left the fold, and in tith- 
ing the lambs every 10th one was marked 
by the end of the rod dipped in red ochre, 
Lev. 27:32; Jer. 33:13- There may be an 
allusion to this custom in Ezek. 20:37, sig- 
nifying Israel's reappropriation to the 
Lord. In Isa. 10:26 the reference is to the 
exhibitions of God's power through the 
rod of Moses. 

ROE'BUCK and ROE, masc. and fern., 
the A. V. translation of a Hebrew ^ord 
meaning beauty, an animal clean by the 
Mosaic law, Deut. 12:15,22; 14:4,5; highly 



ROE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ROM 



esteemed as food, i Kin. 4:23; a favorite 
object of the chase, Prov. 6:5; Isa. 13:14; 
and noted for its agility and swiftness, 
2 Sam. 2:18; 1 Chr. 12:8; Song 2:8, 9, 17. 
It is believed that the animal denoted is 
the gazelle, Antilope Dorcas, or Gazella 
Arabica, a species of antelope abundant in 
Syria, Arabia, Persia, Egypt, and Barbary, 
.and long celebrated in Oriental poetry for 




its beauty and grace. It is about 2 feet 
high, of a reddish-brown color, with mark- 
ings of dark brown or black and of white, 
with black horns, which viewed from the 
front outline together the form of a lyre, 
and large, lustrous eyes. It is gregarious 
and easily tamed, though very timid and 
apt to die in captivity; its flesh is excel- 
lent. It frequents both the plains and the 
mountains of Syria, and is sometimes hunt- 
ed with falcon and grayhound cooperating, 
also by driving the herds into large inclo- 
sures, with pitfalls. Tabitha and Dorcas, 
Acts 9:36, are the Aramaic and Greek 
words for gazelle. 

In Prov. 5:19, "roe" in the A. V. trans- 
lates a different Hebrew word, denoting 
the female of the wild or mountain goat. 

The " fallow-deer," only mentioned as a 
clean animal, Deut. 14:5, and as food for 
Solomon's table, 1 Kin. 4:23, was an ani- 
mal of the deer tribe, either the Cervus 
•dama, found in Western and Southern 



Asia, or the Bubale, resembling the harte- 
beest of Southern Africa. 

ROLL. See Book. 

ROLL'ER, Ezek. 30:21, a bandage, to 
wrap a broken limb, 

ROLL'ING-THING, Isa. 17 : 13, or "wheel," 
Psa. 83:13, A. V., conjectured to mean the 
wild artichoke, the twigs of which, uniform 
in length, form a globe a foot or more in 
diameter, and when dry break off at the 
ground and by thousands roll and bound 
over the ground before the wind. 

RO'MAN, a native or resident of Rome, 
John 11:48; Acts 25:16; also one who has 
acquired the rights of Roman citizenship, 
Acts 16:21, 2>7, 38; 22:25-29. See Citizen- 
ship. 

RO'MAN EM'PIRE. This succeeded the 
Macedonian Empire in extending its rule 
over the greater portion of the then known 
world. It is alluded to in the prophecy of 
Daniel, 2:33, 40; 7:7, 19, 23, as the 4th 
world-power. At the closing of the Old 
Testament canon tfce Romans had not come 
in contact with the Jews. But about B. C. 
162 Judas Maccabeus made an alliance 
with them, 1 Mace. 8, which his brothers 
Jonathan and Simon renewed, B. C. 161- 
135, 1 Mace. 12:1; 15:17. The taking of 
Jerusalem by Pompey, B. C. 63, and by 
Sosius, B. C. 36, brought the Jews under 
the dominion of Rome ; and Judaea became 
a dependency of the Roman province of 
Syria at the banishment of Archelaus, A. D. 
6. The Roman Empire, strictly so called, 
arose from the commonwealth or republic 
of Rome, and extended from B. C. 31 — 
when, by the battle of Actium, Octavius, 
afterwards Augustus, became the 1st Ro- 
man emperor — to the abdication of Augus- 
tulus, A. D. 476. The New Testament ref- 
erences concern chiefly the early days of 
the empire under the emperors Augustus, 
Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. 
See Cesar. Its extent and power were 
then at their height. Its bounds were the 
Atlantic on the west, the Euphrates on the 
east, the African deserts, Nile cataracts, 
and Arabian deserts on the south, the 
Rhine, Danube, and Black Sea on the 
north. Britain was also conquered; Par- 
thia on the east, and Germania on the 
north, were semi-independent powers. 
The population of the empire in Claudius' 
reign is estimated by Gibbon at 120,000,- 
000. Countries conquered by Rome be- 
came subject provinces, and were governed 
by rulers usually sent from Rome, though 
sometimes allowed a degree of independ- 

483 



ROM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ROM 



ence under native rulers. See Province. 
Some of the conquered cities were called 
" free cities," being ruled by their own 
magistrates and exempt from occupation 
by a Roman garrison ; and others were 
called "colonies," being primarily and 
chiefly communities of transplanted Roman 
citizens. The destruction of Jerusalem and 
the temple, foretold by Christ, Matt. 24:1, 
2, 14-22, took place in the reign of Vespa- 
sian, A. D. 70. The exile and prophetic 
vision of the apostle John, Rev. 1 :g, 10, are 
supposed to have occurred in Domitian's 
reign, which ended A. D. 96. The condi- 
tion of external unity into which the Ro- 
man dominion had brought the nations, 
the construction of military roads, the sup- 
pression of robbery and piracy, the exten- 
sion of traffic, and the spread of Latin in 
the West as Greek had already spread in 
the East, were favorable to the propaga- 
tion of Christianity; while the skepticism 
and atheism of the learned, the supersti- 
tion of the ignorant, and* the universal cor- 
ruptness of morals, called loudly for a di- 
vine remedy. The gospel appears to have 
been carried throughout the empire in the 
days of the apostles. With rare exceptions 
the Roman emperors were noted for their 
vices and cruelty; under them the Chris- 
tians from time to time suffered severe 
persecutions, until Constantine embraced 
Christianity, A. D. 323, and made it the 
religion of his empire. 

ROME, long the mistress of the known 
heathen world, and for many centuries the 
chief ecclesiastical capital of the nominally 
Christian world, is on the river Tiber in 
Italy, about 15 miles from its mouth. It is 
said to have been founded by Romulus on 
the Palatine Hill about B. C. 753, at which 
time Jotham was king of Judah and Pekah 
of Israel. The "seven hills" on the left bank 
of the Tiber, which formed the nucleus of 
the ancient city, were inclosed by the Ser- 
vian wall, built by the 6th king, Servius 
Tullius, B. C. 578-534, Rev. 17:9. Rome 
was at first governed by kings. After the 
expulsion of Tarquin II., the 7th king, 
B. C. 509, the government was committed 
to 2 consuls, elected annually, with whom 
were afterwards, B. C. 493, associated 2 
tribunes. The republic thus established 
lasted nearly 500 years, until the battle of 
Actium. See Roman Empire. From B. C. 
31, when Octavius became possessed of the 
supreme power as the first emperor, Rome 
was the capital of the Roman Empire until 
A. D. 328, when Constantine transferred 
484 



the seat of government to Constantinople. 
The city was enriched with the spoils of 
conquered nations, including art treasures 
of sculpture and painting, and was noted, 
especially after Nero's time, for the mag- 
nificence of its public buildings and of 
many private residences. The idols of the 
conquered were admitted as objects of wor- 
ship, and the people were full of supersti- 
tion, and in morals exceedingly corrupt. 
Paul's painful representation of the sins of 
heathenism, Rom. 1:21-32, is fully con- 
firmed by Roman writers. The New Tes- 
tament reader's interest in Rome centres 
in its condition at the time of Paul's cap- 
tivity there, between the restoration of the 
city by Augustus — who boasted that he 
found the city of brick and left it of mar- 
ble — and Nero's restoration after the great 
fire in A. D. 64. It had outgrown the 
Servian wall, and was a vast irregular 
mass of buildings over 12 miles in circuit, 
and unprotected by any outer wall. The 
streets were in general narrow and crook- 
ed, flanked by crowded lodging-houses, 
whose height Augustus had limited to 70 
feet. Most of the structures which now 
attract attention as relics of antiquity were 
still unbuilt; but some parts of the city, as 
the Forum, the Campus Martius, and the 
Palatine Hill — where were the emperor's 
palace, the camp of his body-guard, and 
connected buildings— must have presented 
a magnificent appearance. Gibbon esti- 
mates the population of Rome at that time 
at 1,200,000; probably half were slaves, in 
whose hands were the useful trades and 
professions ; a large part of the remainder 
were pauper citizens supported by the pub- 
lic ; the smaller remaining class were the 
wealthy nobility, whose luxury and profli- 
gacy are described by the writers of that 
time. Paul approached Rome by the Ap- 
pian Way, which entered the city on the 
southeast. He was kept at Rome 2 years, 
A. D. 61-63, being allowed to live in his 
own hired dwelling with the soldiers who 
guarded him, to whom he was probably 
fastened by a chain, Acts 28:16. 20, 30; 
Eph. 6: 20; Phil. 1:16; and was permitted 
to preach the gospel to all who visited him. 
Acts 28:30, 31. His epistles to the Colos- 
sians, Ephesians, Philippians, Philemon, 
and the 2d to Timothy, are believed to 
have been written here, the last shortly 
before his death, 2 Tim. 4:6. Many think 
he was acquitted on his appeal to the em- 
peror, but after a period of freedom was 
again brought a prisoner to Rome, where 



ROM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ROM 



tradition affirms that he suffered martyr- 
dom under Nero, A. D. 68. See Paul, Pe- 
ter, Pr^etorium. Many Jews were taken 
to Rome as captives by Pompey ; a special 
district was assigned to Jewish freedmen 
and emigrants on the right bank of the 
Tiber, and they were allowed liberty of 
worship and other privileges by Julius 
Caesar and Augustus. Their banishment 
under Claudius, Acts 18:2, must have been 
brief, for numbers of Jews were residing at 
Rome at Paul's visit, Acts 28: 17. The gos- 
pel was early introduced there, perhaps by 
some who were in Jerusalem at Pentecost, 
Acts 2: 10. Paul had written to the Roman 
Christians as early as A. D. 58, and was 
-cheered by their greetings on his way to 
the city, Acts 28: 15. There were believers 
in the household of Nero, Phil. 4:22, prob- 
ably among his slaves. Nero instituted a 



fierce persecution against the Christians 
on the charge of setting fire to the city, 
A. D. 64. The scene was in " the gardens 
of Nero," now within the Vatican. See 
Nero. Rome as a persecuting power is 
alluded to in the Revelation under the 
name of Babylon, Rev. 14:8; 16:19; I 7'-5, 
6; 18:2, 21. 

The catacombs, subterranean galleries 
commonly from 8 to 10 feet high and from 
4 to 6 feet wide, with occasional enlarge- 
ments, extending for miles under Rome, 
especially in the region of the old Appian 
and Nomentane Ways, were used as places 
of refuge, worship, and burial by the early 
Christians. More than 4,000 inscriptions 
have been found in them, which are re- 
ferred to the period between Tiberius and 
Constantine, one of the oldest being dated 
A. D. 71. 




RUINS OF THE COLOSSEUM, AT ROME. 



The Colosseum, whose majestic ruins 
still impress the beholder with a sense of 
the power and cruelty of heathen Rome, 
was the scene of many a conflict of Chris- 
tian martyrs with wild beasts. It was 
erected by Vespasian and Titus for gladia- 
torial shows, and is said to have contained 
seats for 80,000 spectators. It was 620 feet 
long and 513 broad, with an arena 290 feet 
the uppermost and outer circle of 



bv 1 i 



tiers of seats was 160 feet from the ground. 
From the time of Constantine's establish- 
ment of Christianity as the State religion, 



A. D. 323, the corruption of doctrine and 
practice, which had already begun to ap- 
pear in the church, began to spread more 
rapidly. Soon the bishop of Rome claimed 
supreme authority, chiefly on the assump- 
tion that he was the successor of Peter ; and 
the patriarchs of Antioch, Alexandria, and 
Constantinople finally acknowledged him 
first in honor, though not supreme in juris- 
diction, A. D. 451-604. After the schism of 
the 9th century, which led to the division 
of Christendom into the Roman-catholic 
Church and the Greek Church, the popes 

485 



ROM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



RUD 



of Rome exercised an immense power over 
Europe until the Reformation in the 16th 
century. Since then their power has grad- 
ually declined, though it is still considera- 
ble in Roman-catholic countries and over 
the Romanists in all Protestant countries. 
Rome was made the political capital of the 
united kingdom of Italy under Victor Em- 
manuel in 1871, when the power of the pope 
as a temporal or political sovereign was 
abolished. His dignity and influence as 
head of the Roman-catholic Church still 
continue, and his residence is at the Vati- 
can palace adjoining St. Peter's at Rome. 

Modern Rome lies on the north side of 
the ancient city, its principal portion on 
the left bank of the Tiber covering the 
plain formerly called the Campus Martius ; 
on the right bank it embraces the Vatican 
quarter and the low ground beneath it. 
The " seven hills " are largely occupied by 
villas and farms. Rome is rendered espe- 
cially interesting by the magnificent ruins 
of its former greatness, temples, pillars, 
aqueducts, triumphal arches, and amphi- 
theatres. The Arch of Titus commemo- 
rates his victory over the Jews and spoil- 
ing of the temple. Rome retains its pre- 
eminence as a treasure-house of the fine 
arts. It contains large libraries, including 
that of the Vatican, numerous galleries and 
museums full of the choicest paintings and 
sculptures, besides palaces, villas, schools, 
and hospitals, and over 360 churches, among 
them St. Peter's, the largest in the world. 

The Epistle to the Romans, i. e., the 
Christians of Rome, was written by Paul 
during the 3 months he remained at Cor- 
inth, early in A. D. 58, before going to Je- 
rusalem to attend Pentecost, Rom. 15:25. 
Compare Acts 20:2, 3, 16; Rom. 16:23; 
1 Cor. 1:14; 2 Tim. 4:20. It is the most 
important, systematic, and argumentative 
of the epistles of Paul, a profound discus- 
sion of man's state as a sinner and of the 
plan of salvation. Its immediate occasion 
seems to have been the misunderstanding 
which existed between Jewish and Gentile 
converts, not only at Rome, but everywhere. 
The Jew felt himself in privilege superior 
to the Gentile ; who, on the other hand, did 
not allow this superiority, and was vexed 
by the assertion of it. In reference to this, 
in the first 5 chapters the apostle proves 
that the entire human race is depraved 
and under condemnation — that neither 
Gentile nor Jew has any privilege of birth 
or personal merit, but that each receives 
all benefits through the mere sovereign 
486 



grace of God, Christ alone being our justi- 
fication. He then proceeds to exhibit 
Christ as our sanclification ; and answers* 
the objections made to the doctrine of gra- 
tuitous justification, that it tends to encour- 
age sin, and that God has no right to treat 
mankind in this way. In ch. 10, 11 he ap- 
plies all this to the Jews. In the remainder 
of the epistle, which is hortatory, the apos- 
tle lays down many practical rules of con- 
duct, which are of the highest moment to- 
all Christians. There is no allusion to Pe- 
ter as present at Rome; and Paul's rule 
was not to build on another man's founda- 
tion, Rom. 15:20; the Gentiles were his 
field as the Hebrews were Peter's, Gal. 
2:7-9; Rom. 1:11, 13. 

ROOF. See House. 

ROOM is sometimes synonymous with 
seat or place, as in Psa. 31:8; Luke 14:8- 
10; 20:46. 

ROPES were used for binding prisoners, 
Judg. 15:13; Psa. 2:3; Ezek. 3:25; volun- 
tarily assumed they were a token of hum 
ble submission, 1 Kin. 20:31, 32. 

ROSE, Song 2:1; Isa. 35 : r . The Hebrew 
word means acrid bulb, and cannot denote- 
the true rose, but probably the Polyanthus- 
narcissus. This beautiful and fragrant 
flower grows in the plain of Sharon, and is 
a great favorite, its blossoms being sold in 
the bazaars. True wild roses are seldom 
met with except in the extreme north of 
Palestine. Cultivated varieties of the queen 
of flowers are abundant in Syria and high- 
ly prized, especially for the rose-water and 
attar made from them. 

ROSH, head or chief, should probably 
have been left untranslated in Ezek. 38:2,. 
3; 39:1, as a proper name of one of the 3 
great Scythian tribes: "the prince of Rosh, 
Meschech, and Tubal "—the first mention 
of the Russian race in Scripture. 

RU'BY. The Oriental ruby is next in 
value, as a gem, to the diamond. Indeed, 
a ruby of this kind, above a certain size, is- 
more valuable than a diamond of the same 
weight. The Oriental ruby is a red vari- 
ety of the sapphire ; its color is usually be- 
tween a vivid cochineal and crimson.^ The- 
word " rubies " occurs several times in the 
English Bible, as Job 28:18; Prov. 3:15;. 
8:11; but the corresponding word in He- 
brew is thought to denote red coral, or per- 
haps pearls; while the true ruby is more 
naturally designated by the "agate" or 
"carbuncle" of Isa. 54:12; Ezek. 27:16. 

RUD'DER-BANDS, Acts 27:40. ropes by 
which the 2 large steering-paddles near 



RUD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAB 



the stern of ancient ships were lashed up 
out of the way of the ground-tackle when 
the vessel was at anchor. See Ship. 

RUDE, 2 Cor. ii :6, artless and unpol- 
ished. 

RU'DIMENTS, or elements, the first and 
simplest principles of a science or litera- 
ture, Gal. 4:3, 9; Col. 2:20. 

RUE, the Ruta graveolens, a well-known 
herb, about 2 feet high, having a strong 
odor and a bitter taste. It grows wild in 
Palestine, and was also cultivated as a 
medicine and condiment. The Pharisees 
were punctilious in paying tithes of this 
plant, Lev. 27 : 30, but inconsistently ne- 
glected some of the more important of the 
divine requirements, Luke 11:42; compare 
Matt. 23:23. 

RU'FUS, red, a son of Simon, the Cyre- 
nian who was constrained to carry the 
cross on which the Saviour was to be cru- 
cified, Mark 15:21. If Rufus is the same 
person whom Paul salutes in Rom. 16: 13, as 
is possible, we may see in this instance the 
divine blessing abiding on the household 
of one who befriended Christ and bore his 
cross. 

RUHA'MAH, obtaining mercy, a symbol- 
ical name used by Hosea, 2:1; compare 
1 :6, 7. 

RU'LER, Luke 24:20; Acts 14:5, in the 
New Testament a person of high position 
and influence among the Jews, sometimes 
of official authority, either as " ruler of the 
synagogue," Matt. 9:18 with Mark 5:22, 
35-38; Luke 8:49; 13:14; Acts 13:15; 18:8, 
17; see Synagogue; or as a member of 
the Sanhedrin, Luke 23: 13, 35; Acts 4:5, 8; 
13:27; 16:19. In many cases it is im- 
possible to say which class is meant. The 
young ruler of Matt. 19 : 16-22 ; Mark 10:17- 
22 ; Luke 18 : 18-23, brought credentials on 
which many of our churches would admit 
him without hesitation ; but Christ enfor- 
ces the necessity of a change of heart. 

RU'MAH, exalted, 2 Kin. 23:36. Some 
suppose it identical with Arumah, 6 miles 
southeast of Shechem, Judg. 9:41; others 
with Dumah, 10 miles southwest of He- 
bron, Josh. 15:52. Conder would identify 
it with the ruined village Rumeh, on the 
west of Rimmon, 9 miles northwest of 
Mount Tabor. 

RUMP. See Sheep. 

RUSH. Two Hebrew words are thus 
translated, one denoting the bulrush or pa- 
pyrus reed, an aquatic plant of the sedge 
family, Job 8:11 ; Isa. 35:7; Exod. 2:3; Isa. 
18:2; see Bulrush; the other, also ren- 



dered "bulrush" in Isa. 58:5, A. V., and 
" hook " in Job 41 :2, representing a differ- 
ent reed-like plant, of the sedge or the 
grass family, Isa. 9:14. The proverbial 
expression in Isa. 19:15 denotes the high- 
est and the lowest of the people, i. e., the 
entire people. See Reed. 

RUTH, a Moabitess, who, having re- 
turned with her mother-in-law Naomi to 
Judah, probably about the time of Gideon, 
soon after married Boaz, a kinsman of 
Naomi's husband. From this marriage 
descended David, and through him our 
Saviour Jesus Christ, Matt. 1 .5. See Adop- 
tion. 

The Book of Ruth contains this his- 
tory, told in a most simple and affecting 
manner. The object of the writer, no 
doubt, was to trace the genealogy of king 
David. At the outset he says that these 
events took place when the Judges ruled 
in Israel — an intimation that in the time of 
the writer they had ceased to rule. At the 
close of the book the name of David is 
introduced; which shows that it was not 
written before his day, B. C. 1060. This 
book is inserted in our Bibles after the 
book of Judges, as a sort of sequel to it. 
Many of the ancient fathers made but one 
book of Judges and Ruth. The story of 
Ruth exhibits the frank and simple man- 
ners of the times, and the courtesy and 
charity of the Hebrew laws, gives an inti- 
mation of the future extension of the gos- 
pel to the Gentiles, and illustrates God's 
providential care of families, and the bless- 
ings which flow from filial piety and faith 
in God. 

RYE, Exod. 9:32; Isa. 28 : 25, A. V., called 
"fitches" in Ezek. 4:9. It is probable that 
the true rendering is "spelt." Rye is a 
Northern grain, rarely cultivated in the 
Levant even now, and probably unknown 
there in ancient times; but spelt, Triticum 
spelta, has been cultivated and prized in 
the East for ages. It differs but little from 
wheat, though inferior, and its flour is often 
mixed with wheat flour in making bread. 



S. 



SABACHTHA'NI, hast thou forsaken me? 
a Syro-Chaldaic word, a part of our Sa- 
viour's exclamation on the cross, Matt. 
27:46; the whole is taken from Psa. 22:1, 
where it is used prophetically. 

SABA'OTH or SAB'AOTH represents the 
Hebrew tsebaoth, hosts or armies, and 

487 



SAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAB 



appears in Rom. 9:29; Jas. 5:4, as the 
representative in part of the divine title so 
often found in the Old Testament, and in 
the A. V. translated "Lord of hosts," 
1 Sam. 17:45; Psa. 24:10; Isa. 1:9; Jer. 
32:18. We are to understand the word 
hosts in the most comprehensive sense, as 
including the host of heaven, the angels 
and ministers of the Lord ; the stars and 
planets, which, as an army ranged in bat- 
tle array, perform the will of God; the 
armies of earth, whose conflicts his provi- 
dence overrules to the accomplishment of 
his own wise designs ; the hordes of infe- 
rior creatures, as the locusts that plagued 
Egypt, the quails that fed Israel, and "the 
canker-worm and the palmer-worm, his 
great army," Joel 2:25; and lastly, the peo- 
ple of the Lord, both of the old and new 
covenants, a truly great army, of which 
God is the general and commander, Exod. 
7:4; 2 Kin. 23:5; 2 Chr. 18:18; Neh. 9:6; 
Psa. 148:2; Dan. 8:10, 11. 

SAB'BATH, rest, cessation. God having 
created the world in 6 days, "rested" on 
the 7th, Gen. 2:2, 3; that is, he ceased from 
producing new beings in this creation ; and 
because he had rested on it, he " blessed " 
or sanctified it, and appointed it in a pecu- 
liar manner for his worship. 

We here have an account of the origi- 
nal institution of the day of rest. Like 
the institution of marriage, it was given to 
man for the whole race. Those who wor- 
shipped God seem to have kept the Sab- 
bath from the first, and there are tokens of 
this in the brief sketch the Bible contains 
of the ages before giving the law at Mount 
Sinai. Noah sent forth the raven from the 
ark, and the dove thrice, at intervals of 7 
days, Gen. 8. The account of the sending 
of manna in the desert implies that the 
Sabbath was already known and observed, 
though it may have been largely neglected 
during the Egyptian bondage, Exod. 16:5, 
22-30. The week was an established divis- 
ion of time in Mesopotamia and Arabia. 
Gen. 29:27; and traces of it have been 
found in many nations of anliquity so re- 
mote from each other and of such diverse 
origin as to forbid the idea of their having 
received it from Sinai and the Hebrews. 
Assyrian and Chaldaean inscriptions of an 
earlier date than the time of Moses refer to 
a week of 7 days, and to the 7th day as a 
day of rest, on which it was unlawful to 
work, or for the king to drive out or to 
perform sovereign acts. 

The reenactment of the Sabbath on 
488 



Mount Sinai, among the Commandments 
of the moral law, was also designed not 
for the Israelites alone, but for all who 
should receive the Word of God, and ulti- 
mately for all mankind. Christ and his 
apostles never speak of the Decalogue but 
as of permanent and universal obligation. 
" The Sabbath was made for man." The 
4th commandment is as binding as the 3d 
and the 5th. Certain additions to it, with 
specifications and penalties, were a part of 
the Mosaic civil law, and are not now in 
force, Exod. 31 : 14; Num. 15:32-36. On the 
Sabbath day the priests and Levites, min- 
isters of the temple, entered on their week, 
and those who had attended the foregoing 
week went out, 2 Kin. 11 :5~7. They placed 
on the golden table new loaves of show- 
bread, and took away the old ones, Lev. 
24:8. Also on this day were offered partic- 
ular sacrifices of 2 lambs for a burnt-offer- 
ing, with wine and meal, Num. 28:9, 10. 
The weekly Sabbath was celebrated like 
the other festivals, from evening to evening. 
The Sabbath was kept as a day of rest, di- 
vine worship and religious instruction, and 
of sacred and social rejoicings, 2 Kin. 4:23 ; 
Neh. 8:9-12; Psa. 92; 118:24; Hos. 2:11. 
It was one of the signs of God's covenant 
with Israel, Exod. 31:13-17. The prophets 
denounced its profanation and blessed its 
faithful observance, Isa. 56:1-7; 58:13, 14; 
Jer. 17:21-27; Ezek. 20:12-24. After the 
return from captivity the Jews entered into 
a fresh covenant to keep it, Neh. 10:31. 
Under Antiochus Epiphanes profanation 
of the Sabbath was one of the distinctive 
marks of apostasy to heathenism, 1 Mace. 
1:11-15, 39-45. In the time of our Lord 
Pharisaic legalism had made the Sabbath 
burdensome by the minute and often ab- 
surd regulations concerning its observance : 
e. g., forbidding walking on the grass, as 
that would be a kind of threshing. Against 
these oppressive human enactments our 
Saviour protested, maintaining the lawful- 
ness of works of necessity and mercy on 
the Sabbath, while he kept the day in the 
true spirit of the law. 

The chief obligation of the Sabbath ex- 
pressed in the law is to sanctify it, Exod. 
20:8; Deut. 5:12: "Remember the Sab- 
bath day to sanctify it." It is sanctified 
by necessary works of charity, by prayers, 
praises, and thanksgivings, by the public 
and private "worship of God, by the study 
of his Word, by tranquillity of mind, and 
by meditation on moral and religious truth 
in its bearing on the duties of life and the 



SAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAB 



hope of immortality. The other require- 
ment of the law is rest: "Thou shalt not 
do any work," Exod. 23:12; Lev. 23:3. 
The ordinary business of life is to be whol- 
ly laid aside, both for the sake of bodily 
and mental health, and chiefly to secure 
the quiet and uninterrupted employment 
of the sacred hours for religious purposes. 
The spirit of the law clearly forbids all 
uses of the day which are worldly, such as 
amusements, journeys, etc., whereby one 
fails to keep the day holy himself, or hin- 
ders others in doing so. 

The Christian Sabbath represents the 
original day of rest established in the gar- 
den of Eden and reenacted on Sinai, with- 
out those requirements which were pecu- 
liar to the old dispensation, but with all its 
original moral force and with the new sanc- 
tions of Christianity. It commemorates 
not only the creation of the world, but a 
still greater event — the completion of the 
work of atonement by the resurrection of 
Christ, a still greater deliverance than that 
of Israel from Egypt, Deut. 5:15; and as 
Christ rose from the dead on the day after 
the Jewish Sabbath, that day of his resur- 
rection has been observed by Christians 
ever since. The change appears to have 
been made at once, and as is generally be- 
lieved under the direction of the " Lord of 
the Sabbath." On the same day, the 1st 
day of the week, he appeared among his 
assembled disciples ; and on the next re- 
currence of the day he was again with 
them, and revealed himself to Thomas, 
John 20:19-29. The Pentecostal descent 
of the Holy Spirit is traditionally reported, 
and with probability believed, to have oc- 
curred on the 1 st day of the week, Acts 2. 
From 1 Cor. 11:20; 14:23, 40, it appears 
that the disciples in all places were accus- 
tomed to meet statedly to worship and to 
celebrate the Lord's Supper; in 1 Cor. 16:2 
the apostle connects an act which is a part 
of religious worship, viz., the regular set- 
ting apart for charitable purposes of a due 
proportion of the Christian's income, with 
the 1st day of the week; and in Acts 20:6- 
11 we find the Christians at Troas actually 
assembled on the 1st day to partake of the 
supper and to receive religious instruction. 
John observed the day with peculiar solem- 
nity, Rev. 1:10; and it had then received 
the name of " The Lord's day," which it 
has ever since retained. For a time such 
of the disciples as were Jews observed the 
Jewish Sabbath also ; but they did not re- 
quire this nor the observance of any festi- 



val of the Mosaic dispensation of Gentile 
converts, nor even of Jews, Col. 2:16. The 
early Christian fathers refer to the 1st day 
of the week as the time set apart for wor- 
ship, and to the transfer of the day on ac- 
count of the resurrection of the Saviour. 
Pliny the younger, proconsul of Pontus 
near the close of the 1st century, in a letter 
to the Emperor Trajan, remarks that the 
Christians were " accustomed on a stated 
day to meet together before daylight, and 
to repeat a hymn to Christ as God, and to 
bind themselves by a solemn bond not to 
commit any wickedness," etc. Ignatius, a 
disciple of John, who wrote about A. D. 100, 
contrasts Judaism with Christianity, and 
in exemplification of the contrast speaks of 
the Jewish Sabbath as abolished, and indi- 
cates the 1st day of the week as its succes- 
sor. Justin Martyr, in the 2d century, ob- 
serves that " on the Lord's day all Chris- 
tians in the city or country meet together, 
because that is the day of our Lord's res- 
urrection, and then we read the writings 
of the apostles and prophets ; this being 
done, the person presiding makes an ora- 
tion to the assembly, to exhort them to im- 
itate and to practise the things they have 
heard ; then we all join in prayer, and after 
that we celebrate the sacrament. Then 
they who are able and willing give what 
they think proper, and what is collected is 
laid up in the hands of the chief officer, 
who distributes it to orphans and widows 
and other necessitous Christians as their 
wants require." See 1 Cor. 16:2. Under 
Constantine, the 1st Christian emperor of 
Rome, the Lord's day, or "Sunday," as it 
was also called, was first civilly recognized 
by an edict, A. D. 321, requiring a certain 
degree of abstinence from labor on that 
day. 

The commandment to observe the Sab- 
bath is worthy of its place in the Deca- 
logue ; it is suited to the needs of man's 
physical, intellectual, and spiritual nature ; 
and its observance is of fundamental im- 
portance to society, which without it would 
fast relapse into ignorance, vice, and un- 
godliness. Its very existence on earth, by 
the ordinance of God, proves that there re- 
mains an eternal Sabbath in heaven, of 
which the "blest repose" of the day of 
God is an earnest to those who rightly ob- 
serve it, Heb. 4:9. 

" The 2d Sabbath after the 1st"— Greek, 
"second-first Sabbath" — Luke 6:1, is ex- 
plained by some as "the 1st Sabbath after 
the 2d day of the Passover." See Pass- 

489 



SAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAB 



over. Others interpret it as the ist Sab- 
bath in the 2d year of the Sabbatical cycle 
of 7 years. By some Greek MSS., followed 
in the R. V., the puzzling expression is 
omitted altogether. 

The "preparation of the Sabbath " was 
the Friday before ; for as it was forbidden 
to make a fire, to bake bread, or to dress 
victuals on the Sabbath day, they provided 
on the 6th day everything needful for their 
sustenance on the Sabbath, Matt. 27:62; 
Mark 15:42; John 19:14, 31, 42. 

The term "sabbath" was applied to 
other days and times similarly sanctified, 
Lev. 19:3, 30; 23:24, 38, 39; 25:4. In the 
original Greek of the New Testament the 
word sometimes designates a week, as 
counted from Sabbath to Sabbath, Matt. 
28:1; Mark 16:2. In Lam. 1:7 for "sab- 
baths" we should read "calamities" or 
" ruin." 

For a Sabbath day's journey see Jour- 
ney, Measures. 

SABBAT'ICAL YEAR, or "Year of Re- 
lease," Deut. 15:9; 31 : 10-13, was to De ce l~ 
ebrated among the Israelites once every 7 
years; the land was to rest and be left 
without culture ; debts were to be remitted 
to Hebrew borrowers; and the Law was 
to be read to the assembled people at the 
Feast of Tabernacles, Exod. 23:10, 11; 
Lev. 25:1-7; Deut. 15:1-11 ; 31:10-15. Pro- 
vision for the 7th year might be stored up 
from the abundance of preceding harvests, 
Lev. 25:20-22. The fertility of the soil 
would be increased by its lying fallow. 
God appointed the observance of the Sab- 
batical year to preserve the remembrance 
of the creation of the world, to enforce the 
acknowledgment of his sovereign author- 
ity over all things, particularly over the 
land of Canaan, which he had given to the 
Hebrews, and to inculcate humanity on his 
people by commanding that they should 
resign to servants, to the poor, to stran- 
gers, and to brutes the produce of their 
fields, of their vineyards, and of their gar- 
dens. A long disuse of the Sabbatical year 
has been inferred from 2 Chr. 36:20, 21; 
compare Lev. 26:33-35. But it seems to 
have been observed after the return from 
captivity, in the time of Judas Maccabeus, 
1 Mace. 6:49, 53; Josephus mentions the 
same Sabbatical year and 2 others, and 
implies the customary observance of the 
law down to his own time. Alexander the 
Great and Julius Caesar are said to have 
excused the Jews from tribute in the Sab- 
batic year. See Jubilee. 
490 



SABE'ANS. This word represents 2 dis- 
tinct peoples, who, in accordance with the 
original Hebrew, might have been more 
properly called Sebseans and Shebaeans. 

I. The first denotes the inhabitants of 
the country called Seba. This appears to 
have been the great island, or rather pen- 
insula of Meroe, in Northern Ethiopia, or 
Nubia, formed between the Nile and the 
Astaboras, now Atbara. Upon this penin- 
sula lay a city of the same name, whose 
site may be indicated by ruins still visible 
20 miles northeast of the modern Shendy. 
Meroe was a city of priests, whose origin 
is lost in the highest antiquity. The mon- 
arch was chosen by the priests from among 
themselves, and the government was en- 
tirely theocratic, being managed by the 
priests according to the oracle of Jupiter 
Ammon. This was the Seba of the He- 
brews, according to Josephus, who men- 
tions at the same time that it was conquered 
by Cambyses, and received from him the 
name Meroe, after his sister. With this 
representation accord the notices of Seba 
and its inhabitants in Scripture. In Gen. 
10:7 their ancestor is said to be a son of 
Cush, the progenitor of the Ethiopians. In 
Isa. 43:3 and Psa. 72:10 Seba is mentioned 
as a distant and wealthy country ; in the 
former passage it is connected with Egypt 
and Ethiopia ; and Meroe was one of the 
most important commercial cities of inte- 
rior Africa. These Sabeans are described 
by Herodotus as men of uncommon size. 
Compare Isa. 45 : 14. A branch of this fam- 
ily, it is thought, located themselves near 
the head of the Persian Gulf; and the Sa- 
beans mentioned in Job 1:15 were proba- 
bly Cushites. See Cush and Raamah. 

II. The inhabitants of the country called 
Sheba. The Sheba of Scripture appears 
to be the Saba of Strabo, situated towards 
the southern part of Arabia, at a short dis- 
tance from the coast of the Red Sea, the 
capital of which was Mariaba, or Mareb. 
This region, called also Yemen, was prob- 
ably settled by Sheba the son of Joktan, of 
the race of Shem, Gen. 10:28; 1 Chr. 1:22. 

The queen of Sheba, who visited Solo- 
mon, 1 Kin. 10; 2 Chr. 9; Matt. 12:42, and 
made him presents of gold, ivory, and 
costly spices, was probably the mistress 
of this region ; indeed, the Sabeans were 
celebrated, on account of their important 
commerce in these very products, among 
the Greeks also, Job 6:19; Isa. 60:6; Jer. 
6:20; Ezek. 27:22; 38:13; Psa. 72:10, 15;' 
Joel 3:8. The tradition of this visit of the 



SAC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAC 



queen of Sheba to Solomon has maintained 
itself among the Arabs, who call her Bal- 
kis, and affirm that she became the wife of 
Solomon. 

Besides the Joktanite Sheba, 2 others of 
the same name are mentioned in the Bible. 
1. A son of Jokshan, and grandson of Abra- 
ham and Keturah, Gen. 25:3. 2. A grand- 
son of Cush, Gen. 10:7. It is possible that 
the descendants of the Cushite Sheba may 
have had their residence in Africa, but the 
question of these 2 Shebas is obscure and 
difficult to determine. The Sebaeans and 
Shebaeans are both mentioned in the same 
prophecy, Psa. 72 : 10, as coming to lay their 
offerings at the feet of Christ. In Ezek. 
23:42 the marginal rendering in A. V., 
" drunkards," is preferable to "Sabeans." 

SAB'T AH and SAB'TECHA, sons of Cush, 
Gen. 10:7. It cannot be decided whether 
they settled in Africa, Arabia, or southeast- 
ern Asia. 




SACK, SACK'CLOTH. Sack is a pure 
Hebrew word, and has spread into many 
modern languages. Sackcloth is a coarse 
dark stuff made of goats' or camels' hair, 
Rev. 6:12. It was used for sacks or bags, 
Gen. 42:25; and rough garments made of 
it were worn as a sign of mourning or pen- 
itence, sometimes next the skin, and some- 
times instead of the outer garment, Gen. 
37:34; 2 Sam. 3:31; 1 Kin. 21:27; 2 Kin. 
6:30; Jonah 3:6; Matt. 11:21. The proph- 
ets were often clothed in sackcloth, Isa. 
20:2; Zech. 13:4; Matt. 3:4; Rev. 11:3. 

In times of jo}', or on hearing good news, 
those who were clad in sackcloth cast it 
from them, and resumed their usual cloth- 
ing, Psa. 30:11. 

SACK'BUT. See MUSIC. 



SACRIFICE, an offering made to God of 
some gift, especially an animal slain, as an 
acknowledgment of guilt and an atonement 
for sin, a grateful recognition of God's au- 
thority and goodness, a means of securing 
his favor, or a token of the giver's self- 
dedication to his service. Whatever was 
thus offered to the Lord had first been fur- 
nished to the giver by Him, 1 Chr. 29:14. 
The universal prevalence of sacrifice wit- 
nesses to man's universal sense of guilt 
and estrangement from God. It is be- 
lieved that after the fall Jehovah himself 
appointed sacrifices of beasts, of the first 
killing of which we find indications in the 
clothing of Adam and Eve, Gen. 3:21 ; com- 
pare 2:17. At first sacrifices were offered 
by individual worshippers, as Cain and 
Abel ; after the flood, by heads of families 
or tribes, as Noah, Melchizedek, Isaac, Ja- 
cob, Job. From being the prerogative of 
the firstborn, the offering of sacrifices was 
by the Mosaic law devolved upon Aaron 
and his descendants. The offering of sac- 
rifice was connected with God's covenant 
with Noah, Gen. 8:20 to 9:17, with Abra- 
ham, Gen. 15:9-21, and with Israel at Sinai, 
Exod. 24:4-8, the ratification of his cove- 
nant of eternal salvation through the sac- 
rifice of Christ being thus foreshadowed, 
Heb. 9:13-20; 13:20. The idea of the sal- 
vation of one condemned to death by means 
of a vicarious death, taught in the substitu- 
tion of the ram for Isaac, Gen. 22:13, and 
the idea of the necessity of the expiation 
of sin by blood in order to entering into 
covenant with God, were enforced by the 
inaugurative sacrifices of the Mosaic pe- 
riod, the killing of the passovers, Exod. 
12:3-13, and the sacrifices of Exod. 24:4-8. 
The law given on Sinai prescribed the offer- 
ers of sacrifice, Exod. 28 : 1 ; Lev. 21 : 16-23 J 
22:25, the place of sacrifice, the one altar 
appointed by God — at first in the taberna- 
cle, afterwards in the temple, Lev. 17:1-9; 
Deut. 12:5-18, and the time, methods, and 
kinds of sacrifice. On some special occa- 
sions sacrifices were offered with the di- 
vine sanction otherwise than the law pre- 
scribed, Judg. 2:5; 6 : 25, 26 ; 13:19, 20: 
1 Sam. 7:17. The divine limitations of 
sacrifice emphasized the truth that it was 
God himself who provided the way of ap- 
proach to him; and the occasional excep- 
tions illustrated his sovereignty over his 
own law and grace, and taught that there 
was no intrinsic virtue in the prescribed 
persons or place. Human sacrifices were 
strictly forbidden, Lev. 20:2; Deut. 12:31. 

491 



SAC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAC 




The law prescribed certain regularly- 
recurring national sacrifices: daily, Num. 
28:2-8; weekly, ver. 9, 10; monthly, ver. 
11-15; and yearly, ver. 16 to 29:39 — the lat- 
ter connected with the 3 great feasts and 
the great Day of Atonement ; and also made 
provision for occasional voluntary individ- 
ual expressions of penitence, devotion, and 
praise. The general term for sacrifice was 
"an offering made by fire unto the Lord," 
Num. 15:3, 13. 

The sacrifices prescribed in the law were 
both bloody and bloodless, from the ani- 
mal and the vegetable kingdoms, repre- 
senting the most valuable possessions of 
the people, the sustenance of their life, and 
thus their life itself. The animals offered 
were to be without blemish, signifying the 
perfect righteousness and holiness required 
by God ; and were of the ox-kind, sheep, 
goats, turtle-doves, pigeons, and other small 
clean birds. The bloody sacrifices were 
the whole burnt-offering, the peace-offer- 
ing, the sin-offering, and the trespass-offer- 
ing. Of bloodless offerings there were the 
meat-offering, the drink-offering, incense, 
and first-fruits. 

I. The whole burnt-offering— Heb. olah, 
that which goes tip, i. e., in flame and 
smoke : Greek holocaust, wholly burnt, 
Heb. 10:8. This was an ancient form of 
sacrifice, Gen.. 8: 20. Under the law it was 
offered twice daily, was doubled on the 
Sabbath, and was prescribed for other sta- 
ted sacred seasons and for numerous occa- 
sional emergencies. The daily national 
sacrifices were 2 lambs, one offered about 
492 



sunrise, after the morning incense-offer- 
ing, Exod. 30:7, 8; the other at the decline 
of day, before the evening incense-offering, 
Exod. 29:38-42; Num. 28:3-8. They were 
burned by a small fire, that they might 
continue burning the longer, Lev. 6:8-13. 
With each was offered a meat-offering of 
flour and oil, and a drink-offering of wine. 
The voluntary whole burnt-offering might 
be a young male from the herd, or of the 
sheep or goats, or a turtle-dove or young 
pigeon, Lev. 1. If of the herd or flock, the 
offerer, having brought it to the altar-court, 
laid his hand upon its head to signify its 
substitution for himself; it was then killed, 
its blood was sprinkled by the priest upon 
the altar; it was flayed, the skin being 
given to the officiating priest, Lev. 7:8; it 
was cut in pieces, which the priest laid 
upon the altar, the entrails and legs being 
first washed; and the whole was burned. 
Every burnt-offering contained a general 
acknowledgment of sin, national or indi- 
vidual, which was typically expiated by its 
blood, Lev. 17:11; it was a type of the com- 
plete self-devotion of Christ for the sinner, 
and of the completeness of his expiation, 
John 1:29; Eph. 5:2; Heb. 10:4-10. It also 
symbolized the offerer's entire self-surren- 
der to the Lord. 

II. The peace-offering, Exod. 24:5; Lev. 
3; 7:11-34, was eucharistic, votive, or vol- 
untary. It was a male or female of the 
herd or flock. Its blood was sprinkled on 
the altar in expiation of sin. The interior 
fat, the kidneys, the caul, and the tail if the 
victim was a sheep, were burned on the 



SAC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAC 




altar. The breast and the right shoulder 
were reserved for the priests, and these 
parts, together with those to be burned, 
were placed in the hands of the offerer, 
and by him, supported and directed by the 
priest, waved from side to side, or heaved 
upward, before the Lord. The rest of the 
flesh was to be eaten by the offerer and his 
family or friends, they being ceremonially 
clean, on the same day if the offering was 
for thanksgiving ; on the ist and 2d days if 
it was a votive or free-will offering; what 
remained on the 3d day must be burned. 
A slight exception to the requirement of 
perfection was made in the free-will offer- 
ing, Lev. 22 : 23. The special signification of 
the peace-offering was friendship with God, 
and holy communion with him, his minis- 
ters, and people. Peace-offerings were pre- 
scribed for certain occasions, Exod. 29 : 28 ; 
Num. 6 : 14; 7: 17, one of which was the na- 
tional yearly feast of first-fruits, Lev. 23:19; 
Deut. 16:9-11. Otherwise they were op- 
tional. 

III. The sin-offering and the trespass- 
offering were sacrifices introduced by the 
Mosaic law. They were closely connected, 
and yet clearly distinguished, the sin-offer- 
ing being the more general and compre- 
hensive, and the more solemn in its ritual. 
1. Regular occasions when a national sin- 
offering was prescribed were the ist day 
of each month, Num. 28:11-15; each day 
of the Passover feast, ver. 22, 24 ; the feast 



of first-fruits, ver. 26, 30; of trumpets, Num. 
29:1, 5; each day of the feast of taberna- 
cles, ver. 12-38 ; and the day of atonement, 
when a special sin-offering for the high- 
priest was also appointed, ver. 7, 11 ; Lev. 
16:3-28. The sin-offering, like the tres- 
pass-offering, was enjoined in the case of 
particular offences against law, either moral 
or ceremonial, committed through "igno- 
rance" (rather negligence or frailty), or at 
least not in a presumptuous spirit; com- 
pare Num. 15:30, 31; Heb. 10:26-29. As 
an occasional offering it was of several 
grades: for the high-priest, the whole con- 
gregation, a ruler, a private person, Lev. 
4: 1 to 5: 13; Num. 15:22-28. It formed part 
of the ritual of various purifications, both 
sin and trespass offerings being required 
in the case of a leper. The kind and sex 
of the victim differed on different occa- 
sins — a bullock, a he-goat or kid, a she-kid 
or lamb, turtle-doves or young pigeons, 
and even for the very poor about 5 pints of 
flour, without oil or incense, compare Psa. 
40:17, being variously required. The cer- 
emonial was especially significant and sol- 
emn in regard to the disposal of the blood. 
On the day of atonement some was sprin- 
kled on the mercy-seat in the holy of ho- 
lies ; at other times some was sprinkled 7 
times before the veil of the holy of holies, 
and put on the horns of the altar of in- 
cense ; and sometimes the horns of the 
burnt-offering altar were touched. When 

493 



SAC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAC 



the victim was a quadruped, the parts 
burned on the altar were the same as in the 
peace-offering. When some of the blood 
was brought into the sanctuary none of the 
victim was eaten, but that which remained 
from the altar was burned in a clean place 
outside the camp, Lev. 4:11, 12, 21; 6:30; 
compare Heb. 13:11, 12. Of other sin- 
offerings the priests were to eat, Lev. 6:26, 
29; 10:17. 2. The trespass - offering was 
always an individual's sacrifice, and a ram, 
Lev. 5:14 to 6:7; its blood was simply 
sprinkled around the altar of burnt-offer- 
ing; the parts consumed on the altar were 
the same as in the sin-offering, and other 
portions were eaten by the priests, Lev. 
7 : 1-7. Restitution for wrong against the 
service of God, or against human rights, 
was required in connection with the tres- 
pass-offering ; compare Num. 5:6-8. Isa- 
iah, 53:10, says that Christ "made his soul 
a trespass-offering," perhaps indicating a 
specific as well as a general need and effi- 
cacy of his blood. Both the sin and the 
trespass offering specially set forth the 
need of atonement for sin, and the fact that 
ignorance and infirmity do not do away 
with its guilt. The provisions respecting 
the former indicate that sins are of differ- 
ent degrees of heinousness. The require- 
ment of restitution with the latter teaches 
that reparation should if possible accom- 
pany repentance, confession, and faith. 
The special sacredness of the shed blood 
of the sin-offering, Lev. 6:27, points to the 
infinite preciousness of the blood of Jesus, 
1 Pet. 1 : 19, 20, of whom the sin-offering 
was an eminent type, John 1 : 29 ; 2 Cor. 
5:21 ; 1 John 2:2. 

In the offering of all the animal sacrifices 
the laying of hands upon the victim was an 
essential part, always accompanied, ac- 
cording to Jewish authorities, by confes- 
sion of sin, and signifying in every sacrifice 
the transfer of guilt to the innocent victim, 
and the substitution of its life, represented 
by its blood, in payment of the death-pen- 
alty for sin, instead of the offerer's life. 
The penalty being typically paid, and ac- 
cepted by God on the altar, sin was typi- 
cally expiated; and the worshipper, repre- 
sented or assisted by the mediating priest, 
might engage in other acts of devotion. 
The fire of the altar, kept continually burn- 
ing, Lev. 6:12, 13, was expressive of the 
nature of God. Exod. 24:17, and his accept- 
ance of the offerings; compare Lev. 9:24. 

IV. Meat-offering, Heb. minchah, gift. 
The A. V. translation is misleading, now 
494 



that " meat " has the sense of flesh, rather 
than of food, as formerly. This offering 
was an accompaniment of the stated, and 
the occasional and voluntary, whole burnt- 
offerings and peace-offerings. Exod. 29:40, 
41 ; Lev. 23 : 37 ; Num. 28 ; 29 ; Lev. 2 ; 6 : 14- 
18; 7:9-14; Num. 15:1-13. It consisted of 
fine flour, usually of wheat; unbaked, or 
made into cakes. It was salted and min- 
gled with oil, and frankincense was placed 
upon it. When offered for the high-priest it 
was wholly burned on the altar, Lev. 6:22, 
23. Otherwise, a portion of it was burned 
as a memorial, and the rest was eaten by 
the priests, ver. 14-18. All the incense was 
burned. A drink-offering of wine accom- 
panied the meat-offering, Exod. 29:40; Lev. 
23:13; Num. 15:5, 7, 10. Honey and leaven 
were not to be burned on the altar, though 
leavened bread entered into the Passover- 
offerings of first-fruits and the eucharistic 
peace-offerings, Lev. 7:12-14; 23:17. The 
meat-offering specially signified the offer- 
er's grateful and faithful service, which 
was to be incorrupt and pure (salted and 
unleavened), sanctified by divine influen- 
ces (oil), and acceptable through the ato- 
ning blood of Christ (frankincense). 

With some of the sacrifices, as on the 
day of atonement, Lev. 16:20-22, and the 
cleansing of a leper, Lev. 14:4-7, 49-53, 
the liberation of a living goat or bird was 
connected, signifying in the former case 
Christ's vicarious bearing and removal of 
sin, and in the latter probably emancipa- 
tion from the restraints of leprosy. 

Sacrifices formed an important part of 
the ritual of purification from canonical 
uncleannesses— as childbirth, Lev. 12; is- 
sues, Lev. 15; leprosy, Lev. 14; contact 
with dead bodies, Num. 19— teaching the 
all-defiling presence and guilt of sin, and 
its need of expiation. 

Such were the sacrifices of the Hebrews : 
of divine appointment, and accepted and 
used by God for the salvation of the sin- 
cerely penitent and trusting worshipper; 
yet in themselves incapable of atoning for 
sin, clearing the offender from its guilt, or 
of making him personally holy, Heb. 10: 1-4. 
Paul has described these and other cere- 
monies of the law as "weak and beggarly 
elements," Gal. 4:9: and as "a tutor, to 
lead to Christ," Gal. 3:24. They were pro- 
visional and temporary, prophecies and 
figures of the true Sacrifice, the Lamb of 
God, and of the regenerating and sanctify- 
ing work of the Holy Spirit. Accordingly. 
Jesus Christ, by his one offering of himself 



SAC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAD 



once for all, superseded and abolished all 
other sacrifices, and saves for ever all who 
believe on him ; while without his expia- 
tory sacrifice divine justice could never 
have relaxed its hold on a single human 
soul, Isa. o3; Luke 24:44-47; Rom. 3:21- 
26; 4:24 to 5:11 ; 1 Cor. 5:7; Eph. 5:2, 26; 
Tit. 3:5, 6; Heb. 1:2, 3; 2:9, 17; 9; 10; 
Rev. 1:5; 5:6. 

The Israelites were carefully directed 
not to rely on sacrifices as works of merit. 
They were taught that without repentance, 
faith, and reformation all sacrifices were 
an abomination to God, Psa. 51:17; Prov. 
21:3; Isa. 1:11-17; Jer. 6:20; Joel 2: 12-18; 
Amos 5:21, 22; that he desires willing obe- 
dience and supreme love to himself, and 
justice and mercy to fellow-men, 1 Sam. 
15:22; Prov. 21:3; Mic. 6:6-8; Matt. 5:23, 
24; 9:13; Mark 12:33. So, in order to sal- 
vation by the sacrifice of Christ, true re- 
pentance and faith are required, and from 
these will spring fruits of love to God and 
man. 

With allusion to the whole burnt-offer- 
ing, the peace-offering, and the meat-offer- 
ing of the Mosaic ritual, the services of 
Christians are sometimes called sacrifices, 
acceptable through Christ's one sin-offer- 
ing and his continual high-priestly inter- 
cession, and themselves fruits of the grace 
of God, Rom. 12:1; Phil. 4:18; Heb. 7:25; 
10:10, 12, 14, 18; 12:28; 13:15, 16; 1 Pet. 
2:4, 5; Rev. 8:3, 4. 

SACRILEGE, any profanation or abuse 
of things peculiarly sacred to God; such 
as robbing the house of God, or making it 
a den of thieves, Matt. 21:12, 13. In Acts 
19:37, for ''churches" read "temples," 
heathen. In Rom. 2:22, "commit sacri- 
lege," A. V., has the same meaning. 

SAD'DUCEES, a sect of the Jews who 
were usually at variance with the other 
leading sect, namely the Pharisees, but 
united with them in opposing Jesus and 
accomplishing his death, Matt. 16:1-12; 
Luke 20:27. The term may be translated 
from the Hebrew, the just, but is more 
probably derived from the proper name 
Zadok, either one who was prominent in 
the 3d century before Christ, and whom 
the Jews commonly regarded as the found- 
er of the school, or from Zadok the high- 
priest under David and Solomon, 1 Kin. 
1 : 3 2 -45— whose descendants are referred 
to as "the sons of Zadok," Ezek. 40:46, 
and may finally have become a sort of 
sacerdotal aristocracy, with many adhe- 
rents, rationalistic in opinion, and in many 



cases high in position and wealth ; com- 
pare Acts 5: 17. The Sadducees disregard- 
ed all the traditions and unwritten laws 
which the Pharisees prized so highly, and 
professed to consider the Scriptures, espe- 
cially the Pentateuch, as the only source 
and rule of the Jewish religion. They re- 
jected the demonology of the Pharisees, 
denied the existence of angels and spirits, 
considered the soul as dying with the body, 
and of course admitted no future state of 
rewards and punishments. Matt. 22 : 23. 
While, moreover, the Pharisees believed 
that all events and actions were directed 
by an overruling providence or fate, the 
Sadducees considered them all as depend- 
ing on the will and agency of man. The 
tenets of these free-thinking philosophers 
were not in general so acceptable to the 
people as those of the Pharisees ; yet many 
of the highest rank adopted them. Annas 
and Caiaphas and many other members of 
the Sanhedrin were Sadducees, Acts 23:6-9. 
The resurrection of Christ naturally added 
bitterness to their hatred of his doctrines 
and followers, Acts 4:1-7; 5:17- The Sad- 
ducees disappear from history after the 1st 
Christian century. 

Modern Annihilationists adopt one phase 
of Sadduceeism, believing that the wicked 
who die out of Christ are annihilated, body 
and soul. They place this event immedi- 
ately after the final judgment. In support 
of their opinion they allege that the soul is 
not essentially immortal, but having come 
from nothing may return to nothing, and 
will do so unless immortality is brought to 
it by Jesus Christ; that endless conscious 
suffering is never expressly declared to be 
the penalty of sin ; that privation of happi- 
ness, continued for ever by annihilation, is 
the only eternal punishment; and that this 
total destruction is the true and sole mean- 
ing of the word death. 

This error is sufficiently refuted, prima 
facie, by the fact that, although it appeals 
so powerfully to our sympathies, and might 
almost seem a logical necessity, arguing 
from the goodness of God, it has still found 
so few followers: the great mass of Chris- 
tians and Bible students of even- age and 
sect finding the Word of God clearly teach- 
ing the eternal conscious suffering of the 
impenitent. Some of the Bible arguments 
against annihilation are these: (1) There 
are various degrees of future punishment ; 
yet annihilation admits of no degrees. 
(2) To the condemned soul, full of shame 
and fear under the divine anger, annihila- 

495 



SAF 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAL 



tion would be a relief rather than a pun- 
ishment— J ude 7, R. V., "in eternal fire." 

(3) The punishment of men is the same 
as that of wicked angels, who, " reserved 
to the judgment of the great day," "be- 
lieve and tremble," instead of rejoicing. 

(4) The other Scripture phrases which 
describe this destruction show that in the 
final " lake of fire " " there is weeping and 
wailing and gnashing of teeth." (5) The 
eternal life of the righteous, always con- 
nected with the death of the wicked, is not 
mere existence, but endless holiness and 
happiness ; so the death set over against it 
is endless sin and sorrow. See Retribu- 
tion. 

SAF'FRON, Song 4:14, the Crocus sati- 
vus, or saffron Crocus, a plant abundant in 
Palestine and adjacent countries, and much 
cultivated in Europe. The flower has 3 
stigmas, which, when gathered and dried, 
form a valued article of commerce. They 
are thread-like, orange-colored, aromatic 
in odor, and slightly bitter in taste. Saf- 
fron was early prized as a perfume, and 
was formerly much used as a seasoning 
and as a stimulating medicine, for all which 
purposes it is still highly esteemed in the 
East. The stigmas also yield an orange 
dye. 

SAINT, one set apart from the world to 
the service of God, Deut. 33 : 2, 3 ; Psa. 50 : 5 ; 
106:16; Dan. 7:21-27; Matt. 27:52; Acts 
9:13, 32, 41. The original Heb. and Gr. 
terms are often translated " holy," Exod. 
19:6; 22:31; Deut. 33:8; Mark 6:20; 8:38; 
John 17:11, and applied to inanimate ob- 
jects devoted to God, Exod. 16:23; 2 9 : 3 J J 
Matt. 4:5. As applied to men they do not 
imply perfect holiness in this life, but the 
obligation to strive after it ; compare Rom. 
1:7; Eph. 1:4; Col. 1:22; 1 Pet. 1:15, 16. 
Nothing is more common in the writings of 
Paul than the name "saints " given to all 
Christians, Rom. 8:27; 1 Cor. 14:33; Eph. 
1:1; Phil. 1:1; Rev. 8:3, 4. The special 
application of the word to apostles, evan- 
gelists, and other eminent Christians, and 
the rendering of peculiar honors to them, 
crept into the church, with other corrup- 
tions, about the 4th century. The Church 
of Rome assumes the power of making 
saints; that is. of announcing certain de- 
parted spirits as objects of adoration, from 
whom the faithful may solicit favors — a no- 
tion contrary to Scripture and dishonoring 
to Christ, 1 Tim. 2:5; Heb. 7:25. 

SAL'AMIS, a maritime city with a good 
harbor on the east coast of the island of 
496 



Cyprus. It stood in a plain on the north 
side of the river Pediaeus, was anciently 
the capital of the island, and under the Ro- 
mans its most important commercial town. 
Paul and Barnabas visited it on their first 
missionary journey, A. D. 45, when the 
Jewish residents were evidently numerous, 
sustaining more than one synagogue, Acts 
1 3-5- Jews would naturally be attracted 
to this city by its flourishing trade in the 
products of this fertile island, among which 
were fruit, wine, flax, and honey. The city 
was partially destroyed in Jewish insur- 
rections under Trajan and Hadrian, and 
ruined by an earthquake in the time of 
Constantine the Great. When rebuilt it 
w r as called Constantia. Its ruins, broken 
cisterns, columns, and foundations, are 
called Old Famagusta, and are near the 
modern town of Famagusta. See Cyprus. 

SALA'THIEL, 1 Chr. 3:17, or Sheal'- 
tiel, asked of God, father of Zerubbabel, 
Ezra 3:2; Neh. 12:1; Hag. 1:1; one of the 
ancestors of Christ, named in both the gos- 
pel genealogies, Matt. 1:12; Luke 3:27. 
See Genealogy. 

SAL'CHAH, a city in the east of Bashan, 
conquered by the Israelites and assigned 
to Manasseh, Deut. 3:10; Josh. 12:5; 13:11. 
It was near the border of Gad, 1 Chr. 5:11. 
It is identical with the modern Salchat or 
Sulkhad, at the southern end of Jebel Hau- 
ran and 56 miles east of the Jordan. Near 
it begins the great Syrian desert extending 
to the Euphrates. The city occupies a com- 
manding position on a hill. On the sum- 
mit is a castle of the Roman period, on 
which are Roman eagles, and also Greek 
and Arabic inscriptions. There are about 
400 stone houses, many in good preserva- 
tion; but owing to the scarcity of water 
there are few inhabitants. An extensive 
view is had from the hill, embracing many 
ruined towns. 

SA'LEM, ^m^, Gen. 14:18; Heb. 7:1,3, 
generally understood to mean the city of 
which Melchizedek was king, and referred 
to Jerusalem. So Josephus understood it. 
Some interpret the word as a part of the 
title of Melchizedek. It is used as a poet- 
ical abbreviation of Jerusalem in Psa. 76:2. 
Jerome regarded it as identical with the 
Shalem of Gen. 33: 18, and located the town 
6 miles from Beth-shean. 

SA'LIM, peaceful, John 3:23, by some 
identified with Salem. By Eusebius and 
Jerome it is mentioned as near the Jordan, 
8 Roman miles south of Beth-shean. Rob- 
inson proposed to identify it with the vil- 



SAL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAL 



lage of Salim, 3%. miles east of Shechem. 
Condor apparently adopts this suggestion. 

SAL'MA, or SAL'MON, a garment, 1 Chr. 
2 : 1 1 , a chief man of the tribe of Judah, hus- 
band of Rahab, and father of Boaz, Ruth 
4:20; Matt. 1:4, 5; Luke 3:32. This is 
conjectured to be identical with Salma the 
son of Caleb, on the supposition that he 
adopted him. 

SAL'MON, shady, Psa. 68:14, supposed 
to be the same as "Mount Zalmon," near 
Shechem, Judg. 9:48. The Hebrew word 
in the 2 passages is the same. See Zal- 
mon. 

SALMO'NE, Acts 27:7, a cape on the east 
coast of Crete. It is usually identified with 
Cape Sidero, a bold promontory at the 
northeast extremity of the island; but by 
some with a promontory 15 miles farther 
south, called by the natives Plaka, but by 
sailors Cape Salmone. See Crete. 

SALO'ME, peaceful, I., wife of Zebedee, 
mother of James the elder and John the 
evangelist, one of those women of Galilee 
who attended our Saviour in his journeys 
and ministered to him, Matt. 27:56. She 
requested of Jesus that her 2 sons James 
and John might sit one on his right hand 
and the other on his left hand in his king- 
dom, Matt. 20:20-23. Her conceptions as 
to the true nature of Christ's kingdom 
were no doubt changed by his crucifixion, 
which she witnessed " afar off," and by his 
resurrection, of which she was early ap- 
prised by the angels at the tomb, Mark 
15:40; 16:1. Some infer, by comparing 
Matt. 27:56 and John 19:25, that she was a 
sister of Mary the mother of Jesus. 

II. Salome was also the name of the 
daughter of Herodias. Her name is given 
by Josephus. She married her paternal 
uncle Philip, tetrarch of Trachonitis, and 
after his death Aristobulus, king of Chal- 
cis, a great-grandson of Herod the Great. 

SALT was important to the Israelites not 
only as an antiseptic and condiment, but 
also as an indispensable adjunct to the 
sacrifices and the sacred incense. It is 
abundant in Palestine, being procured from 
the immense ridge of rock-salt at the south- 
ern end of the Dead Sea, and by evapora- 
tion from the water of the Dead and Medi- 
terranean Seas. The ridge referred to is 
called by the Arabs Jebel Usdum, Mount 
Sodom. It is 7 miles long, 1^ to 3 miles 
wide, and several hundred feet high, and 
is mainly composed of pure rock-salt. 
Blocks of salt a foot thick are sometimes 
found on the eastern shore of the Dead 
32 



Sea, the product of evaporation after the 
annual freshets. The Arabs also dig pits 
on the shore, to be filled by the sea at its 
spring rising; the evaporation leaves a 
crust of salt an inch thick on the sides of 
the pits, which the Arabs remove and sell, 
Zeph. 2:9. The stones on the shore are 
incrusted with lime or gypsum, and twigs 
or branches that fall into the water are 
coated with salt. Lot's wife, Gen. 19:26, is 
by some supposed to have been thus in- 
crusted ; while others suppose she was 
miraculously transformed into a solid col- 
umn of salt. 

As an essential article of diet, Job 6:6, 
salt is a symbol of subsistence and of hos- 
pitality; and being, as a preservative, also 
a symbol of incorruption and perpetuity, it 
symbolizes the mutual obligations to fidel- 
ity which, especially according to Oriental 
ideas, rest upon host and guest, and the 
fidelity due from servants to their employ- 
ers, Ezra 4:14 — margin, "are salted with 
the salt of the palace." For the same rea- 
sons salt was required with all the sacrifi- 
ces consumed on God's altar, Lev. 2:13; 
Ezra 6:9; Ezek. 43:24; Mark 9:49; and 
also as an ingredient of the sacred incense, 
Exod. 30:35, margin. It symbolized the 
truth and durability of a covenant, Num. 
18:19; 2 Chr. 13 : 5. Good men are "the salt 
of the earth," Matt. 5:13, and divine grace, 
or true wisdom, is the salt of human charac- 
ter and language, Mark 9:50; Col. 4:6; see 
also Ezek. 16:4. Among the Arabs salt is 
still a symbol of fidelity; and among the 
Persians and East Indians being in the ser- 
vice of another is termed " eating his salt." 

Ground impregnated with salt is barren, 
Deut. 29:23; Job 39:6, margin; Psa. 107:34, 
margin; Jer. 17:6; Ezek. 47:11; Zeph. 2:9; 
hence the devotion of a place to desolation 
was signified by "sowing it with salt," 
Judg. 9:45. Frederic Barbarossa, in 1162, 
levelled the walls of Milan, and ploughed 
and salted the ground. 

Oriental salt often retains mineral im- 
purities, and on exposure is liable to lose 
its saltness and become utterly worthless 
Matt. 5:13; Mark 9: 50; Luke 14:34, 35. 

SALT, CITY OF, the 5th of the 6 cities of 
Judah situate in "the wilderness," Josh. 
15:62; perhaps Nahr Maleh, ravine of salt ; 
or Um-baghek, a ruin 4 miles north of Jebel 
Usdum. 

SALT, VALLEY OF. The site of 2 vic- 
tories over the Edomites : that of David, 
2 Sam. 8:13; 1 Chr. 18:12; Psa. 60; com- 
pare 1 Kin. 1 1 : 15, 16 ; and that of Amaziah, 

497 



SAL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAL 



2 Kin. 14:7; 2 Chr. 25:11. It has usually 
been located in the broad and desolate val- 
ley El-Ghor, extending south of the Dead 
Sea nearly 8 miles to the chalky cliffs for- 
merly called Akrabbim. This plain is in 
parts whitened with salt, contains brackish 
pools and streams, and is bordered on the 
northwest by the mountain of salt, Jebel 
Usdum. The Hebrew word, however, de- 
notes a ravine rather than a valley, and 
the circumstances following Amaziah's vic- 
tory seem to indicate a locality nearer to 
Sela, 50 miles south of the Dead Sea; and 
it is suggested that the Hebrew name for 
the site may represent some ancient Edom- 
ite name not referring to salt. 




SALUTA'TION. The usual formula of 
salutation among the Hebrews was Sha- 
lom lekha, Peace be with thee. The same 
expression is the common one among the 
Arabs to the present day : they say, Salam 
lekha, to which the person saluted replies, 
"With thee be peace," Gen. 29:6; Judg. 
18:15, margin. Hence we hear of the Arab 
and Turkish "salams," that is, salutations. 
Other phrases of salutation are found in 
Scripture, most of them invoking a bless- 
ing: as, "The Lord be with thee;" "All 
hail," or, Joy to thee; " Blessed be thou of 
the Lord." These and similar phrases the 
Orientals still use on all occasions with the 
most profuse and punctilious politeness. 
The letter of an Arab will be nearly filled 
with salutations ; and should he come in to 
tell you your house was on fire, he would 
first give and receive the compliments of 
the day, and then say perhaps, " If God 
will, all is well ; but your house is on fire." 
Their more formal salutations they accom- 
pany with various ceremonies or gestures; 
sometimes they embrace and kiss each 
498 



other ; sometimes an inferior kisses the 
hand or the beard of a superior, or bows 
low, with the hand upon the breast, and 
afterwards raises it to his lips or forehead, 
or even prostrates himself and touches his 
forehead to the ground in rendering obei- 
sance to a prince, Gen. 37:7. See Jacob's 
salutation of Esau, Gen. ^t,; and compare 
Gen. 19:1; 23:7; 42:6; 1 Sam. 25: 23; 2 Sam. 
1:2; John 20:26. The due and dignified 
performance of some of these ceremonious 
courtesies, especially when frequently re- 
curring, requires much time; and hence, 
when the prophet sent his servant in great 
haste to lay his staff upon the dead child, 
he forbade him to salute any one or an- 
swer any salutation by the way, 2 Kin. 
4:29. For a similar reason our Saviour 
forbade the 70 disciples to "salute any one 
by the way, Luke 10:4, that is, in this for- 
mal and tedious manner, wasting precious 
time. Much of the Oriental courtesy was 
superficial and heartless : but the benedic- 
tion of Christ was from the heart, and car- 
ried with it what was "better than life." 
" My peace I give unto you ; not as the 
world giveth, give I unto you," John 14:27. 
The Jews restricted their salutations to 
those whom they regarded as " brethren," 
i. <?., members of the same religious com- 
munity, Matt. 5:47 ; so a Mohammedan will 
not address his salutation of " peace " to 
one whom he knows not to be a Moham- 
medan. See Worship. 

SALVA'TION means strictly deliverance, 
and so it is used of temporal deliverance, 
victory, in Exod. 14:13; 1 Sam. 14:45. But 
as the spiritual deliverance from sin and 
death through the Redeemer, Matt. 1:21, is 
a far greater salvation, so this word has 
come to be used mostly only in this moral 
and spiritual sense, and implies not only 
this deliverance, but also the consequences 
of it, namely, eternal life and happiness in 
the kingdom of our Lord, 2 Cor. 7: 10; Eph. 
1:13. It is most justly described as a 
"great salvation," Heb. 2:3. 

The Hebrews rarely use concrete terms, 
as they are called, but often abstract terms. 
Thus, instead of saying God saves them 
and protects them, they say God is their 
salvation. So a voice of salvation, joy of 
salvation, the rock of salvation, the shield 
of salvation, a horn of salvation, a word of 
salvation, etc., are equivalent to a voice 
declaring deliverance, the joy that attends 
escape from a great danger, a rock where 
any one takes refuge and is in safety, a 
buckler that secures from the attack of an 



SAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAM 



enemy, the power that effects salvation. 
Thus, to work great salvation in Israel, 
signifies to deliver the nation from an im- 
minent danger, or give it a great victory. 
The "garments of salvation," Isa. 61:10, 



refers to the splendid robes worn on festi- 
val days. The expression is used figura- 
tively to denote the reception of a signal 
favor from God, such as deliverance from 
great danger. 




SAMA'RIA, I., a city about 6 miles north- 
west of Shechem and 30 north of Jerusa- 
lem, built upon an oblong hill rising 1,542 
feet above the sea level, near the centre of 
a broad and deep valley encircled by hills. 
It was built by Omri king of Israel about 
920 B. C, and named after Shemer the 
previous owner of the hill, 1 Kin. 16:23, 2 4- 
It succeeded Shechem and Tirzah as the 
capital of the kingdom of Israel, ver. 28, 29, 
continuing thus 200 years. It was a seat 
•of idolatry, and often denounced as such 
by the prophets, Hos. 10:5-7; Amos 6:1; 
Mic. 1:1-7; Isa. 9:9; Jer. 23 : 13; Ezek. 
16:46-55. Ahab built there a temple of 
Baal, 1 Kin. 16:32, 33, and a portion of the 
city was called " the city of the house of 
Baal;" this temple was destroyed by Jehu, 
2 Kin. 10:18-28. Samaria was a place of 
great strength. It was twice besieged by 
the Syrians and rescued from them: in 
Ahab's reign, B. C. 901, 1 Kin. 20:1-21, and 
in Joram's reign, B. C. 892, 2 Kin. 6:24 to 
7:20. During the latter siege the people 
suffered terribly from famine, and their 
remarkable deliverance was predicted by 
Elisha. An act of brotherly generosity to- 



wards captives from Judah was performed, 
in obedience to a prophetic order, by chief 
citizens of Samaria during Pekah's reign, 

2 Chr. 28:6-15. Samaria was besieged for 

3 years by the king of Assyria, and was 
finally taken by Sargon, B. C. 720, 2 Kin. 
17:5, 6; 18:9, 10, when the people of the 
land were carried captive to Assyria. The 
city seems to have been partially restored 
by the Cuthite colonists. It was taken by 
Alexander the Great, B. C. 333, and colo- 
nized with Syro-Macedonians. John Hyr- 
canus took it B. C. 129, and nearly demol- 
ished it. Pompey replaced these Samari- 
tans, who had been supplanted by the 
Syro-Macedonians and the Jews. The pro- 
consul Gabinius rebuilt it, and called it 
Gabinia; and it was afterwards given by 
Augustus to Herod the Great, who enlarged 
and adorned it and named it Sebaste, the 
Greek equivalent of Augusta, in honor of 
the emperor. He placed in it a colony of 
6,000, chiefly veterans, surrounded it with 
a strong wall and colonnade, and built in 
it a magnificent temple dedicated to Au- 
gustus. 

The gospel was successfully preached 
499 



SAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAM 



here by Philip and others, Acts 8:5-25, and 
the church there formed was represented 
at the Council of Nicaea, A. D. 325. The 
city fell under Moslem power in A. D. 614. 
A Latin bishopric was established here by 
the Crusaders, and mention is made of 
the place by subsequent travellers. It is 
now an inconsiderable village called Se- 
bustiyeh, with a few houses built of stones 
from the ancient ruins. 

Modern travellers describe the situation 
as one of exceeding beauty, strength, and 
fertility. The hill on whose slope the vil- 
lage stands, and the somewhat higher hills 
surrounding the encircling valley, are ter- 
raced, and cultivated to the summits, sown 
with grain, and planted with figs, olives, 
and vines. The ascent of the hill of Sama- 
ria is steep, the narrow footpath winding 
among the cottages and the ruins of former 
buildings ; and the summit commands a 
delightful view, extending westward to the 
Mediterranean, whose waters, 20 miles dis- 
tant, are plainly visible. On the top is the 
ruined church of John the Baptist, built by 
the Crusaders of the 12th century on the 
traditional but improbable site of his grave, 
and now used as a mosque. Near the sum- 
mit and on 2 sides of the hill are remains of 
colonnades, probably Herod's. The whole 
scene vividly illustrates the prophecy in 
Mic. 1:6. 

II. SAMA'RIA IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

is sometimes synonymous with the king- 
dom of Israel, 1 Kin. 13:32; 2 Kin. 17:24, 
26, 28; Ezek. 16:53; Hos. 8:5, 6; Amos 3: 9. 
Its size varied greatly at different periods, 
being at first coextensive with the territory 
of the 10 tribes both east and west of the 
Jordan, but afterwards much reduced by 
the conquests of the Assyrian kings Pul 
and Tiglath-pileser, B. C. 771 and 740, who 
carried captive the people of the northern 
portion and those east of the Jordan, 1 Chr. 
5:26; 2 Kin. 15:29. A few years later the 
remaining region was deprived of most of 
its Israelite inhabitants, and colonized by 
heathen imported from various parts of 
the Assyrian Empire, 2 Kin. 17:23-29; 
Ezra 4:2, 9, 10. Its boundaries then prob- 
ably corresponded nearly with No. III. 

III. SAMA'RIA IN THE NEW TESTAMENT 

is the region lying between Judaea on the 
south and Galilee on the north, west of the 
Jordan. Its limits, as described by Jose- 
phus, have been traced by the British Ord- 
nance Survey. On the northern boundary 
was En-gannim, now Jenin ; on the south- 
western Antipatris, now Ras el-Ain; near 
500 



the southern limit, but in Judaea, was Shi- 
loh, now Seilun. Josephus says that Sa- 
maria had no seacoast, the whole plain of 
Sharon belonging to Judaea. A Roman 
road from Galilee to Jerusalem ran through 
the country east of the Jordan (Peraea), with 
a ford near Jericho; this route enabled 
Galilean pilgrims to avoid passing through 
Samaria, though the direct route, a Roman 
road through Samaria, was frequently pur- 
sued, Luke 17:11; John 4:4, 5. 

SAMAR'ITANS, inhabitants of the city 
or the region of Samaria. In 2 Kin. 17:29 
the idolatrous Israelites ; compare ver. 9-12. 
In the New Testament the word denotes 
the mixed race which sprang from the 
remnant of Israel and the more numerous 
heathen brought in from various parts of 
Assyria at the Captivity, ver. 23, 24. This 
colonization may have been effected at dif- 
ferent times, and is ascribed to Esar-had- 
don by the descendants of the colonists, 
about B. C. 687, Ezra 4:2, 9, 10. The colo- 
nists lived at first in unmixed heathenism ; 
but terrified by the ravages of lions, they 
afterwards sought to propitiate " the God 
of the land" by bringing back an Israel- 
itish priest to Bethel, and mingling with 
their own idolatries a corrupt worship of 
Jehovah, 2 Kin. 17:25-33, 41. Such a mon- 
grel race and religion would of course be 
odious to the Jews when purged from their 
own idolatries ; and on their return from 
captivity, B. C. 536, they declined the Sa- 
maritans' request to be permitted to help 
build the temple, Ezra 4. In consequence 
of this refusal the Samaritans molested and 
calumniated the Jews, hindering the erec- 
tion of the temple until B. C. 520, and after- 
wards the rebuilding of the walls of Jeru- 
salem, B. C. 445, Neh. 4; 6. The mutual 
enmity was augmented by the Samaritans' 
erection of a rival temple on Mount Geri- 
zim, where they offered sacrifices accord- 
ing to the Mosaic law, claiming that Deut. 
27:11-13 marked this, the mount of bless- 
ing, as the proper site for the temple; 
though, according to the Hebrew text, the 
original altar was set up on Mount Ebal, 
ver. 4 ; Josh. 8 : 30-35. It is uncertain wheth- 
er theSamaritan temple was built in Nehe- 
miah's time, when the high-priest's son was 
expelled for marrying a daughter of San- 
ballat, Neh. 13:28, or, as Josephus states, 
about B. C. 330, by permission of Alexan- 
der the Great. The Samaritans rejected 
all the Hebrew Scriptures except the Pen- 
tateuch. Josephus says they claimed or 
disowned kinship with the Jews as it suit- 



SAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAM 



ed their circumstances. Shechem became 
their chief city. Their temple was de- 
stroyed by John Hyrcanus about B. B; 129, 
but they still esteemed the mountain sacred 
and worshipped towards it. From time to 
time malcontent Jews joined them, but the 
national and religious hatred between the 
2 peoples increased, Ecclus. 50:25, 26. In 
our Saviour's time " Samaritan " was a 
term of bitter contempt, John 8:48, and 
Jews sought to avoid all intercourse with 
them, John 4:9. On the other hand, the 
Samaritans annoyed the Jews, refusing hos- 
pitality to pilgrims traversing their country, 
Luke 9:52, 53, and sometimes assaulting 
them ; still" they claimed, through Joseph, 
descent from a common ancestor, Jacob, 
John 4:12, while the Jews taunted them 
with their heathen ancestry. Jesus, while 
denying the Samaritan claim of orthodoxy, 
ver. 20, 22, and deferring the ministry of 
his disciples among them, as among the 
Gentiles, till after his resurrection,, Matt. 
10:5; Acts 1:8, showed his superiority to 
the race and sect prejudices of the Jews in 
his interview with the Samaritan woman 
and his personal ministry among her towns- 
folk, John 4, his praise of the grateful leper 
whom he healed,. Luke 17:15-19, and his 
parable of the good Samaritan, Luke 10:33- 
37. The unspirituality of their formal wor- 
ship, and their superstitiousness, appear 
from John 4:22-24 and Acts 8:9-11. A 
complaint of the Samaritans against Pi- 
late's severity in subduing a tumult among 
them led to his deposition; 11,600 of them 
were slain on Mount Gerizim for resisting 
Vespasian in his subjugation of Palestine. 
Considerable success attended the preach- 
ing of the gospel among them, Acts 8:4-17; 
9:31, but the greater number adhered to 
their ultra-Mosaicism. They joined the 
Jews in a revolt against Septimius Severus, 
A. D. 193-21 1, who consequently deprived 
Neapolis (Shechem) of its privileges. In 
the 4th, 5th, and 6th centuries they bitterly 
opposed the Christians, and slew many of 
them. Benjamin of Tudela, a Spanish rab- 
bi, writes of them in the 12th century as 
residents of Nablus, Ascalon, Caesarea, and 
Damascus. A community of them, num- 
bering about 150, still exists at Nablus, and 
has often been visited by modern travellers. 
They are strict observers of the Mosaic 
law, so far as is possible without sacrifices, 
which they account unlawful since the de- 
struction of their temple. They rigidly 
observe the Sabbath, from Friday evening 
until Saturday evening, meeting 3 times 



in their synagogue and worshipping to- 
wards Gerizim. Their religious officers 
are 2, a priest and a ministrant. Their lit- 
urgy, in Hebrew, is in a great measure 
unintelligible to most of them, for their 
common language has long been the Ara- 
bic. They observe the new moon, the pass- 
over and feast of unleavened bread, pente- 
cost and feast of tabernacles, and keep an 
absolute fast of 25 hours at the Day of 
Atonement. During their great festivals 
they resort to their sacred place on the 
summit of Mount Gerizim, where at the 
passover 5 or 6 lambs are solemnly slain, 
roasted, and hastily eaten with bitter herbs ; 
their blood is applied to the children's 
faces, and their right fore-legs are burned, 
the observance thus partaking of the char- 
acter of a sacrifice. They believe in Jeho- 
vah as the only God, in Moses as the only 
lawgiver, in the Torah or Law as the only 
divine book, and in Mount Gerizim as the 
only house of God. They also believe in a 
future Messiah—" the Restorer," who is to 
be a great teacher and converter of the 
world to their faith, in a general resurrec- 
tion, and in future rewards and punish* 
ments. 

In the 5th century a Christian church 
was built on the summit of Mount Gerizim, 
and surrounded by a strong wall in the 6th 
century by Justinian, for the protection of 
Christian worshippers against the Samari- 
tans. The massive ruins of both church 
and fortress are still to be seen. 

Samaritan Pentateuch. The first copy 
of this was acquired by Christian scholars 
in 1616 from Samaritans in Damascus. Its 
variations from the Hebrew text are for 
the most part unimportant, most of them 
being due to an imperfect knowledge of 
Hebrew ; some to the design of conforming 
the text to Samaritan ideas, especially in 
regard to the sanctity of Mount Gerizim, as 
in Deut. 27:4, where "Gerizim" is read for 
" Ebal;" others to a desire to remove ob- 
scurities. The language is Hebrew ; the 
characters are those called Samaritan — 
rounded in form and such as were used by 
the Jews themselves until some period after 
the Captivity, when they adopted the pres- 
ent square form. Many MSS. of the Sa- 
maritan Pentateuch, more or less complete, 
are now in European libraries; they are 
written on vellum or cotton-paper, and are 
all in book form, not rolls ; none are thought 
to antedate the 10th century. In the Sa- 
maritan synagogue at Nablus is a very an- 
cient parchment roll, illegible and patched 

501 



SAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAM 



mi many places, which the Samaritans 
affirm was written by Abishua the great- 
grandson of Aaron. It is exhibited to the 
congregation once a year, on the Day of 
Atonement, when it is devoutly kissed. 
Another roll is ordinarily used. The Pen- 
tateuch was early translated into the Sa- 
maritan language— a compound of Hebrew, 
Chaldee, Syriac, etc., supplanted by the 
Arabic after the Mohammedan conquest — 
and in the nth century into Arabic. 

SAM'GAR-NE'BO, Jer. 39:3, one of the 
Babylonish generals who took Jerusalem. 

SAM'LAH, a garment, Gen. 36:36, $7; 
i Chr. 1:47, 48, an Edomite king. 

SA'MOS, a height, a lofty island in the 
iEgean Sea, a few miles from the western 
coast of Asia Minor. It was celebrated as 
the birthplace of Pythagoras, and was de- 
voted to the worship of Juno, fragments of 
whose magnificent temple, 2 miles west of 
the city Samos, still exist. Its chief manu- 
facture was a fine kind of pottery called 
" Samian ware," a term afterwards of gen- 
eral application, like our " china." In the 
time of Simon Maccabeus Jews were set- 
tled here, and an application was made to 
the Samian governor in their favor by the 
Romans, 1 Mace. 15:23. Paul touched here 
returning from his 3d missionary tour, A. D. 
58, Acts 20:15. Opposite the harbor, now 
called Port Tigani, were the cape and town 
of Trogyllium. Samos, the capital in Paul's 
time, was "a free city." The island is still 
called Samo. It is 27 miles long and 10 
wide, has an area of 165 square miles and 
a population of about 60,000. The Turk- 
ish governor's residence is at Colonna, 
named from a solitary column remaining 
of the temple of Juno. The island, though 
ill-cultivated, is fruitful in oranges, grapes, 
and olives, and exports corn, wine, raisins, 
oil, and silk. 

SAMOTHRA'CIA, in the R. V. SAM'O- 
THRACE, a mountainous island 8 miles 
long and 6 broad, in the northeastern part 
of the iEgean Sea, about 20 miles south of 
the coast of Thrace. To its ancient name 
Samos, height, the epithet thracia was 
added to distinguish it from the other 
Samos. It was a conspicuous landmark 
for sailors, being visible from Troas. Its 
peak is 5,248 feet high. The island was 
noted for its celebration of the mysteries 
of Ceres and Proserpine, and of the deities 
called the Cabiri ; and hence was held sa- 
cred and was a resort of pilgrims and an 
asylum for fugitives. According to Pliny 
it enjoyed under the Romans the privileges 
502 



of a small free state, though a dependency 
of the province of Macedonia. The city 
Samothracia was on the north side of the 
island, and afforded shelter over night from 
the southeast wind which gave Paul a quick 
passage from Troas to Neapolis on his 1st 
missionary tour to Europe, Acts 16 : n. 
The island, now called Samothraki or Sa- 
mandrichi, belongs to Turkey, and has from 
1,000 to 2,000 inhabitants, chiefly fishermen. 
It is largely covered with forests, and has 
but one village. 

SAM 'SON, sunlike, the son of Manoah, of 
the tribe of Dan, a deliverer and judge of 
the southwestern tribes of the Hebrews for 
20 years, during the latter part of "the 40 
years" period, and partly contemporary 
with Eli and Samuel, Judg. 13-16. His 
birth was miraculously foretold ; he was a 
Nazarite from infancy, and the strongest of 
men; and was equally celebrated for his 
fearless and wonderful exploits, for his 
moral infirmities, and for his tragical end. 
He was not a giant in size, though of such 
undaunted courage, and his exploits were 
wrought by special divine aid; "the Spirit 
of God came mightily upon him," Judg. 
13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 16:20, 28. The 
providence of God was signally displayed 
in overruling for good the hasty passions 
of Samson, the cowardice of his friends, 
and the malice of his enemies. The sins 
of Samson brought him into great disgrace 
and misery; but grace and faith triumphed 
in the end, Heb. 11:32. His story forcibly 
illustrates how treacherous and merciless 
are sin and sinners, and the watchful care 
of Christ over his people in every age. 
Compare Judg. 13:22 and Matt. 23:37. 

SAM'UEL, heard of God, 1 Sam. 1:20, a 
child of prayer, the celebrated Hebrew 
prophet and judge, Acts 3:24; 13:20. He 
was a Levite by birth, 1 Chr. 6:22-28, 33-38, 
and the son of Elkanah and Hannah, at 
Ramah in Mount Ephraim, northwest of 
Jerusalem. At a very tender age he was 
carried to Shiloh, and brought up beside 
the tabernacle under the care of Eli the 
high-priest. Having been consecrated to 
God from his birth, and devoted to Naza- 
riteship, he began to receive divine com- 
munications even in his childhood, 1 Sam. 
3; and after the death of Eli he became 
established as the judge of Israel. He was 
the last and best of the Hebrew judges. 
We contemplate his character and admin- 
istration with peculiar pleasure and rever- 
ence. The 12 tribes, when he assumed 
their charge, were in a low condition both 



SAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAN 



morally and politically. He induced them 
to abandon their idolatry, freed them from 
the Philistine yoke, administered justice 
with vigor and impartiality, promoted edu- 
cation and true religion, 2 Chr. 35:18, uni- 
ted the tribes, and raised them higher in 
the scale of civilization. Their demand of 
a king, in view of the advanced age of 
Samuel and the vile character of his sons, 
showed a great want of faith in God and of 
submission to his will. Yet He granted 
them a "king in his wrath," Hos. 13:11. 
Samuel anointed Saul as their first king; 
and afterwards David, who in due time 
was to take the place of Saul, already re- 
jected by God. As long as he lived Sam- 
uel exerted a paramount and most benefi 
cial influence in Israel, even over Saul 
himself. He instituted the "schools of the 
prophets," which were long continued and 
very useful. He died at an advanced age, 
about B. C. 1058, honored and lamented by 
all. Even after his death the unhappy 
Saul, forsaken by the God whom he had 
abandoned, sought the prophet's counsel 
through the agency of a pretended dealer 
with spirits. God was pleased to cause 
Samuel to appear with a prophetic message 
to the king. In Psa. 99:6 he is ranked 
with Moses and Aaron. See also Jer. 15:1; 
Heb. 11:32. His grandson Heman was a 
chief singer in David's time, 1 Chr. 6:33; 
15:17, 19. Jewish tradition, recorded in 
the Talmud about A. D. 500, attributes the 
books of Judges and Ruth to Samuel, as 
well as the books that bear his name ; see 
below. A tradition, traced to the 7th Chris- 
tian century, places his tomb on a com- 
manding height overlooking the town of 
Gibeon, now el-Jib, and called Neby Sam- 
wil, prophet Samuel. See Ramah, II., and 
Ramathaim-Zophim. 

The 2 books of Samuel could not all 
have been written by him, because his 
death is mentioned in 1 Sam. 25, about 
B. C. 1060. Thus far it is not improbable 
that he was the author, while the remain- 
ing chapters are commonly attributed to 
Gad and Nathan, prophets under David 
and Solomon; see 1 Chr. 29:29. The his- 
tory may, however, possibly be an inspired 
compilation of somewhat later date from 
earlier records. In Hebrew MSS. the work 
is one, and bears the name of Samuel. 
The division into 2 books was made in the 
Septuagint and followed in the Vulgate, 
and they were called the First and Second 
Books of Kings ; hence the secondary title 
in some Bibles. See Kings. The 2 books 



comprise the history of Samuel, Saul, and 
David, and cover a period estimated at 
about 150 years, forming a connecting link 
between the theocratic and the regal eras. 
The events there recorded synchronize 
with the siege of Troy, the founding of 
Tyre, and the ascendency of Nineveh as 
the capital. The Hebrew is very pure, in- 
dicating an early date of authorship. Por- 
tions of Samuel are quoted in the New 
Testament (compare Acts 13:22; Heb. 1:5, 
with 1 Sam. 13:14; 2 Sam. 7:14), and allu- 
ded to in the Old Testament, especially in 
the Psalms. 

SANBAL'LAT, probably a native of the 
Moabite Horonaim, but a resident in Sama- 
ria (II.), where he seems to have held some 
office under the Persian king Artaxerxes. 
Allying himself with Tobiah the Ammo- 
nite, Geshem the Arabian, and others, he 
bitterly and cunningly opposed Nehemiah 
and the Jews, striving in various ways to 
hinder the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusa- 
lem, B. C. 445, Neh. 2:10, 19; 4:6. Proba- 
bly during Nehemiah's absence at the Per- 
sian court after his 12 years' governorship 
of Jerusalem, Sanballat, with the conni- 
vance of the Samaritan faction in Judah, 
Neh. 6:17-19; 13:4-7, married his daughter 
to a grandson of the high-priest Eliashib ; 
see also Tobias; for which unlawful alli- 
ance Nehemiah expelled the son of Joiada 
from the priesthood, ver. 28. 

SANCTIFY, to make holy, or to set apart 
for God, Gen. 2:3; Exod. 19:23. In the 
Old Testament sanctification frequently 
denotes the ceremonial or ritual consecra- 
tion of any person or thing to God: thus 
the Hebrews as a people were holy unto 
the Lord, through the covenant with its 
ordinances and atoning sacrifices, Exod. 
31:13; Num. 3:12, 13; Deut. 7:6, 9-12; 
compare Gen. 17:7-14; and the tabernacle, 
altar, priests, etc., were solemnly set apart 
for the divine service, Lev. 8:10-12. In a 
similar sense men " sanctified themselves " 
who made special preparation for the pres- 
ence and worship of God, Exod. 19:10, 11, 
22; Num. 11:18; a day was sanctified when 
set apart for fasting and prayer, Joel 1 : 14; 
and the Sabbath was sanctified when re- 
garded and treated as holy unto the Lord, 
Deut. 5:12. All such sanctifications were 
testimonials to the holiness of God, and 
signified men's need of moral sanctifica- 
tion, or the devotion of purified and obe- 
dient souls to his love and service, Lev. 
11:44; 2 ° : 7) 8; 2 Cor. 6:16-18. In Christ's 
declaration that he sanctified himself, John 

503 



SAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAN 



17:19, there is an allusion to his high- 
priestly self-dedication as a sacrifice to 
God; compare Heb. 7:27; 9:14. 

The people of God are exhorted to " sanc- 
tify him," Lev. 10:3; Num. 20:12; Isa. 8:13; 
i. e., really and manifestly to set him apart 
from and above all other beings and con- 
siderations, as the supreme object of their 
reverence and obedience, thus showing 
forth his glory. In 1 Pet. 3:15 the R. V. 
reads, "sanctify in your hearts Christ as 
Lord." 

In a doctrinal sense sanctification is the 
making truly and perfectly holy what was 
before defiled and sinful. It is a progres- 
sive work of divine grace upon the soul 
justified by the love of Christ. The be- 
liever is gradually cleansed from the cor- 
ruption of his nature, and is at length pre- 
sented " faultless before the presence of 
his glory with exceeding joy," Jude 24. 
The Holy Spirit performs this work in con- 
nection with the providence and Word of 
God, John 14:26; 17:17; 2 Thess. 2:13; 
1 Pet. 1:2; and the highest motives urge 
every Christian not to resist the Spirit of 
God, but to cooperate with him, and seek 
to be holy even as God is holy. The ulti- 
mate sanctification of every believer in 
Christ is a covenant mercy purchased on 
the cross. He who saves us from the pen- 
alty of sin also saves us from its power, 
and in promising to bring a believer into 
heaven engages also to prepare him for 
heaven. 

SANCTUARY, a holy place devoted to 
God. It appears to be the name some- 
times of the entire tabernacle or temple, 
Josh. 24:26; Psa. 73:17; Heb. 9:1; some- 
times of the " holy place," where the altar 
of incense, the golden candlestick, and the 
show-bread stood, Num. 4:12 ; 2Chr. 26:18; 
and sometimes of the " Holy of holies," the 
most secret and retired part, in which was 
the ark of the covenant, and where none 
but the high-priest might enter, and he 
only once a year on the day of solemn ex- 
piation, Lev. 4:6. It also denotes the fur- 
niture of the tabernacle, Num. 10:21; com- 
pare Num. 4:4-15. See Tabernacle and 
Temple. The temple or earthly sanctu- 
ary is an emblem of heaven, Psa. 102:19; 
Heb. 9:1, 24; and God himself is called a 
sanctuary, Isa. 8:14; Ezek. 11:16, in refer- 
ence to the use of temples as a place of 
refuge for fugitives, because he is the only 
safe and sacred asylum for sinners pur- 
sued by the sword of divine justice. 

SAND. The Hebrew term is derived 
504 



from a root denoting a sliding or rolling 
motion. In Palestine sand is rarely found 
except along the seashore, Jer. 5:22, and 
the desert lands on the east and south con- 
sist for the most part of gravel. In Egypt 
sand abounds ; the Nile valley is constantly 
threatened by the shifting sands of the 
great desert on the west, and many mon- 
uments of antiquity have been thereby 
wholly or partially covered. Sand affords 
a ready hiding-place and shows no trace 
of disturbance, Exod. 2:12. It symbolizes 
multitude, Gen. 32:12; weight, Job 6:3; 
Prov. 27:3; and insecurity, Matt. 7:26. 

SAN'DAL, Mark 6:9, a sole fastened to 
the wearer by thongs passing between the 




toes, around the heel, and over the top of 
the foot. Probably this is the article usu- 
ally meant by " shoes " in the A. V. Laced 




shoes resembling those of modern times 
were sometimes worn by the Greeks and 



SAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAN 



Romans, but the Egyptians appear to have 
used sandals only, and it is generally 
thought that this was the ordinary custom 
of the Hebrews. Egyptian sandals were 
made of plaited palm-leaves, or papyrus 
stalks, or of leather, and were sometimes 
pointed and turned up at the toes. The 
Assyrians often wore a sort of half-slipper, 
encasing the heel and sides of the foot, but 
leaving the toes bare ; it was made of wood 
or leather. The Talmudists describe the 
Hebrew sandal as having a sole of leather, 
cloth, felt, or wood, and sometimes pro- 



^ 




tected with iron. The "shoe-latchet" or 
thong, and indeed the whole sandal, was 
often proverbially worthless. Gen. 14:23; 
Amos 2:6; 8:6. The sandals of ladies 
were made of the skin of some animal, 
Ezek. 16:10, and were frequently much 
ornamented, Song 7:1, probably with em- 
broidered thongs ; though something may 
have been worn resembling the modern 
Oriental slipper — which is often of moroc- 
co, or embroidered with silk, silver, or 
gold. See Badger. Sandals were not 
usually worn in the house, Luke 7:38; 
see Foot; but were put on for out-door 
business or a journey, Exod. 12:11; Acts 
12:8; or for a military expedition, Isa. 5:27; 



Eph. 6: 15 ; and an extra pair was often car- 
ried, Luke 10:4; comp. Matt. 10:10; Mark 
6:9; Josh. 9:5, 13. To bind on the sandals, 
to loose them, to carry them till needed, 
was the business of a servant or slave, 
Matt. 3:11; Mark 1:7. The poor often 
went barefoot, but among the middle and 
upper classes this was a sign of mourning, 
2 Sam. 15:30; Isa. 20:2-4; Ezek. 24:17, 23. 
Sandals were put off in token of reverence 
and of moral defilement, Exod. ^:s; Josh. 
5:15. Hence the priests ministered bare- 
foot in the temple. Mohammedans now 
remove their shoes on entering a 
mosque, and Samaritans on ap- 
proaching the site of their temple. 
In early times in Israel transfers 
of property or privilege were con- 
ferred by the grantor's delivery 
of his sandal to the grantee, Ruth 
4:7-11, as in mediaeval Europe by 
the transfer of a glove. So owner- 
ship is symbolized by the casting 
of one's sandal on the soil, Psa. 
60J: 8 ; 108 : 9 ; or these passages 
may refer to a slave's caring for 
the master's sandals. The public 
and legal loosing of a man's san- 
dal on his refusal of obedience to 
one of the Mosaic marriage laws, 
Deut. 25:7-10, may refer to the 
usual barefootedness of slaves. 
So in the parable of the prodigal 
son, " putting shoes on his feet " 
rj |i denotes the father's reception of 

the penitent as a free man and a 
son, Luke 15:22. 

Modern Turks, Syrians, and 
Egyptians \vear a light shoe re- 
sembling our slipper, and some- 
times a wooden shoe with a high 
heel. The Bedouins wear only 
sandals. 

SAN'HEDRIM, or more accurately SAN'- 
HEDRIN, an Aramaic form of the Greek 
SUNEDRION, council. I. The chief insti- 
tution thus termed is called in the Mish- 
na " Beth-din," house of judgment, also 
" The Great Sanhedrin." This, the su- 
preme council and tribunal of the Jews at 
Christ's time and before, held its sessions 
at Jerusalem, and was composed of 71 
members, chief-priests, elders of the peo- 
ple, and scribes. Its officers were a Nasi, 
chief, or president, who was often the high- 
priest ; a vice-president, called Ab-Beth- 
din ; and according to some a 2d vice-pres- 
ident, called Hakam, sage. There were 
also secretaries and servants or " officers," 

505 



SAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAN 



Mark 14:65, R. V.; John 7:32. The time 
when this council originated is in dispute : 
Jewish tradition and some Christian schol- 
ars trace it to Moses' appointment of 70 
elders ; others to Jehoshaphat's establish- 
ment of a court of appeal at Jerusalem, 
about B. C. 900, 2 Chr. 19:8-11; but more 
probably it came into being during the 
Macedonian supremacy in Palestine, in the 
2d or 3d century B. C. Josephus' mention 
of it as citing Herod for trial about B. C. 
47, indicates that it was then an old and 
powerful institution. Its meeting -place 
adjoined the temple on the east side, and 
earlier on the south side. It met daily ex- 
cept on Sabbath and festival days. The 
members sat in a semi-circle, the Nasi oc- 
cupying a raised central seat, the Ab-Beth- 
din on his right, the Hakam on his left. 
Back of these were 3 graded rows of disci- 
ples, from whose ranks vacancies were 
filled. The Sanhedrin had authority to 
interpret the divine law, to decide on the 
qualification of priests for service, to watch 
over the religious life of the nation, and try 
those accused of idolatry, and false proph- 
ets and heretics; even the king and the 
high-priest were amenable to it; and gen- 
eral affairs, such as the waging of war, the 
appointment of provincial courts, and the 
regulation of the calendar, were also sub- 
ject to it. It decided on appeals from infe- 
rior courts, and Jews in foreign lands rec- 
ognized its authority, Acts 9:2. It inflicted 
corporal punishment, Acts 5:40, and also 
death by stoning, burning, beheading, or 
strangling, until this right was taken from 
them by the Romans, about 3 years before 
the crucifixion of Christ, John 18:31, 32. 
The presence of the accused was his right, 
John 7:50, 51, and just and humane regu- 
lations guarded all judicial investigations, 
which however were set aside when Jesus 
was accused of claiming to be the Messiah 
and of misleading the people. Both Phar- 
isees and Sadducees were admitted as 
members, Acts 23 : 6. It was doubtless from 
the Sanhedrin that the deputation of in- 
quiry was sent to John the Baptist, John 
1:19-28. Christ predicted its action in his 
own case, Matt. 16:21; 20:18, 19. The 3 
classes constituting this court exercised a 
hostile supervision over the ministry of Je- 
sus, Luke 19:47, 48; 20:1-26; John 7:32; 
his arrest was planned by them and accom- 
plished by their emissaries, Mark 14 : 43-46 ; 
Luke 22:3-6; John 11 : 47-53, 57; and it was 
by an informal session of the Sanhedrin 
that he was illegally tried, condemned to 
506 



death for blasphemy, and delivered to the 
Roman governor on the charge of treason, 
Matt. 26:57 to 27:2; Luke 23:1-5, 13, 14. 
Yet even in the Sanhedrin Joseph of Ari- 
mathaea and Nicodemus believed on him, 
Luke 23:50-53; John 7:51; 19:38-42. Be- 
fore this court Peter and John were twice 
examined, Acts 4:5-22; 5:21-41; Stephen 
was tried, and either illegally condemned 
by it or executed in a popular tumult, Acts 
6 : 12 to 7 : 60. Paul appeared before it, Acts 
22:30 to 23:10; comp. 23:15; 24:20, 21 ; and 
as Josephus relates, James " the Lord's bro- 
ther " was by it condemned to be stoned, 
A. D. 62. Paul's teacher Gamaliel was an 
influential member of the Sanhedrin, Acts 
5:34-40, and the apostle before his conver- 
sion occupied some position under the 71, 
Acts 7:58; 8:1. After the destruction of 
Jerusalem the Sanhedrin was transferred 
to Jamnia till A. D. 80, and finally, after 
other changes, to Tiberias, about A. D. 200. 
Its constitution underwent considerable 
alteration ; near the close of the 3d century 
it dropped the title Sanhedrin for Beth 
ham-Midrash, house of interpretation ; and 
at last it became extinct, A. D. 425. 

II. There was an inferior tribunal in 
every town to judge less important mat- 
ters, Deut. 16 : 18. The number of the mem- 
bers is variously given as 7 or 23, the for- 
mer according with Josephus' account of 
Mosaic constitutions, the latter with the 
rabbinical statements in the Mishna. Ac- 
cording to the rabbins the sessions were 
held on the 2d and 5th days of each week, 
in a room by the local synagogue, for the 
trial of both civil and capital offences ; and 
stripes, when ordered, were delivered in 
the synagogue by the proper officers. Je- 
rusalem had 2 such minor sanhedrins. 
Probably such a tribunal is called "the 
judgment "in Matt. 5:21; and reference to 
them is made in Matt. 10:17; Mark 13:9. 

III. A still smaller tribunal of 3 judges 
was established in smaller districts, and 
took cognizance of debts, robbery, and in- 
juries to person and reputation. Jerusa- 
lem is said to have had 390 of these courts. 

In Matt. 5:22 different grades 'of severity 
in the one divine punishment of spiritual 
death seem to be symbolized under the 
terms "the judgment," see No. II., "the 
council," No. I., and "the Gehenna of 
fire." See Hinnom. 

SANSAN'NAH, palm-branch, Josh. 15:31, 
a town in the south of Judah, apparently 
the same as Hazar-susah, afterwards as- 
signed to Simeon, Josh. 19:5; 1 Chr. 4:31; 



SAP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAR 



perhaps wady es-Suny, 10 miles south of 
Gaza. 

SAPH, a dish, 2 Sam. 21:18, a Philistine 
giant; called Sippai in 1 Chr. 20:4. 

SA'PHIR, fair, a town mentioned only 
in Micah 1:11 ; according to Eusebius and 
Jerome, " in the mountain district between 
Eleutheropolis and Askelon." It may be 
represented by Suwafir el-Ghabiyeh, 9 miles 
northeast of Askelon, though Suwafir lies 
in the plain. 

SAPPHI'RA, beautiful. See Ananias, I. 

SAP'PHIRE, apparently a blue stone, 
Exod. 24:10, very precious, Job 28:6, 16; 
Song 5:14; set in the high-priest's breast- 
plate and engraved with the name of a 
tribe, Issachar, Exod. 28:18, 21 ; 39:11, 14; 
among the ornaments of the king of Tyre, 
Ezek. 28:13; likened in color to the plat- 
form of the throne of God and the throne 
itself, as seen in vision by Moses and the 
elders of Israel, and by Ezekiel, Exod. 
24:10; Ezek. 1:26; 10:1; and one of the 
foundations of the New Jerusalem in John's 
vision, Rev. 21:19, compare Isa. 54:11. It 
has generally been identified with the mod- 
ern lapis-lazuli, an opaque stone of a gen- 
eral deep blue color, with several lighter 
shades, and often mottled with gold-col- 
ored crystals (of iron-pyrites); it occurs 
in masses of some size, and takes a fine 
polish, Lam. 4:7. With the appearance of 
our lapis-lazuli Pliny's description of the 
" sapphire " exactly agrees. The best, he 
says, was found in Media, and Persia is 
still one of the few localities of lapis-lazuli. 
This stone, however, is not well suited for 
engraving; and some scholars, maintain- 
ing that the Bible notices of the sapphire 
indicate a pellucid gem, well adapted for 
engraving, still hold that it was the same 
as our modern sapphire, the blue corun- 
dum — which belongs to a class of gems 
ranking next in hardness and value to the 
diamond, and including also the Oriental 
ruby, topaz, and emerald. Its color varies 
from a deep indigo blue through the lighter 
shades to colorless. The best are found in 
Pegu and Ceylon, and they are seldom of 
large size. 

SA'RAH, or Sara, I., the wife of Abra- 
ham, the daughter of his father by another 
mother, Gen. 20:12. Most Jewish writers, 
however, and many interpreters, identify 
her with Iscah. the sister of Lot and Abra- 
ham's niece, Gen. 1 1 : 29 ; the word " daugh- 
ter," according to Hebrew usage, compri- 
sing any female descendant, and "sister" 
any female relation by blood. When God 



made a covenant with Abraham he changed 
the name of Sarai, my princess, into that of 
Sarah, ox princess, and promised Abraham 
a son by her, which was fulfilled in due 
time. The most prominent points of her 
history as recorded in the Bible are, her 
consenting to Abraham's unbelieving dis- 
simulation while near Pharaoh and Abime- 
lech, her long-continued barrenness, her 
giving to Abraham her maid Hagar as a 
secondary wife, their mutual jealousy, and 
her bearing Isaac in her old age, "the 
child of promise," her faith prevailing over 
her previous unbelief, Gen. 12-23. She ap- 
pears to have been a woman of uncommon 
beauty, a most exemplary and devoted 
wife, and a sympathizing mother, Gen. 
24:67. Her docility is eulogized in 1 Pet. 
3:6, and her faith in Heb. 11: 11. See also 
Isa. 51:2; Gal. 4:22-31. Sarah died at He- 
bron, aged 127, about 7,7 years after Isaac's 
birth and 28 years before Abraham's death. 
She was buried near Hebron in a cave in 
the field of Machpelah, which Abraham 
bought of Ephron the Hittite, Gen. 23. See 
Machpelah. 

II. Num. 26:46. See Serah. 

SA'RAPH, burning, 1 Chr. 4:22, a de- 
scendant of Shelah the son of Judah, prob- 
ably about the time of the conquest of Ca- 
naan. 




SAR'DIS, a town about 50 miles northeast 
of Smyrna and 30 northwest of Philadel- 
phia, was the seat of one of the 7 churches 
in Asia Minor addressed by John, Rev. 
3 : 1-6. It lay at the southern foot of Mount 
Tmolus, on a spur of which its citadel was 
built ; the spacious and fertile plain before 
it was watered by several streams, and the 
river Pactolus with its "golden sands" 
passed through the city. It was a very 

507 



SAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



SAT 



ancient place, and was the capital of the 
kingdom of Lydia. whose last monarch. 
Croesus, famed for his immense wealth, 
was conquered by Cyrus king of Persia, 
about B. C. 550. On account of the strength 
of the citadel it was garrisoned by the Per- 
sians : it became the winter - quarters of 
Xerxes on his way to Greece, B. C. .iSo. 
and was surrendered to Alexander the 
Great after his victory over the Persian 
troops at the Granicus. B. C. 354. It was 
taken and sacked by Antiochus the Great. 
B. C. 214. and soon afterwards fell under 
the Roman power. From early times it 
was famous for its dyed woollen manufac- 
tures, and had an extensive commerce ; the 
surrounding region was fertile, and the 
Pactolus sands yielded much gold. Money 
is said to have been first coined at Sardis. 
After the Persian conquest the Lydians be- 
came noted for luxury and profligacy. 
Their manufactures and commerce de- 
clined after Alexander. The church in cor- 
rupt Sardis was reproached for its declen- 
sion from vital religion. Rev. 5:1-5. 

The ruins of Sardis are now called Sert- 
Kalessi. The height on which the citadel 
stood is shattered as if by an earthquake, 
and only a few fragments of the wall re- 
main. North of the citadel are remains of 
a theatre and a stadium, and to the west 
the ruins of the senate-house. More an- 
cient than these are 2 remarkable Ionic 
columns, over 6 feet in diameter, believed 
to be remnants of a temple of Cybele 
built only 500 years after Solomon's tem- 
ple. Portions of 2 churches, apparently 
built from the remains of this temple, may 
be seen. There are countless sepulchral i 
mounds in the vicinity, and the site is un- 
healthy and desolate. 

SAR DIUS. Exod. 2S:ir: Ezek. 25:13. or 1 
SARDINE. A. V. Rev. 4:3; 21:20. one of the j 
engraved gems in the high-priest's breast- I 
plate, and in John's vision of the New Je- 
rusalem one of its foundation stones. The 
rew odem was called Sard or Sardius 
from Sardis in Lydia. and is now better 
known as the carnelian. It is a superior 
variety of agate, of a blood-red or flesh 
color, and translucent. It is well suited for 
engraving and a favorite with artists for 
this purpose. A very fine dark-red carne- 
lian is found in Yemen in Arabia. 

SARDONYX, as if a sardius and onyx 
combined. Rev. 21:20. a kind of onyx, hav- 
ing a transparent red layer like the sard 
ig on an opaque white layer, or in the 
>ed order. 
5o8 



SAREP'TA. Luke i:2-5. See Zarephath. 

SAR GON. n> m king, Isa. 20:1-4. an As- 
syrian king, formerly supposed to be 5 
maneser IV.. Sennacherib, or Esar-haddon. 
but now ascertained from the Assyrian 
records to have reigned about 17 
B. C. 722-705. between Shalmaneser. whose 
throne he is thought to have usurped dur- 
ing the long siege of Samaria, and Sen- 
nacherib, whose father he was. On his 
monuments he claims to have taken Sama- 
ria in the first year of his reign, with which 
agrees the indefiniteness of the Scripture 
record of the capture. 2 Kin. 17:6: 18:9-11. 
and to have carried captiv- 27 28c oi the 
inhabitants. He probably completed the 
deportation of the Israelites later in his 
reign, settling them within his own domin- 
ions, and commencing the colonization of 
Samaria with foreigners from conquered 
regions. 2 Kin. 17:24. His annals, extend- 
ing over 15 years, testify that he was a 
great warrior, and changed the abode of 
those whom he conquered ; he successful- 
ly warred against Babylonia and Susiana. 
Media. Armenia, Syria. Palestine. Arabia, 
and Egypt. In his 3d campaign in this last 
direction, in his 9th year. B. C. 711. his gen- 
eral, or ■tartan." took Ashdod. Isa. 20:1. 
At this time he represents Judah as subject 
to him. and in the following year he reduced 
Merodach-baladan. king of Babylon, to vas- 
salage. A statue of Sargon. now at Berlin, 
was discovered at Idalium in Cyprus, which 
island also paid him tribute. 

Sargon was eminent as a builder also: 
his monuments relate that he repaired the 
walls of Nineveh 1 Koyunjik), and the royal 
palace at Calah (Nimrud), where he seems 
to have chiefly resided. His greatest work, 
however, was the building near Xineveh of 
a magnificent palace, and a city which he 
named after himself Dur-Sargina ; and its 
site, near the village of Khorsabad. retained 
the name Sarghun till after the Mohamme- 
dan conquest. His reign was marked by 
an advance in various useful and orna- 
mental industries, and by the perfecting of 
the art of enamelling bricks. 

sa RON Acts J5 A. V See Sharon. 

SAR SECHJM, prince of the eunuch 
39:5. conjectured by Gesenius to be a title 
equivalent to Rabsaris : which see. 

SA RUCH. Luke 3:35, A. V. See Serug. 

SA TAN sign;-.- : Kin. 

11:14: Psa. 109 : 6. Hence it is used partic- 
ularlv of the grand adversary of souls, the 
devil, the prince of the fallen angels, the 
accuser and calumniator of men before 



SAT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAU 



God, Job 1:6-12; Zech. 3:1, 2; Rev. 12:9, 
10. He seduces them to sin, 1 Chr. 21:1; 
Luke 22:31 ; and is thus the author of that 
evil, both physical and moral, by which the 
human race is afflicted, especially of those 
vicious propensities and wicked actions 
which are productive of so much misery, 
and also of death itself, Luke 13:16; Heb. 
2:14. Hence Satan is represented both as 
soliciting men to commit sin and as the 
source, the efficient cause, of impediments 
which are thrown in the way of the Chris- 
tian religion, or which are designed to 
diminish its efficacy in reforming the hearts 
and lives of men and inspiring them with 
the hope of future bliss, Matt. 4 :I °; John 
13:27; Rom. 16:20; Eph. 2:2. 

The Bible however plainly teaches his 
subordination to God and his final punish- 
ment and deprivation of all power to harm, 
Rev. 20:10. In the meantime Christ en- 
courages believers to meet the wiles of the 
adversary with incessant vigilance and 
prayer, assuring them that his grace will 
then give them the victory, Eph. 6:10-18; 
Eph. 5:3,9. See Devil. 

The "synagogue of Satan," Rev. 2:9; 
3:9, probably denotes the unbelieving Jews, 
the false zealots for the law of Moses, who 
at the beginning were the most eager per- 
secutors of the Christians. 

In the phrase "the depths of Satan," 
Rev. 2:24, there is probably an allusion to 
the mysteries of early Gnostic sects, which 
professed a deep knowledge of spiritual 
matters, often combined with a lawless im- 
morality; compare Rev. 2:14, 15, 20. 

Christ on one occasion addressed Peter 
as Satan, Matt. 16:22, 23, because the dic- 
tatorial and ease-loving spirit of his words 
was opposed to Christ, and in accord with 
the temptations which Satan had already 
presented to the Lord; comp. Matt. 4:1-10. 

SAT'YRS, Isa. 13:21; 34:14. The He- 
brew word means hairy, shaggy, and is 
often properly rendered "goat," as in Lev. 
4:24. See Goats. In Lev. 17:7; 2 Chr. 
11 : 15 it is translated in the A. V. " devils," 
and refers to some objects of idolatrous 
worship, perhaps goats or images of goats, 
in imitation of the Egyptian worship of this 
animal at Mendes. The monuments repre- 
sent a cynocephalous or dog-faced ape as 
an object of veneration. The Septuagint 
has " demons " in the 2 passages in Isaiah, 
and many interpreters, ancient and mod- 
ern, hold that the reference is to evil spir- 
its believed by the Orientals to haunt des- 
olate places ; compare Rev. 18 : 2. The 



more probable opinion seems to be that 
shaggy animals like wild goats, or perhaps 
some species of ape, are denoted. In any 
case, the desolate condition of the site of 
Babylon, Isa. 13:19-22, and of Bozrah in 
Edom, Isa. 34:5-15, is predicted. 

In classical mythology satyrs were imag- 
inary beings, half men and half goats, 
clothed in skins of beasts, and revelling 
with Bacchus the wine-god in forests and 
groves. 

SAUL, more properly SHAUL, desired, 
I., an early king of the Edomites, Gen. 
36:37, 38; 1 Chr. 1:48, 49. 

II. The son of Kish, of the tribe of Ben- 
jamin, the 1st king of the Israelites, anoint- 
ed by Samuel, B. C. 1096, and after a reign 
of 40 years, filled with various events, slain 
w T ith his sons on Mount Gilboa. He was 
succeeded by David, w T ho was his son-in- 
law, and whom he had endeavored to put 
to death. His history is contained in 1 Sam. 
9-31. It is a sad and admonitory narra- 
tive. The morning of his reign was bright 
with special divine favors, both providen- 
tial and spiritual, 1 Sam. 9:20; 10:1-11,24, 
25. Beautiful and commanding in person, 
and rich in the talents that win popular 
admiration, he was the very ideal sove- 
reign the Jews longed for. But he soon 
began to disobey God, and was rejected as 
unworthy to found a line of kings ; his sins 
and misfortunes multiplied, and his sun 
went down in gloom. In his 1st war with 
the Ammonites God was with him ; but then 
follow his disobedient and presumptuous 
sacrifice in the absence of Samuel, his rash 
vow in battle w r ith the Philistines, his spa- 
ring Agag. and the spoil of the Amalek- 
ites, his spirit of distracted and foreboding 
melancholy, his jealousy and persecution 
of David, against whom his mind was poi- 
soned by a secret slanderer, his barbarous 
massacre of the priests and people at Nob 
and of the Qibeonites, his consulting the 
witch of Endor, the battle with the Philis- 
tines in which his army was defeated and 
his sons were slain, and, lastly, his despair- 
ing self-slaughter, his insignia of royalty 
being conveyed to David by an Amalekite. 

He had been engaged in 7 distinct mili- 
tary operations. The men of Jabesh-Gile- 
ad, grateful for his deliverance of their city 
many years before, 1 Sam. 11, rescued his 
headless body and the bodies of his sons 
from the wall of Beth-shan and buried 
their bones at Jabesh-Gilead, whence they 
were afterwards removed by David to 
Saul's ancestral sepulchre at Zelah, 1 Sam. 

509 



SAV 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SCA 



ii ; 31 ; 2 Sam. 1 ; 2:4-6; 21 : 12-14; 1 Chr. 
10. 

The guilty course and the awful end of 
this 1st king of the Hebrews were a signifi- 
cant reproof of their sin in desiring any 
king but Jehovah, and also show to what 
extremes of guilt and ruin one may go who 
rebels against God and is ruled by his own 
ambitious and envious passions. 

III. Saul was also the Hebrew name of 
the apostle Paul. 

SAVE, except, as in John 6:22, 46; 13:10. 
For "God save the king," 1 Sam. 10:24; 
2 Sam. 16:16; 1 Kin. 1 : 25, 34, 39, the more 
literal rendering is " Long live the king." 
There is no mention of God in the Hebrew. 

SAVING HEALTH, in Psa. 67:2; in the 
R. V. " salvation." 

SA'VIOUR, a term applied in the Old 
Testament to men especially raised up and 
qualified by God to give temporal deliv- 
erance and prosperity to his people : as 
Joshua, whose name is the Hebrew original 
of Jesus ; the judges, Neh. 9:27; Jeroboam 
II., 2 Kin. 13:5; and often appropriated to 
Jehovah himself, Isa. 43:3, 11 ; 45:21; 60:16, 
17, from whom a spiritual salvation from 
sin was also looked for, Psa. 39:8; 79:9. 
The term is applied preeminently to our 
Lord Jesus Christ, because, as the angel 
expressed it, he came to " save his people 
from their sins," Matt. 1:21.- He was there- 
fore called Jesus, which signifies Saviour, 
John 4:42; Acts 4:12; 5:31. 

SA'VOR, that quality of objects which ap- 
peals to the sense of smell or of taste, Matt. 
5: 13. It is also used in the sense of repu- 
tation, Exod. 5:21; compare Gen. 34:30. 
The sacrifice of Noah and that of Christ 
were acceptable to God, like the odor of a 
sweet incense to a man, Gen. 8:21 ; Eph. 
5 : 2. The chief savor of the apostles' teach- 
ing was Christ crucified ; and this teaching 
was welcomed by some to their eternal life, 
and rejected by others to their aggravated 
condemnation, 2 Cor. 2:15, 16. In Matt. 
16:23; Mark 8:33, A. V., to savor means to 
mind, to think highly of. 

SA' VORY MEAT, Gen. 27 : 4, etc. In Prov. 
23:3, 6, "dainties." Modern Orientals de- 
light in a dish consisting of some kind of 
flesh cut into small pieces and cooked with 
as many varieties of vegetables, fruits, and 
condiments as are procurable. 

SAW, Isa. 10:15. This tool was early 
known to the Egyptians, as their monu- 
ments testify. The teeth of ancient saws, 
as of modern Oriental ones, were usually 
inclined towards the handle instead of 
5io 



away from it as with us. Egyptian saws 
appear to have been single-handled only, 
but a double-handled iron one has been 
found at Nimrud. The Hebrews had saws 
for cutting stones, 1 Kin. 7:9. Torture and 
death were sometimes inflicted with the 
saw, 2 Sam. 12:31; 1 Chr. 20:3; a mode of 
punishment* also used by the Egyptians, 
Persians, and Romans. According to an 
ancient Jewish tradition, Isaiah was thus 
put to death ; compare Heb. 11:37. 

SCALL, Lev. 13:30, an eruption or tetter. 

SCAPE-GOAT. See below. 

SCAR'LET, a blood-red color, Song 4:3, 
obtained from a small grub, often called 
by the Hebrews tola (rendered "worm " 
in Deut. 28:39), though the Greeks and 
Romans regarded it as a vegetable excres- 
cence (coccus, a grain). The insect, the 
female only being used, is found abundant- 
ly in Western Asia and Southern Europe, 
living on various plants, especially the ev- 
ergreen oak, Quercus Coccifera, to whose 
branches and twigs it adheres. It grows to 
the size and form of a split pea, but is of a 
violet-black color, and covered with a whi- 
tish powder. It is picked from the tree 
and dried, and the color is obtained by in- 
fusion in water, and made permanent by 
adding a mordant, anciently alum. The 
Coccus ilicis is still used in India and Per- 
sia, but is superseded in Western coun- 
tries by the Coccus cacti, or cochineal, an 
insect found in Mexico on the cactus ; this 
yields a larger proportion of coloring mat- 
ter, and usually a more brilliant though 
perhaps less permanent dye. Scarlet was 
early known in Canaan, Gen. 38:28-30; 
Josh. 2:18-21. Wool thus dyed was con- 
tributed for the service of the tabernacle, 
in making curtains, cloths, and priestly 
garments, Exod. 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36; 28:6, 8, 
15; 35:6, 23, 25; Num. 4:8; and in the rit- 
ual for purification from leprosy, Lev. 14:4, 
49-52. Scarlet was worn by women, 2 Sam. 
1:24; by the wealthy and luxurious, Lam. 
4:5; by Median warriors, Nah. 2:3; and by 
Roman officers, Matt. 27:28. The depth 
and strength of the color, " double-dyed," 
are alluded to in Isa. 1:18, and it is made 
a symbol of profligacy and cruelty in Rev. 
17:3, 4; compare Jer. 4:30, where "crim- 
son " should be scarlet. In Prov. 31 : 21 the 
Hebrew word may etymologically be ren- 
dered "double garments," as in the mar- 
gin. In Dan. 5:7, 16, 29 purple is meant. 

SCAPE-GOAT, Heb. azazel, found only 
in Lev. 16:8, 10, 26, A. V. ; " one lot for the 
Lord and the other lot for azazel; 1 ' "the 



SCA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SCH 



goat on whom the lot fell for azazely" " he 
that let go the goat for azaze/." On the 
annual Day of Atonement 2 spotless goats 
were presented before the Lord as one sin- 
offering, ver. 5 ; the 1st by lot to be sacri- 
ficed as a sin-offering to purge the Holy 
Place, and the 2d "to make atonement" 
for the sins of the people, having them sol- 



emnly laid upon his head by the high- 
priest, and then being sent forth into the 
uninhabited wilderness bearing the curse, 
ver. 18-28. The illustration of the way of 
salvation furnished by this symbolic rite is 
very clear: the Lamb of God " beareth 
away" the guilt of his people, John 1:29. 
But the exact meaning of the word azazel 




is much disputed. It appears to be de- 
rived from the root azal, to remove or sep- 
arate, and is now believed by some schol- 
ars to denote Satan or an avenging spirit, 
popularly believed to haunt desolate pla- 
ces, and to whom the sin-burdened goat 
was surrendered as a victim ; comp. 1 Cor. 
5:5. But Satan would be called by his 
own name; he frequents the busy haunts 
of men and not the desert ; compare Matt. 
12:43-45; and should not be brought in, 
unless the passage requires it, as the agent 
of God in the exercise of justice. Hence 
most interpreters prefer to understand the 
word as simply meaning complete separa- 
tion ; the act symbolizing the entire remo- 
val of the sins of the penitent and believing 
people as borne away by the victim ; com- 
pare Psa. 103:12; Jer. 50:20. See Expia- 
tion. 

SCAT'TERED AND PEELED, etc., Isa. 
18:2, rather " tall and shaven, whose land 
the rivers divide." 

SCEP'TRE, a "rod" or decorated staff, 
sometimes 6 feet long, borne by kings, lead- 
ers, and magistrates as a symbol of author- 



ity, Gen. 49:10; Num. 24:17; Esth. 4:11; 
5:2; Isa. 14:5; Ezek. 19:11, 14; Zech. 10:11. 
See Rod. This usage may have been de- 
rived from the shepherd's use of his rod ; 
compare Num. 27:15-17. Christ's sceptre 
is a "right sceptre," Psa. 45:6, but fatal to 
his foes, Psa. 2:9; Dan. 2:44. The sceptre 
of the wicked shall not always rule the 
land of the righteous, Psa. 125:3. In Judg. 
5:14, for "pen of the writer," read "sceptre 
of the ruler." 

SCE'VA, prepared, a Jew at Ephesus, a 
leader among the priests, perhaps the head 
of one of the 24 courses. His 7 sons pre- 
tended to practise exorcism, and presumed 
to call on evil spirits to come out from per- 
sons possessed, in the name of Jesus. The 
ignominious discomfiture of 2 of them (R. 
V. ver. 16) by a man possessed by an evil 
spirit promoted the cause of the gospel at 
Ephesus, Acts 19:14-16. 

SCHISM, a rent or fissure, Matt. 9:16; 
generally used in the New Testament to 
denote a division within the Christian 
church by contentions and alienated affec- 
tions, without an outward separation into 

5ii 



SCH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SCO 



distinct bodies, i Cor. 1:10, margin; 12:25, 
26. The sin may lie on the side of the ma- 
jority, or of the minority, or both. It is a 
sin against Christian love, and strikes at 
the heart of Christianity, John 17:21 ; Rom. 
12:4-21. 

SCHOOL. The Gr. word schole means 
leisure, i. e., from manual labor; thence 
the learned occupation of leisure, a lecture 
or discussion ; compare Ecclus. 38:24-34; 
and then, as in Acts 19:9, a room where a 
teacher met his disciples for instruction 
and debate. 

SCHOOL'MASTER, 1 Cor. 4:15; Gal. 3:24, 
25, Paidagogos, child-conductor ; among the 
Greeks an attendant who took the charge 
of young children, taught them the rudi- 
ments of knowledge, and at a suitable age 
conducted them to and from school. Thus 
the law was the pedagogue of Israel, watch- 
ing over the childhood of the nation, and 
at length conducting them through its types 
and prophecies to Christ. When a Jew came 
to a believing knowledge of Christ this 
office of the law ceased. 

SCHOOLS, HEBREW. Nothing is known 
of national or elementary schools in Israel 
before the return of the Jews from captiv- 
ity. The Mosaic law strictly enjoined upon 
parents the personal instruction of their 
children, Deut. 6:7; 11:19. In addition to 
this, the Levites were charged to teach the 
people, Deut. ^3- 10. A general knowledge 
of reading and writing seems impliedly re- 
quired by the directions in regard to the 
inscription of certain portions of the law, 
Deut. 6:9; 27:2, 3, 8. The king must be 
able to read and write, Deut. 17:18, 19. 
With the lapses of the nation into idolatry 
and servitude to idolaters, education doubt- 
less declined. In Samuel's time we first 
read of associations for training young men 
for the prophetic office, 1 Sam. 10:5, 10; 
19:20; and they continued under the kings 
of Israel, 1 Kin. 20:35; 2 Kin. 2:3, 5; 4:38; 
6:1; Amos 7:14. Yet parental instruction 
was most relied upon, Prov. 1:8. In the 
kingdom of Judah the Levites became neg- 
ligent, 2 Chr. 15:3, and were recommis- 
sioned by Jehoshaphat, 2 Chr. 17:7-9; they 
attended to their charge under Hezekiah 
and Josiah, 2 Chr. 30:22 ; 35:3 ; and in the 
time of Ezra again appear as teachers and 
interpreters of the people, who had become 
unfamiliar with Hebrew, Neh. 8:7-9, 13, by 
long residence in Babylonia and use of the 
"Syriac" or Aramaic dialect, Dan. 2:4. 
According to Jewish tradition, Ezra gath- 
ered around him men skilled in the law, 
512 



and with their aid trained public teachers, 
who established synagogues with provis- 
ion for instruction in Jerusalem and the 
towns of Judaea. These schools in Christ's 
time were under the management of the 
officers of the Sanhedrin and the " scribes " 
and " doctors." The instruction in the 
higher schools was catechetical, the master 
propounding some doctrine and the pupils 
questioning, Luke 2 : 46, or the teacher 
questioning and the pupils answering. The 
method often pursued by Jesus resembled 
this, Matt. 22:17-22; Mark 8:27-30; Luke 
20:2-4. Flagging attention was quickened 
by stories, allegories, etc. Besides instruc- 
tion in the Scriptures and traditions in the 
sacred Hebrew, in Greek, and the sciences 
as then known, etiquette as to salutations, 
etc., was carefully taught. Each lad was 
compelled to acquire a practical knowledge 
of some trade, Acts 18:3. Our Lord's in- 
dependence of these higher schools excited 
the surprise of his learned antagonists, John 
7:15, to whom he often unfolded the true 
meaning of passages which they had stud- 
ied without comprehending, Matt. 12:2-5; 
19:4; 21:15, 16, 42; Mark 12:18-26. His 
early apostles had no high education, Acts 
4:13, but Paul had been a pupil of Gama- 
liel, Acts 22:3. Josephus and Philo repre- 
sent Jewish parents as extremely careful 
for their children's instruction in the sa- 
cred law, and that they should be taught to 
read it ; carefully copied portions of it were 
given them to study. According to the 
Talmud a boy began the study of the Mo- 
saic Scriptures at home at 5 years of age ; 
compare 2 Tim. 3:15; was sent to school at 
6, and at 10 commenced the study of the 
traditional lore, which however was not 
committed to writing till after the time of 
Christ. Persons who had not received 
Rabbinical teaching were despised as igno- . 
rant, John 7 : 49. After the fall of Jerusalem 
Jewish elementary and higher schools con- 
tinued to flourish, and wherever the Jews 
resided were regarded as of great import- 
ance. The education of girls was usually 
inferior to that of boys. 

SCI'ENCE, 1 Tim. 6:20, in the R. V. 
" knowledge," which is the A. V. rendering 
of the Greek word in its other and frequent 
occurrings. The apostle refers to the false 
claims to superior knowledge, Gr. gnosis, 
by the Gnostic sects, who exalted their 
mystical conceits above the pure gospel of 
Christ and the true way of salvation, 1 Cor. 
8:1 ; Col. 2:18-23. 

SCOR'PION, Luke 10:19, a small venom- 



SCO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SCO 



ous animal of warm climates, belonging, 
like the spider, to the class Arachnida, but 
so like the lobster in form that the Arabs 
call the latter the sea-scorpion. There are 
many varieties of the scorpion. Those of 
Southern Europe and Palestine are from 
i to 3 inches long, but in tropical Africa 
and South America they reach the length 




of 10 inches. The jointed tail terminates 
in a poison-bulb ending in a sharp curved 
sting, which inflicts a wound into which 
venom is injected from 2 openings near the 
point of the sting, Rev. 9 : 3-10. The wound 
is very painful and sometimes fatal, the 
effect varying with the species, age, etc., of 
the scorpion and the susceptibility of the 
victim. Scorpions are hibernating and 
nocturnal in their habits. They lie dor- 
mant through the cool and wet months of 
the year, and during their active period 
pass the day under stones or the loose bark 
of trees or in crevices in walls, and issue 
forth at night for food and pleasure. They 
are useful in destroying other arachnida 
and insects, and have been known to feed 
upon their own species. Maupertius saw 
100 scorpions reduced in a few days to 14 
by mutual extermination, and also wit- 
nessed an imprisoned female scorpion de- 
vour all her young but one, which took 
refuge on her back and at last killed her. 
A scorpion runs with its tail erect, which, 
with the formidable-looking claws termi- 
nating the palpi and used for grasping its 
prey, gives it a very threatening aspect. It 
has been said that one surrounded with fire 
will sting itself to death ; but this story may 
be founded simply on the convulsive mo- 
tions of the scorched animal and its habit of 
curving its tail over its back. At the time 
of the Exodus scorpions abounded in the 
Sinaitic desert, Deut. 8:15, where they are 
still found. Several species abound in Pal- 
estine, in the Lebanon range, the mountains 
of Judah, and the Jordan valley. Banias, 
where there are many ruins, is infested 
with them, and they still inhabit the low 
33 



range of cliffs a few miles south of the Dead 
Sea, where was the point formerly called 
from them "the ascent of Akrabbim " or 
scorpions, Num. 34:4; Josh. 15:3. The 
"scorpions" of Rehoboam's threat, 1 Kin. 
12:11, 14, may have been thongs armed 
with knots, or bits of stone or metal, unless 
the expression is wholly figurative. The 
earlier captives of Judah in Babylonia, 
2 Kin. 24 : 10-16, among whom Ezekiel 
dwelt, are called scorpions, Ezek. 1:1, 2; 
2:6; a metaphor justified by the nation's 
malignant treatment of many of its true 
prophets; compare Jer. 26:7-11. 21-23. "A 
scorpion for an egg," i. e., a mischievous 
instead of a beneficial gift, was probably a 
proverb among the Jews, Luke 11:12; a 
similar proverb, "a scorpion for a perch," 
is said to have been current among the 
Greeks. 

SCOURGE or "WHIP, 1 Kin. 12:11-14. 
See Scorpion. Scourging or beating was 
a common punishment among the ancients. 
In Egypt, Exod. 5:14, 16, it was often ad- 
ministered by a stick applied to the soles 
of the feet, the modern bastinado. To the 
Israelites Moses prescribed scourging for 
certain offences, limiting the number of 
stripes to 40, Deut. 25:1-3. Rods or twigs 
were commonly used, Prov. 10:13; 26:3. 
In order not to break this law the Jews, 
after the Captivity, if not before, used a 
scourge of 3 thongs, of rope or leather, 13 
blows of which equalled 39 stripes, 2 Cor 
11:24. Scourging was inflicted by the mi 
nor sanhedrins in the synagogues, Matt 
10:17; Acts 22:19; and by the Great San 
hedrin, Acts 5:40. See Sanhedrin. Beat 
ing with clubs was a capital punishment 
among the Greeks, and was inflicted on 
some of the faithful Jews by the Graeco- 
Syrian king Antiochus Epiphanes, B. C. 
170-167, and others suffered preliminary 
punishment by scourging; compare Heb. 
12:35, R. V. margin ("beaten to death"), 
36. Scourging was likewise a Roman pun- 
ishment, Luke 23:16, and was often used 
for extorting confession, Acts 22:24, and 
sometimes even by the Jews. The Romans 
used both rods and whips, the leather 
thongs of the latter being sometimes tipped 
with sharp bits of metal, which terribly 
lacerated the culprit and often occasioned 
death, the number of stripes being unlim- 
ited. Under their law scourging com- 
monly preceded crucifixion, Matt. 27:26. 
Among the Hebrews the culprit was strip- 
ped and made to lie down with his face to 
the ground, Deut. 25:2. By a Roman law, 

513 



SCR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SCR 



about B. C. 300, Roman citizens were ex- 
empt from scourging, and it was reserved 
for slaves and foreigners, Acts 22:24-29. 
Christ predicted his own suffering from the 
Roman scourge, Matt. 20:19; Mark 10:34; 
Luke 18:33, and submitted to it as a part 
of the punishment laid on him as the sub- 
stitute for sinners, Matt. 27:26; Mark 15:15; 
John 19:1; compare Isa. 53:5; 1 Pet. 2:24. 
Paul was 5 times scourged by the Jews, 
2 Cor. 11:24; one of the 3 beatings with 
rods of which he speaks in ver. 25 was re- 
ceived by him at the order of the Roman 
magistrates of Philippi, Acts 16:22, R. V., 
23-39 J an d besides the judicial scourgings 
he was lawlessly beaten by a Jewish mob, 
Acts 21 : 27-32. Divine judgments are sym- 
bolized by the scourge, Isa. 10:26; 28:15, 
18. The parental use of the rod, com- 
mended by the Word of inspiration, Prov. 
13:24, is a figure of the wise and loving 
correction of God, Heb. 12:5-11. In Lev. 
19:20 the R. V. reads for "she shall be 
scourged," " they shall be punished." 

SCRAB'BLE, 1 Sam. 21 : 13, to scribble or 
make irregular marks. 

SCREECH'-OWL, Isa. 34:14. See Owl. 




SCRIBE, writer, as in Psa. 45:1; Ezek. 
9:2, 3, ox number er ; one skilled in writing 
and accounts. Official accountants are 
often depicted on Egyptian monuments, 
taking note of matters of public and private 
life, recording the labor performed, some- 
times by oppressed Israelites, Exod. 5:6. 
In Palestine under the kings reference is 
frequently made to scribes, who were some- 
times Levites, 1 Chr. 24:6; 27:32; 2 Chr. 
34:13. Among the chief officers of the king- 
dom were a scribe or scribes, 2 Sam. 8:17; 



20:25; 1 Kin. 4:3; Jer. 36: 10, 12, 21 ; charged 
probably with the preparation of the king's 
decrees, with the management of his finan- 
ces, 2 Kin. 12:10; 22:3,4, and even repre- 
senting him in dealing with a foreign am- 
bassador or with a prophet of Jehovah, 
2 Kin. 18:17-19, etc., 26, 2>7', 19:2; 22:12-14. 
Scribes were also connected with the army, 
2 Kin. 25:19; 2 Chr. 26:11. In Isa. 33:18 
the reference seems to be to some officer 
of the Assyrian army threatening Jerusa- 
lem in Hezekiah's time, and whose disper- 
sion Isaiah is predicting; compare 2 Kin. 
19:32-36. So in the later sculptures at 
Koyunjik, Nimrud, and Khorsabad, Assyr- 
ian scribes are seen recording the number 
of enemies slain, whose heads are brought 
to them by the soldiers, and the quantity 
of spoil captured. Hezekiah employed 
men to transcribe old records and write 
down oral traditions, Prov. 25:1. Nearly 
100 years later the existence of a class who 
were not merely copyists, but also teachers 
of the divine law and boastful of wisdom, 
seems to be implied, Jer. 8:8. After the 
Captivity the office of expounding the law 
of God was closely associated with the call- 
ing of a scribe, as in the case of 
Ezra, Ezra 7:6, 10, 12; Neh.8:i-3, 
13. Jewish tradition ascribes to 
these guardians and teachers of 
the law from Ezra to the death of 
Simon the Just, B. C. 458-290, the 
compilation from earlier sources 
of the Chronicles, and the collec- 
tion and arrangement of all the 
Hebrew Scriptures. They are 
said to have guarded the Mosaic 
law from errors in copying by 
counting its letters. From B. C. 
200 to A. D. 220 the scribes are 
said to have formed into definite 
oral precepts the interpretations 
and opinions of their predeces- 
sors in regard to different points 
of the law. Gradually, in their 
desire to honor these traditions 
of the elders, they set them above the 
Scriptures, making the transgression of 
the former the greater offence ; and in the 
effort to elaborate from the law precepts 
for every minute circumstance in life, they 
frequently made it void by their glosses, 
Matt. 15:1-20. They held that the mere 
act of searching the Scriptures, even to 
support their idle fancies, entitled them 
to eternal life, John 5:39. The rise of the 
Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes is gen- 
erally referred to B. C. 200 to 140. The 



SCR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SCR 



great majority of the scribes were Phari- 
sees, with whom they are constantly asso- 
ciated in the New Testament ; compare 
Acts 23:9. Among the most celebrated of 
these teachers of the law were Hillel and 
Shammai, president and vice-president of 
the Sanhedrin in the reign of Herod the 
Great. They held different opinions and 
gave rise to opposing schools: Shammai 
and his followers, who developed into the 
Zealots, being more rigid, especially in re- 
gard to ceremonial defilement and Sab- 
bath-keeping, and Hillel and his school 
showing a more liberal spirit. Many of 
their disputes turned on the most trifling 
and foolish questions. The existence of 
these 2 parties among the scribes and 
Pharisees of Christ's time partly accounts 
for the different attitude towards him of 
different members, some appearing inclined 
to accept him as a true teacher, Matt. 8:19; 
Mark 12 : 28-34, and others bitterly opposing 
him, Mark 3:22; 11:18, 27; 14:1, 43, 53; 
15:1, 31. Gamaliel, the advocate of tolera- 
tion towards the apostles, Acts 5:34, was 
Hillel's grandson. Both scribes and Phar- 
isees, for the most part occupied with the 
letter of the law and the futile and often 
contradictory traditions and discussions 
with which it had been overlaid, Tit. 1:14; 
3:9, wrapped up in self-conceit and bask- 
ing in the favor of the people, had as a 
class lost all but the semblance of piety. 
Hence the scathing rebukes of Christ, Matt. 
5:20; 23:1-36. Many of the scribes were 
members of the Sanhedrin, and joined their 
colleagues the chief priests and elders in 
persecuting Christ and his followers, having 
perverted ideas as to the promised Messiah 
and his kingdom. The scribes are also 
called " lawyers " and " doctors of the law," 
Matt. 22:35; Luke 5:17; Acts 5:34; and 
Christ's ministers must be scribes " in- 
structed unto the kingdom of heaven," 
Matt. 13:52, like " Zenas the lawyer" and 
Apollos "mighty in the Scriptures," Tit. 

3=13- 

The teachings of Christ presented stri- 
king contrasts to those of the scribes. He 
spoke as with authority originating in him- 
self, Matt. 5:22, etc.; 7:28, 29, or derived 
from the Father, John 8:28; 12:49, 50. He 
laid bare the divine law in its original force 
and true spirit. He journeyed through the 
cities and villages and taught the multi- 
tudes, while the scribes usually expounded 
their doctrines to privileged classes in the 
schools. He taught plainly of the kingdom 
of God, and explained the spiritual qualifi- 



cations for membership in it as differing 
widely from the conceptions of the scribes, 
Matt. 18:1-4; compare 23:6-12. He pro- 
claimed a suffering and atoning Messiah, 
while they generally misinterpreted the 
predictions concerning him, his humilia- 
tion and his exaltation, John 13:32-34. 

A special training in the Scriptures and 
traditions in some noted rabbi's school 
was requisite to fit a youth for the calling 
of a scribe. Questions of ethics and casuis- 
try, and the laws of property contracts and 
evidence, were embraced in the course. 
In due time, probably at 30, the satisfactory 
pupil was received into the association, the 
presiding rabbi laying hands upon him and 
declaring him admitted "to the chair of the 
scribe," and giving him tablets and a key, 
Luke 11:52. He might remain in compar- 
ative obscurity as a simple transcriber of 
the Scriptures or of phylacteries, or as a 
notary writing papers of sales, betrothals, 
or repudiations ; or he might rise to emi- 
nence as a teacher or a member of the San- 
hedrin. Fees, and often the exercise of 
some handicraft, contributed to his sup- 
port, as well as gifts from the devout. 

The oral traditions, precepts, etc., of the 
scribes were written and compiled in the 
2d century, and are known as the Mishna, 
the 1st part of the Talmud. After the final 
redaction of the Mishna, A. D. 220, the or- 
der continued its peculiar labors, adding 
to the Mishna 2 bodies of commentaries- 
and discussions thereon, called Gemaras, 
which were completed about A. D. 500, and 
constitute the 2d part of the Talmud. 

SCRIP, a bag or leather wallet, in which 
shepherds or travellers carried a portion of 
food or small articles of convenience, slung 
on the shoulder, 1 Sam. 17:40; also 2 Kin. 
4:42, instead of "husk;" in the R. V. 
"sack." It was distinct from the purse,. 
Matt. 10:9, 10; Luke 10:4; 22:35, 36. 

SCRIP'TURE, writing. In "the Scrip- 
ture of truth," Dan. 10:21, there is an allu- 
sion to the divine decrees, figuratively 
represented as written in a book, Psa. 
139:16; Rev. 5:1. In the New Testament 
the books of the Old Testament collectively 
are termed "the Scriptures," Matt. 22:29, 
"the Holy Scriptures," etc., Rom. 1:2; 
16:26; 2 Tim. 3:15. The epistles of Paul 
are included in "the Scriptures" in 2 Pet. 
3: 16. Reference is also made to particular 
passages, Mark 12:10; Acts 8:35, or an in- 
dividual book, ver. 32, as " the Scripture." 
The special force of the term in the time of 
Christ and his apostles will be better ap- 

515 



SCR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEA 



predated if it is remembered that the Jew- 
ish traditions were as yet unwritten. In 
the Mishna the usual Hebrew expression 
for the Old Testament books is the Mikra, 
i. e., reading, as in Neh. 8:8; the Hebrew 
word meaning writings being appropri- 
ated to the books called the Hagiographa. 
The term " Holy Scriptures " as including 
the New Testament books was in use in 
the church as early as the 2d century. " All 
Scripture," i. e., every portion of Holy 
Scripture, is inspired and profitable, 2 Tim. 
3:15, 16. "No prophecy of Scripture" is 
to be interpreted alone; the event will show 
its true place among all the prophetic words 
of the Holy Spirit, 2 Pet. 1:20, 21. But it is 
evident that the Jews in Christ's time were 
familiar with the Old Testament Scriptures, 
as appears from their own citations of them, 
John 6:31; 8:5, and Christ's frequent ref- 
erences to the fact, Matt. 12:3, 5; 21:16, 42; 
Mark 12:10, 26, 35-37; Luke 6:3; 10:26; 
24:25-27; John 5:39, and Christians were 
expected to be familiar with the New Tes- 
tament Scriptures also, Acts 17:11; Col. 
4:16; Rev. 1:3. 

SCROLL, Isa. 34:4; Rev. 6:14, or roll, 
the ancient form of a book. See Book. 

SCUM, Ezek. 24:6, R. V. " rust." 

SCUR'VY, Lev. 21:20; 22:22; the same 
word rendered " scab " in Deut. 28 : 27, A. V. 
Scurvy is now usually occasioned by long 
confinement in cold and damp climates and 
the use of salt food, and is marked by great 
debility and a dry, scaly skin, with livid 
spots. Some such appearance may be de- 
noted in the passages above quoted. 

SCYTH'IANS, wandering tribes in the 
immense regions north of the Black and 
Caspian Seas. They are said by Herodo- 
tus to have made an incursion into South- 
western Asia and Egypt in the 7th century 
B. C; and it v/as perhaps a fragment of 
this host, located at Beth-shean, which gave 
that city its classical name Scythopolis. It 
is supposed that Ezekiel, chs. 38, 39, al- 
ludes to these invading Scythians under 
the names of Gog and Magog as symbols 
of earthly violence arrayed against the peo- 
ple of God, but meeting an utter overthrow ; 
compare Rev. 20:8. The Scythians were 
proverbially rude and savage, 2 Mace. 4:47; 
the rudest of barbarians, Col. 3:11. 

SEA, Heb. yam, a word applied to the 
terrestrial waters collectively, Gen. 1 : 10, 
22, 26, 28; 9:2, and, with or without dis- 
tinctive epithets, to bodies of water of dif- 
ferent sizes, salt or fresh, including lakes 
and large rivers ; also to the laver of Solo- 
5i6 



mon's temple, 1 Kin. 7:23-26. The use of 
the New Testament Greek word, thalas- 
sa, is nearly the same. The following are 
the chief applications of the word in Scrip- 
ture. 

I. The Mediterranean; called "the 
sea," Josh. 16:3; Acts 10:6; "the great 
sea," Num. 34:6; the "hinder," "utter- 
most," or " utmost sea," i. e., the western 
sea — according to the Hebrew custom of 
facing the east in naming directions, Deut. 
11:24; Zech. 14:8; whence the word yam, 
as denoting this sea, is often put for the 
west, Gen. 12:8— the "sea of the Philis- 
tines," Exod. 23:31; and "the sea of Ja- 
pho" or Joppa, Ezra 3:7. This sea, the 
western boundary of Palestine, is 2,250 
miles long, 1,200 miles in greatest width, 
and its average depth is over half a mile ; it 
covers an area of 1,000,000 square miles. It 
is little affected by tides, but often agitated 
by violent winds, Jonah 1:4; Acts 27. South- 
east and southwest winds prevail in spring, 
and northeast and northwest ones during 
the rest of the year. Its water is warm 
and Salter than that of the Atlantic; its 
loss from evaporation exceeds its supply 
from rains and rivers ; but it receives water 
also from the Atlantic through the Straits 
of Gibraltar. On its eastern border the 
chief ports mentioned in Scripture were 
Sidon, Tyre, Ptolemais, Caesarea, and Jop- 
pa. The best harbor is now found at Bei- 
rut. 

II. The Red Sea: called "the sea," 
Exod. 14; "the Sea of Suph," A. V. "Red 
Sea," Exod. 10:19, and "the Egyptian 
Sea," Isa. 11:15. The Egyptians called it 
" the Sea of Punt," i. e., Arabia; its Arabic 
name is bahr el-Hedjaz, from a province 
on its eastern coast, or bahr el-Ahmar, 
red ; the " Erythraean," red, sea, was the 
Greek and Roman name, used in the Sep- 
tuagint and the New Testament, Acts 7:36; 
Heb. 11:29. The Hebrew term suph de- 
notes a wool-like sea-weed which is cast 
up freely on its shores. The name Red 
may have been derived from Edom on the 
northeast, from the hue of the mountains 
on the western coast, from the prevailing 
color of its corals and weeds, or from the 
red zoophytes which at certain seasons float 
in masses on its surface. This sea, really 
an arm of the Indian Ocean, lies between 
Arabia on the east, and Egypt, Nubia, and 
Abyssinia on the west ; by the Straits of 
Bab-el-Mandeb it is joined to the Indian 
Ocean, and since 1869 the Suez Canal con- 
nects it with the Mediterranean Sea. It is 



SEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEA 



1,450 miles long, with an average width of 
150 miles and a depth of 1,800 feet. Its 
area is about 180,000 square miles. At the 
northern end it divides into the Gulf of 
Suez on the west and the Gulf of Akaba on 
the east. The former, anciently the Gulf 
of Heroopolis, is 150 miles long and 20 
miles wide; the eastern, formerly the Ela- 
nitic Gulf, is 105 miles by 15. Between 
these gulfs lies the Sinai peninsula. The 
great desert valley, el-Arabah, extends 
from the Gulf of Akaba to the Dead Sea. 
See Jordan. The Gulf of Suez was an- 
ciently connected with the Nile by a canal 
constructed by the Pharaohs and used as 
early as the 14th century B. C. This has 
recently been restored, and now, as the 
Sweet-water Canal, supplies fresh water 
to the stations on the ship-canal between 
the Mediterranean and Suez. The navi- 
gation of the Red Sea is somewhat difficult 
and dangerous, owing to the submerged 
coral reefs and islands. It receives no 
rivers, but many rain-torrents. The tide 
rises from 3 to 7 feet. The water, except 
when colored by the zoophytes, is blue, 
with a greenish hue in the shallower parts. 
The coasts are chiefly rocky or sandy, and 
generally barren and uninhabited. Suez, 
at the head of the Western gulf, Cosseir 
the port of Upper Egypt, Suakim a port of 
Soudan, Massua an Abyssinian port, and 
Jiddah on the Arabian shore, are the only 
important towns along its entire coast. 
Explorations of the isthmus, now 70 miles 
wide, between the Suez and the Mediterra- 
nean, show that the land at the head of the 
gulf has risen, the water retired southward, 
since the Christian era, thus fulfilling the 
prophecy of the drying up of " the tongue 
of the Egyptian Sea," Isa. 11:15. It is esti- 
mated that in Moses' time the gulf extend- 
ed 50 miles farther northward, including 
the present Bitter and Crocodile Lakes, 
and narrowing the isthmus to some 25 
miles. The exact locality of the miracu- 
lous passage of the Israelites and the over- 
throw of the Egyptians, Exod. 14; 15, has 
been much disputed, but the opinion which 
seems best supported places these events 
in the vicinity of Suez. Having crossed 
the Western gulf, the Israelites encamped 
on its eastern side, Num. 33:10. After 
many years of sojourning and wandering 
between Sinai and Canaan, they came to 
Ezion-geber at the head of the Eastern 
gulf, ver. 35, 36 ; from Mount Hor, 60 miles 
to the north, they were again turned south- 
ward to the gulf, to pass around Edom on 



the east, Num. 21:4. Ezion-geber and 
Elath were ports used by Solomon, 1 Kin. 
9:26; 10:22; 2 Chr. 8:17, 18; comp. 1 Kin. 
22:48. In Zech. 10:11 both the Red Sea 
and the Nile appear to be referred to. 

III. The Dead Sea: called in Scripture 
"the Salt Sea," Gen. 14:3; Josh. 18:19; 
"the sea of the plain," i. e., of the Arabah, 
Deut. 3:17; "the East" or "Former sea," 
Ezek. 47:18; Joel 2:20; Zech. 14:8; and 
once simply "the sea," Ezek. 47:8. The 
Greeks and Romans called it "the Asphal- 
tic Lake," from the asphaltum or bitumen 
found on or by it, and "the Dead Sea," 
from the absence of living creatures in its 
waters. The Arabs call it bahr Lut, the sea 
of Lot, and sometimes the Dead Sea. It 
occupies the lowest parf of the deep cre- 
vasse, about 250 miles long, which extends 
from the foot of Mount Hermon to the Gulf 
of Akaba; lies between 31 ° 6' and 31 ° 46' 
N. lat., and between 35 24' and 35 ^j' E. 
long. ; is about 46 miles long from north to 
south, and over 10 miles at its greatest 
breadth, near Ain Jidy. Its full area is 
nearly 300 square miles. It is 16 miles from 
Jerusalem, and can be seen from the Mount 
of Olives. On the north it receives the Jor- 
dan; on the east the Zerka Ma'in (the an- 
cient Callirrhoe), the Mqjib or Anion, the 
Kerak, and the Siddiyeh or Brook Zered ; 
on the south the Kurahy ; and on the west 
the Ain Jidy. Besides these its receives 
numerous winter-torrents, among them the 
Kidron, now wady en-Nar, and the waters 
of many fresh, salt, sulphur, and warm 
springs, chiefly on its western shore. The 
marshy and salt-encrusted plain es-Sabkah 
(see Salt, valley of) extends 10 miles 
south of the Dead Sea, and is partly over- 
flowed after the winter rains. Bare moun- 
tain ranges flank the sea, rising in cliffs 
of gray or white limestone 1,500 feet on the 
west, and in still more rugged heights of 
limestone capped with basalt and footed 
with red sandstone 2,000 feet or more on 
the east. Both ranges are cleft by deep 
torrent -beds. These ranges closely ap- 
proach the sea, and in some places jut out 
into the waves in bold headlands, or rece- 
ding leave a coast-strip of varying width. 
Salt forms a soft crust on the beach, and is 
deposited by evaporation in natural and 
artificial hollows after freshets. Quantities 
of bitumen, sulphur, and musca are also 
found on the shores ; the latter, a carbonate 
of lime, is black and takes a fine polish ; 
mementos of the Dead Sea are made from 
it and sold in Jerusalem ; it has an intoler- 

517 



SEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEA 




DEAD SEA AND VICINITY 

able odor when rubbed, and blazes with a 
sulphurous smell if placed on hot coals. 
Hot springs are numerous : one about 3 
miles north of Ain Jidy, a sulphur spring 
with a temperature of 95 , bubbles up 
through the gravel 6 inches from the sea, 
and probably under the water also, as this 
is heated above its ordinary 62 for 200 
yards from the shore, and the air all around 
has a strong sulphurous odor. On the 
southwest coast the detached salt-ridge, 
called Jebel or Khashm Usdum, mountain 
or ridge of Sodom, runs parallel with the 
shore for about 3 miles, and extends south- 
ward 4 miles farther. See Salt, Valley 
of. On the east, about 7 miles from the 
southern shore, a low promontory called 
el-Lisan, the tongue, projects westward and 
5i8 



northward into the sea ; it is 10 miles long 
north and south, and 5 or 6 miles wide, and 
is joined to the mainland by a low strip of 
sand. The surface is flat and is composed 
of a soft chalk marl incrusted with salt, and 
containing lumps of pure sulphur. A few 
ruins, of unknown date, exist here. North 
of el-Lisan the sea is of an elongated oval 
shape. Its sides slope steeply, and its 
greatest depth is over 1,300 feet. West of 
the peninsula the sea narrows and shoals 
into a channel little more than 2 miles wide 
at the narrowest, and with a depth of about 
13 feet. South of el-Lisan it broadens again 
into a nearly circular bay not more than 12 
feet in depth. Blue mud and sand, with 
crystals of salt, appear to compose the bed 
of the main basin ; that of the south bay is 



SEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEA 



slimy, and quantities of asphaltum are at 
times thrown up from it, notably after 
earthquakes, as in 1834 and 1837. The 
northeast coast bears traces of volcanic 
action in the basaltic rocks and scoriae of 
the mountain range, and in the lava, pum- 
ice, and bitumen imbedded in the sand or 
mud of the shore. The surface of the Dead 
Sea is about 1,392 feet below that of the 
Mediterranean and 3,750 below Jerusalem. 
The level varies 10 or 15 feet, according to 
the season. A series of ancient terraces 
or shore lines show that it has sunk by de- 
grees hundreds of feet. The bottom seems 
to be still subsiding: 15 or 20 years ago 
the channel between el-Lisan and the west- 
ern shore might be crossed by 2 fords, 
which are now reported impassable. The 
water of the sea is clear and transparent, 
but intensely salt and bitter, and of a spe- 



cific gravity exceeding that of any other 
water known; a gallon of it weighs 12% 
lbs., 2% lbs. more than distilled water. By 
repeated analyses it has been found to con- 
tain y x its weight of mineral substances, yi. 
of this being chloride of sodium or common 
salt ; chloride of magnesium gives the wa- 
ter its bitter taste, and chloride of calcium 
its oily feeling. Other substances exist in 
smaller quantities. These qualities of the 
water are due in part to the accumulation 
of mineral matter flowing into a basin with 
no outlet, and not carried off, as the water 
is, by evaporation. So dense is the water 
that a person can float on it without dan- 
ger of sinking, and it requires an effort to 
submerge the body for swimming. In 1848 
the boats of Lieut. Lynch met with a gale 
on entering the sea from the Jordan ; and 
" it seemed as if the bows . . . were en- 




THE DEAD SEA, AND THE CONVENT OF MAR SABA, ON THE BROOK KIDRON, MIDWAY FROM 

JERUSALEM. 



countering the sledge-hammers of the Ti- 
tans instead of the opposing waves of an 
angry sea." These heavy waves rapidly 
subside when the wind falls. In freshet 
times the brown stream of the Jordan can 
be traced for a mile and a half after enter- 
ing the lake. No form of life is found in 
the Dead Sea ; the fish brought down from 
the Jordan, and even sea-fish introduced as 
an experiment, quickly die. 

The general aspect of the region is 
dreary, sterile, and desolate, and quanti- 
ties of drift-wood line the shores, inclu- 
ding besides branches of other trees, great 



palm-trunks blackened with age. Among 
the oases on the western shore is Ain Jidy 
(En-gedi), a plain of about 2 miles square. 
The pistachio, Christ-thorn, tamarisk, ole- 
ander, lily, nightshade, mallow, migno- 
nette, and kale grow in these fertile spots; 
also the osher, Calatropis procera, bearing 
the so-called "apple of Sodom," whose 
thin yellow rind breaks under pressure 
and leaves only worthless shreds in one's 
grasp. The high cane-brakes and thickets 
about the springs shelter birds and beasts 
of many varieties : the jackal, wild boar, 
and leopard; the raven, cormorant, heron, 

519 



SEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEA 




SOUTH SHORE OF THE DEAD SEA. 



stork, quail, thrush, bulbul, etc. Ducks 
have been seen floating on the water. On 
the southeastern shore, east of the Sabkah, 
the ground slopes upward to the mountains 
of Moab, and for a few miles is very fertile, 
yielding to the Arabs grain, indigo, melons, 
and cucumbers. A few ruins are found 
along the shores, as at Ain Jidy, Sebbeh — 
the site of the old Maccabaean and Herodi- 
an fortress of Masada— and on the penin- 
sula. The strong fortress of Machaerus, 
now Mkhaur, and the hot baths of Cal- 
lirrhoe were on the steep slope of the east- 
ern mountains. 

The climate is semi-tropical, owing to 
the extraordinary depression of the sea. 
In the dry season it is excessively hot and 
unhealthy from the miasm of the bordering 
marshes. Tristram notes a temperature 
in January of 84 in the day and 62 at 1 
a. m. ; Warren that of no° after sunset at 
Ain Jidy in July. The excessive evapora- 
tion causes a mist to brood over the water. 

Scripture References. In Gen. 14:3 the 
vale of Siddim, " full of slime " or bitumen 
"pits," ver. 10, is no doubt the Salt Sea. 
This valley is usually regarded as the site, 
or in the immediate neighborhood, of the 
cities of Sodom, etc., which, with their fruit- 
ful environs in the " plain " or circle " of 
the Jordan," God destroyed by fire from 
the sky, Gen. 13:10; 19:24-29. With the 
identification of Genesis agrees the ancient 
Jewish view, recorded by Josephus, that 
the vale of Siddim was submerged under 
520 



the Dead Sea. The main body of water 
bears marks of an age much greater than 
that of the ruined cities ; but it is the view 
of many competent scholars that the shal- 
low southern bay, whose peculiarities have 
already been noted, now covers the ancient 
vale of Sodom. On the limestone cliffs of 
wady Muhawat, west of the north end of 
Jebel Usdum, Tristram in 1864 discovered 
appearances as if a shower of sulphur or 
an irruption of hot bitumen had fallen on 
it; masses of calcined bitumen impregna- 
ted with sulphur overlie a stratum of sul- 
phur, below which is sand impregnated 
with sulphur. Pillars of salt, detached from 
Jebel Usdum by the rains, remind the ob- 
server now, as in the days of Josephus, of 
Lot's wife. The Salt Sea was one of the 
boundaries of Canaan and of the tribes, 
Num. 34:3, 12; Deut.3:i7; 4:49; Josh. 15:2, 
5; 18:19; 2 Kin. 14:25. Ezekiel, 47:8-10, 
forcibly illustrates the healing and renova- 
ting power of divine grace by the symbol 
of a change wrought on the bitter and life- 
less waters of this sea by the stream issu- 
ing from the temple of God through the 
brook Kidron, ver. 1-7. On the other hand, 
the parched and arid region on its shores, 
given over to perpetual burning heat and 
salt barrenness, is a monument and warn- 
ing of God's just indignation and ven- 
geance towards unrepentant sinners, Deut. 
29:23; Matt. 10:15; 11:23, 2 4: 2 Pet - 2: 4"9i 
Jude 7. 

A leader among the modern explorers, 



SEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEA 



whose careful investigations have dissipa- 
ted the exaggerated and superstitious views 
formerly held in regard to the Dead Sea, 
was Lieut. Lynch of the U. S. Navy, who 
in 1848 passed down the Jordan from the 
Lake of Tiberias with 2 metallic boats, and 
spent 3 weeks in a survey of the Dead Sea. 
He has been followed by other investiga- 
tors, American, English, and French. The 



idea that this lake at some former historic 
period discharged into the Gulf of Akaba 
is now generally abandoned, since it has 
been ascertained that about 46 miles north 
of that gulf the Arabah is now crossed by a 
watershed 787 feet above the ocean level, 
the wadies north of it draining into the 
Dead Sea, and those to the south into the 
Gulf of Akaba. 




SEA OF GALILEE, FROM THE NORTHWEST COAST, WITH MAGDALA AND TIBERIAS. 



IV. Sea of Galilee or Tiberias, Matt. 
4: 18; John 6:1, so called from the province 
of Galilee or the city of Tiberias on its 
western bank. Its more ancient name was 
" the Sea of Chinnereth " or " Chinneroth," 
Num. 34:11; Josh. 12:3, probably from a 
town or district on its border, Josh. 19:35; 
1 Kin. 15:20; it was also called "the Lake 
of Gennesaret," Luke 5:1, from the fertile 
plain on its northwest shore, Matt. 14:34. 
See Gennesaret. It is sometimes re- 
ferred to as " the sea," Isa. 9:1; Matt. 4:13, 
15; 17:27. Its present name is bahr Tu- 
bariyeh. It is about 35 miles south of 
Mount Hermon, 27 east of the Mediterra- 
nean, and 64 in a straight line north of the 
Dead Sea. It is 13 miles long, from 4 to 7 
miles wide, and about 160 feet deep. The 
level of the lake varies at different seasons, 
its average depression below the surface of 
the Mediterranean being about 682 feet. It 
is shaped much like a pear, with the broad 
end towards the north. The steep hills 
which inclose it on both sides are of lime- 
stone, basalt, and volcanic rock, and are 



from 500 to 1,700 feet high. In most places 
they closely approach the water, leaving 
only a narrow pebbly beach ; on the north- 
west their recession forms the plain of Gen- 
nesaret, and east of the Jordan inlet is the 
marshy plain el-Butihah. The basin of the 
lake is by some held to be of volcanic ori- 
gin. Several hot springs are found on the 
shores, and the region is often visited by 
earthquakes. The depression occasions 
an extreme heat, and the semi-tropical 
vegetation which beautifies the shores in 
the spring is soon parched. The Jordan 
enters the lake on the northeast, coloring 
the waters for a mile, and flows out at the 
southwest, its passage being marked by a 
strong current. The water of the lake is 
clear and sparkling and good for drinking, 
though it has a slightly salt taste. Various 
kinds of excellent fish, including several 
tropical species, abound, and are some- 
times seen in large shoals, Luke 5:6. The 
lake is still liable to sudden tempests, such 
as were encountered by Christ and his dis- 
ciples, Matt. 14:22-33; Mark 4:35-41. In 

521 



SEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEA 



the time of our Lord 9 considerable towns, 
of which the chief were Bethsaida, Caper- 
naum, Chorazin, Tiberias, and Magdala, 
studded its sho-es, and contained a numer- 
ous and busy population; many vessels 
enlivened the lake ; and Josephus says 
that the plain of Gennesaret was a marvel 
of cultivated fruitfulness and beauty. Of 
these towns only Tiberias and Magdala, 
now Tubariyeh and Mejdel, survive, the 
sites of the others being either indistin- 
guishable or masses of ruins; comp. Matt. 
11 : 20-24; on tne l a ke are only 3 or 4 poor 
fishing -boats; the surrounding hills are 
usually ^ bare and desolate, and the plain 
el-Ghuweir, though producing excellent 
figs, olives, wheat, etc., is much neglected 
and abounds in thorns. But the sea re- 
mains, hallowed by many scenes described 
in the Gospels. The Saviour of mankind 
often looked upon its quiet beauty and 
crossed it in his journeys; he stilled its 
waves by a word, and hallowed its shores 
by his miracles and teachings. Here sev- 
eral of the apostles were called to become 
"fishers of men;" in its w r aters Peter sank 
trembling and crying, "Lord, save me;" 
and here occurred one of Christ's inter- 
views with his disciples after his resurrec- 
tion, Matt. 4 : 18-22; 13 : 1-36; 14 : 13-36; 
Mark 5; John 21. 

Before the destruction of Jerusalem Ves- 
pasian and Titus were victorious over the 
Jews in a naval battle fought on the lake 
after ] the taking of Tarichaea by the Ro- 
mans. 

How pleasant to me thy deep blue wave, 

O Sea of Galilee, 
For the glorious One who came to save 

Hath often stood by thee. 

O Saviour, gone to God's right hand, 

Yet the same Saviour still, 
Graved on thy heart is this lovely strand 

And every fragrant hill. m'cheyne. 

V. Sea of Jazer, Jer. 48:32. See Jaa- 
zer. 

VI. The Heb. yam, like the Arabic bahr, 
is also applied to great rivers, as the Nile, 
Isa. 19:5; Amos 8:8, A. V. "flood;" Nah. 
3:8; and the Euphrates, Isa. 21:1; Jer. 

51:36. 

VII. The brazen or molten sea, made 
by Solomon for the temple, about B. C. 
1005, was a large laver supported by 12 
metal oxen, in the southeast quarter of the 
court of the priests, 1 Kin. 7:23-26, 39, 44, 
46; 2 Chr. 4:2-5, 9, 10. It was made from 
the copper or bronze taken by David from 
conquered cities, 1 Chr. 18:8. See Brass 

522 



and Laver. It was 7% feet in height, 15 
feet in diameter, 45 feet in circumference, 
and contained 16,000 gallons, or according 
to 2 Chr. 4:5, 24,000 gallons ; the latter per- 
haps including 1,000 baths contained by 
the foot or basin, with 2,000 contained in 
the cup or bowl. It is said to have been 




supplied with water at first by the labor of 
the Gibeonites, and afterwards by a con- 
duit from the pools of Solomon near Beth- 
lehem. The water was for the ablutions of 
the priests, 2 Chr. 4:6; compare Exod. 
30:18-21. This vessel was mutilated by 
king Ahaz about B. C. 739, 2 Kin. 16:17, 
and finally, after lasting more than 400 
years, was broken in pieces and carried to 
Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar's army, B. C. 
588, 2 Kin. 25:13, 16. 




SEAL, SEALING. From a very early 
period seals or signets have been common 
in the East as an article for ornament and 
use, furnishing a convenient substitute for 
writing the name. They were made of 
gold, silver, bronze, common or precious 
stones — which were sometimes set in met- 
al — and also of burned clay or pottery. 
Small ones were set in finger-rings ; larger 
ones were of various shapes, often a cylin- 
der 2 or 3 inches long, used as a roller, and 
suspended on the breast, Song 8:6, or worn 



SEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEA 



on the wrist, as it now is by many Arabs, 
Gen. 38:18, 25. The Heb. hotham, signet 
or ring, was also a proper name, 1 Chr. 
7:32; 11:44. The art of engraving seals is 
very ancient, Exod. 28:11, etc. The signet 
bore the owner's name and title, or some 
chosen device, and was frequently en- 
graved on several sides, and if set, turned 
on a swivel, as did the cylinders. Among 
the Babylonians the seal, almost universal- 
ly worn by the men depicted, was usually 
of a religious character, and many Egyp- 
tian signet-rings bear the names and ima- 
ges of their gods. Still extant are the rings 
of Thothmes III. and Amenophis III., kings 
of the 18th dynasty (before B. C. 1400); the 
engraved cylinder-seal of Ilgi, a Chaldaean 
king at Ur, about 2,000 B. C. ; one of green 
feldspar found in the ruins of Sennache- 
rib's palace at Koyunjik, and believed to 
have been his royal seal; and another of 
the Persian king Darius Hystaspis. Pri- 
vate and public documents were authenti- 
cated by the impress of the signet— some- 
times smeared with a thick ink and stamped 
on the document; sometimes, as among 
the Chaldaeans and Assyrians, stamped on 
fresh clay, which was then baked, the clay 
having in many cases been affixed to cords 
secured around the documents, and being 
preferable to wax in hot climates. See So. 
The impress of the royal seal gave to any 
document the force of law or decree, 1 Kin. 
21 :8; and permanent or temporary invest- 
ment with authority as the king's agent was 
confirmed by the transfer of the royal seal, 
Gen. 41:42; Esth. 3:10, 12; 8:2, 8, 10; com- 
pare Tobit 1:22. A sealed lump of clay 
secured the strings around boxes, bags, 
and book-rolls, Isa. 8:16; Rev. 5:1 ; a sim- 
ilar mode of guarding doors and other 
openings was in use, Song 4:12; Dan. 
6:17; Matt. 27:66; Rev. 20:3, R. V. Trav- 
ellers in the East in modern times have 
met the same custom. The use of clay in 
sealing is referred to in Job 38:14. The 
signet, often beautiful and costly, was 
highly prized and guarded by its owner, 
Song 8:6; Jer. 22:24; Hag. 2:23. Seals 
were affixed to deeds attesting the transfer 
of property, the Hebrew custom apparent- 
ly requiring the seal of the purchaser, as 
an evidence of his claim, and the executing 
of 2 documents, one closely sealed and the 
other open, Jer. 32:8-15, 44. Such clay 
tablets, from 1 to 5 inches in length, found 
among exhumed remains assigned to the 
first Chaldaean monarchy, before B. C. 1300, 
have been ascertained to be deeds and 



contracts. They are closely inscribed on 
both sides with cuneiform characters, ex- 
cept where a cylinder seal has been rolled 
across the document, leaving its impress; 
after which they were baked and then en- 
veloped in a thin covering of moist clay, 
on which was inscribed the title of the in- 
ner document, and the whole was then 
baked afresh. Discovery was recently 
made in Babylonia of records of a rich 
banking firm, extending from Nebuchad- 
nezzar's reign to that of Darius Hystaspis, 
and including deeds kept in large jars. 
Agreements and covenants were sealed by 
both contracting parties, Neh. 9:38; 10:1. 
Among the Greeks and Romans the signet 
was usually set in a ring, 1 Mace. 6:15, and 
impressed on clay or wax. 

Figuratively, sealing signifies authenti- 
cation or attestation, Dan. 9:24; John 3:33; 
6:27 ; Rom. 4:11; 1 Cor. 9:2 ; 2 Tim. 2: 19; 
security, Deut. 32:34; Job 14: 17; Song 4: 12; 
Ezek. 28:12; Rom. 15:28; and secrecy, Isa. 
29:11 ; Dan. 12:4, 9. What a man seals he 
claims as his own, to be securely guarded; 
so God is said to seal his servants, Rev. 
7:2,3; 14:1; comp. Ezek. 9:4, 6. He seals . 
believers by communicating to them his 
Spirit, and thus securing and attesting 
them as the children of God, 2 Cor. 1:22; 
Eph. 1:13, 14; 4:30. 

SEA'SONS. See Canaan. 

SEAT, MO'SES', Matt. 23:2, the authority 
of that lawgiver, shared by the scribes and 
Pharisees so far as they taught in harmony 
with him. 

SEATS. Wealthy Egyptians and Assyr- 
ians had chairs and stools of elegant work- 
manship, as no doubt wealthy Hebrews 
had, 1 Kin. 2:19; 10:5; 2 Kin. 4:10. See 
Stool. Different degrees of rank and 
dignity were anciently, as now, in the East 
indicated by the style and position of the 
seat, Esth. 1:14; 3:1; Job 29 : 7 ; Matt. 23 : 5. 
See Throne. Low stools, on which peo- 
ple sat with their feet on the ground, were 
used, as Assyrian sculptures show, by the 
mass of that people. A luxurious couch 
was a favorite article of furniture with the 
Persians, who reclined even at meals, Esth. 
1:6; 7:8. In earlier times the Hebrews, 
like the Egyptians, sat at meals, Gen. 43 : 33 ; 
1 Sam. 20:5, 18, 25. Later they reclined 
at table on couches, Ezek. 23:41; Amos 
6:4; Matt. 9:10, R. V. margin. See Eat- 
ing. Sitting or lying on the ground was a 
sign of mourning, 2 Sam. 12:16; 13:31 ; Job 
2:8, 13; Isa. 3:26; 47:1,8; Lam. 2:10; Ezek. 
26:16; Luke 10:13. In modern Oriental 

523 



SEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEE 



houses the inmates sit, with legs bent un- 
der and crossed in a half-kneeling posture, 
upon mats or carpets spread upon the floor. 
In the houses of the rich are cushions and 
low divans, stuffed with cotton, on which 
people sit in the same manner. Probably 
similar customs prevailed in ancient times, 
Mark 3 : 19, 20, 32, 34 ; Luke 10 : 39 ; Jas. 2 : 3. 
In the East anciently, as now, not only 
teachers and scholars or hearers sat, Matt. 
26:55; Luke 2:46; 5:17; Acts 22:3, but 
councillors, Acts 6:15, and judges, John 
19:13; Acts 23:3; 25:6, tax-gatherers, Matt. 
9:9, merchants and exchangers, Matt. 21:12; 
John 2:14, and beggars, Matt. 20:30. Dr. 
Wm. M. Thomson says, " In Palestine peo- 
ple sit at all kinds of work," and specifies 
carpenters, washerwomen, and shopkeep- 
ers; and Canon H. B. Tristram saw ma- 
sons, paviors, and reapers sitting as they 
wrought. 

In Rev. 4:4 the same Greek word is 
used, translated in the A. V. " seats " and 
"thrones;" in R. V. "thrones;" compare 
2 Tim. 2:12. So in Rev. 2:13; 16:10, the 
R. V. has " Satan's throne," and " throne of 
the beast." 

SE'BA. See Sabeans. 

SE'BAT or SHE'BAT, Zech. 1:7, the 5th 
month of the Hebrew civil year, and the 
nth of the ecclesiastical year — from the 
new moon of February to that of March. 
See Month. The)'- began in this month to 
number the years of the trees they plant- 
ed, the fruits of which were esteemed im- 
pure till the 4th year. 

SECA'CAH, Enclosure, one of the 6 cities 
of Judah in "the wilderness " towards the 
Dead Sea, Josh. 15:61. Perhaps at Bir- 
Sukairiyeh, 6 miles southeast of Tekoa and 
10 east by north from Hebron. 

SE'CHU, watch-place, a place near Ra- 
mah, possessing a large cistern, 1 Sam. 
19:22. Conder proposes Kh. Suweikeh, 7 
miles north by west from Jerusalem, as its 
site. 

SECOND CHILD, Eccles. 4:15, 2d to the 
king. 

SE'CRET. See Mvstery. 

SECT, from a Latin word answering to 
the Greek word hcereszs, which latter our 
translators have in some places rendered 
"sect," in others "heresy." As used in 
the New Testament, it implies neither ap- 
probation nor censure of the persons to 
whom it is applied, or of their opinions, 
Acts 5:17; 15:5. Among the Jews there 
were 5 sects, distinguished by their practi- 
ces and opinions, yet united in comraun- 
524 



ion with each other and with the body of 
their nation : namely, the Pharisees, the 
Sadducees, the Essenes, the Herodians, 
and the Zealots. Christianity was origi- 
nally considered as a new sect of Judaism ; 
hence Tertullus, accusing Paul before Fe- 
lix, says that he was chief of the seditious 
sect of the Nazarenes, Acts 24:5; and the 
Jews of Rome said to the apostle when he 
arrived in this city, " As concerning this 
sect, we know that everywhere it is spoken 
against," Acts 28:22. See Heresy. 

SECUN'DUS, fortunate, a disciple of 
Thessalonica, who accompanied Paul in 
his last journey to Jerusalem, Acts 20:4. 

SECURE' without care, free from anxiety,, 
rather than safe, Judg. 8:11; 18:7, 10, 27; 
Prov. 3:29. In Matt. 28:14, R. V., "rid 
you of care." 

SEDI'TION, Luke 23:19, 25, A. V., "in- 
surrection," as in Mark 15:7. In Gal. 5:20 
a different Greek word is used, meaning 
" divisions," as in the R. V. and Rom. 
16: 17. 

SEDUCE', Mark 13:22; 1 John 2:26, to 
"lead astray," as in the R. V. "Sedu- 
cers," 2 Tim. 3:13, means "impostors." as 
in the R. V. 

SEE. By a Hebrew idiom this term is 
often used to express perception gained 
otherwise than by the eyes, Exod. 20:18,. 
and is sometimes equivalent to " enjoy," 
Job 7:7; Psa. 27:13. To "see the king's 
face," 2 Kin. 25:19, margin; Esth. 1:14; 
Jer. 52:25, margin, implies a special privi- 
lege of approach to the king as a favored 
or chief courtier. The Persian court cere- 
monial was especially rigid. Comp. Matt. 
18:10; 1 Cor. 13:12; Rev. 22 : 4. See Face. 

SEED, Gen. 1:11; often used figurative- 
ly, Gen. 3:15; 4:25; 22:17, 18; Jer. 31:37; 
Gal. 3:16; 1 Pet. 1:23; 1 John 3:9. The 
Mosaic law forbade sowing a field with 
"mingled seed," i. e., two or more kinds 
of seed, Lev. 19:19. The " precious seed " 
is often committed to the ground with 
many fears; but the harvest, at least in 
spiritual things, shall be a season of joy, 
Psa. 126:5, 6. 

SEER, the A. V. translation of 2 Hebrew 
words denoting persons supernaturally en- 
lightened to see things which God only can 
reveal; applied to certain Hebrew proph- 
ets, 1 Sam. 9:9; 2 Chr. 29:30; 33:18, 19; 
Isa. 29:10; 30:10. Compare Num. 24:3,4. 
See Prophet. In 2 Chr. 33:19 the R. V. 
reads " Hosai," as a proper name, instead 
of translating it "seers." 

SEETHE, Exod. 16:23; 2 Kin. 4:38, A. V., 



SEG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEL 



to boil or stew. A "seething pot," Job 
41:20; Jer. 1:13, was "a pot blown," i. e., 
with a fanned fire under it — a kettle with 
contents violently boiling; compare Isa. 
54:16. 

SE'GUB, raised. I. A Judahite, son of 
Hezron, 1 Chr. 2:21, 22. 

II. Youngest son of Hiel, the rebuilder 
of Jericho in Ahab's time, B. C. 918-896, 
1 Kin. 16:34. 

SE'IR, hairy, shaggy, a chief of the Hor- 
ites, who early occupied the mountainous 
region afterwards possessed by the Edom- 
ites, Gen. 36:20; comp. Gen. 14:6; Deut. 
2:12. 

SE'IR, I., MOUNT SE'IR, Gen. 14:6, or 
LAND OF SE'IR, Gen. 32:3; 36:30, the 
mountainous region lying between the 
Dead Sea on the north and the eastern 
gulf of the Red Sea on the south, and be- 
tween the Arabah valley on the west and 
the elevated Arabian desert on the east, 



Deut. 2 : 1-8. The rugged appearance of 
the tract as viewed from the mountain 
generally recognized as Mount Hor, the 
central and highest peak, 4,800 feet high, 
justifies its name. See Idum^ea. The 
northern part of Mount Seir is now called 
el-Jebal, the Arabic for Gebal, mountain, 
Gebala having been one of the ancient 
names of the region. South of Petra the 
range is called esh-Sherah, apparently a 
corruption of Seir. 

II. Mount Seir in Josh. 15: 10 was a land- 
mark on the northern boundary of Judah, 
between Kirjath-jearim and Beth-shemesh. 
Probably the ridge on which is a village 
called Saris, 2 miles southwest of Khub- 
bet el-Enab. 

SEI'RATH, Judg. 3:26, Ehud's place of 
refuge after killing Eglon ; apparently on 
the southern verge of " Mount Ephraim," 
ver. 27, and possibly the same as " Mount 
Seir," II. 




VIEW OF PART OF THE MAIN VALLEY OF PETRA. 



SE'LA or SE'LAH, rock, a city of the 
Edpmites taken by Amaziah, king of Ju- 
dah, about B. C. 826, and by him named 
Joktheel, subdued by God, 2 Kin. 14:7. 
About a century later it is mentioned by 
its old name and as if belonging to the Mo- 
abites, Isa. 16:1; compare Isa. 15. It may 
be denoted in other passages by the word 
sela, translated " rock " in the A. V., as in 
Judg. 1 : 36 ; 2 Chr. 25 : 12 ; Isa. 42 : 1 1 ; Obad. 



3, but their references are more or less 
uncertain. Under the Greek name Petra, 
also meaning rock, the city is mentioned 
by heathen Greek and Roman writers, and 
by Josephus, Eusebius, and Jerome. At 
the close of the 4th century B. C. it was the 
capital of the Nabathaeans, who succeeded 
the Edomites in Edom proper or Mount 
Seir, and who at Petra successfully resist- 
ed the attacks of Antigonus, one of Alexan- 

525 



SEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEL 



der's successors, B. C. 310. The city be- 
came an important station of trade between 
the East and Rome, and many Romans 
settled there. About B. C. 70 it is men- 
tioned as the capital of Arabia Petraea and 
the residence of its line of kings called 
Aretas. The 1st wife of Herod Antipas 
was a daughter of one of these kings, and 
was divorced by him to make room for 
Herodias, Luke 3:19. Petra was subject- 
ed to Rome by Trajan about A. D. 105. 
Christianity was early planted here, and Pe- 
tra furnished members for several church 
councils. In a few centuries, however, the 
commerce and power of the city declined, 
and it is not mentioned in history after 
A. D. 536. Burckhardt, in 1812, was the 
1st traveller who visited and described it. 
Subsequent travellers, especially Laborde 
in a work published in 1830, have given 
minute and graphic descriptions of this 
wonderful city, with drawings of the prin- 
cipal ruins which attest its ancient splen- 
dor. 

Petra is situated midway between the 
Dead Sea and the Gulf of Akaba, and 
about no miles from Jerusalem. It lies in 
an elevated valley of Jebel esh-Sherah (see 
Seir, Mount), called by the Arabs wady 
Mousa, from a tradition connecting the ori- 
gin of the gorge and the supply of water 
here with Moses. Mount Hor, the sup- 
posed scene of Aaron's death, rises above 
Petra on the west. The valley is 2,200 feet 
above the Arabah, and is about % of a 
mile long from north to south, and from 
250 to 500 )^ards wide, with numerous short 
ravines in its sides. It is inclosed by pre- 
cipitous cliffs of variegated sandstone, those 
on the west being steepest and highest. It 
is accessible through ravines at the north 
and south, but the main passage is from 
the east, through es-Sik, the cleft, and be- 
gins between cliffs 40 feet high and 50 
yards apart, which soon become higher, 
nearer, and full of excavated tombs. Por- 
tions of the ancient pavement of the road 
in this gorge still remain. Es-Sik is about 
a mile and a half long. A small brook, 
bordered with oleanders, flows through it, 
crosses the city, and passes off at the west 
through a continuation of es-Sik. Near 
the entrance to Petra its sides are but 12 
feet apart and 250 feet high. Hewn out of 
the cliff facing this narrow and lofty gate- 
way is the most beautiful structure of Pe- 
tra, a temple or mausoleum, called by the 
Arabs el-Khaznet Fir'aun, the Treasury of 
Pharaoh; the facade, 85 feet high, is adorn- 
526 



ed with pillars and rich sculptures, for the 
most part in excellent preservation. The 
principal chamber is 12 yards square and 




GORGE IN PETRA, WITH A PART OF EL-KHAZNET. 

25 feet high ; its walls and those of 3 side- 
chambers are plain. From here the Sik 
widens towards the northwest; in a recess 
on the left, about 200 yards from the Khaz- 
net, is a magnificent theatre, also cutout of 
the rock ; it has 2>Z tiers of seats, is 39 yards 
in diameter, and would accommodate 3,000 
or 4,000 spectators. About 100 yards far- 
ther north the great valley of the main city 
opens. It is strewn with ruins of temples 



SEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEL 




THE ROCK-TEMPLE EL- 

and other public buildings, including a 
church, and bridges. The large inclosure 
on the western side, called Kasr Fir'aun, 
Pharaoh's Castle, is the only structure with 
walls still standing of those not excavated 
from the mountain. East of it rises a tri- 
umphal arch. Another remarkable monu- 
ment, called ed-Deir, the Convent, is reach- 
ed by a steep, narrow, and tortuous ravine 
running from the northwestern angle of the 
valley. It is hewn out of the solid rock ; 
its front is 152 feet in length and height, 
and within are naked walls of rock, with 
a single niche. The tombs excavated in 
the cliffs inclosing the valley and its side 
gorges are numberless, rising range above 
range, and are in many cases highly orna- 
mented. Many are reached by steps cut 
in the rock, while others are inaccessible, 
at a height of some 400 feet. The style of 
the various monuments shows a mixture 
of Greek and Roman with Oriental and 
sometimes Egyptian taste. The beauty of 
the stone from which they are wrought 
gives to the whole scene a singular charm, 
enhanced by the stern surroundings of the 
city. The rock is a fine and soft sand- 



KHAZNET, IN PETRA. 

stone, variegated with red, purple, black, 
white, azure, and yellow, the deepest crim- 
son and the softest pink, while high above 
the cliffs rise in their native rudeness and 
majesty. Though the extant ruins belong 
to the Nabathaean and Roman period, none 
the less does the present desolation of Sela 
show the fulfilment of prophetic denuncia- 
tions against its former Edomite inhabi- 
tants, Isa. 34:5-15; Jer. 49:7-22; Ezek. 35; 
Joel 3:19; Amos 1:11, 12; Obad. 3-16. See 
Hor and Idum^ea. 

Sela, translated "rock" in Num. 20:8-11; 
Judg. 1:36, Rowlands, Trumbull, and oth- 
ers identify with a bold cliff at 'Ain Kadeis, 
Kadesh-barnea, from the base of which a 
copious stream of pure and sweet water 
still flows, as when struck by the rod of 
Moses, supplying several wells and pools 
and forming an oasis in the desert. 

SE'LAH a musical term which occurs 71 
times in the Psalms, and is found also in 
Hab. 3:3, 9,. 13. It usually occurs at the 
end of a period or strophe, but sometimes 
at the end only of a clause. This difficult 
word, it is now generally believed, was a 
direction for a meditative pause in the 

527 



SEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEN 



singing of a psalm, during which perhaps 
there was an instrumental interlude. 

SELEU'CIA, a fortified city of Syria, on 
the Mediterranean, 5 miles north of the 
mouth of the Orontes and 16 miles west of 
Antioch, whose seaport it was. Paul and 
Barnabas embarked here on their 1st mis- 
sionary tour, Acts 13:4, and probably land- 
ed here on their return, Acts 14:26. The 
chief part of the city lay on the slope of 
Mount Coryphaeus, the southern extrem- 
ity of Mount Pierius, a branch of Mount 
Amanus, and was called Seleucia Pieria, 
and sometimes Seleucia by the sea, to dis- 
tinguish it from several other cities named 
from its founder Seleucus Nicator, one of 
the successors of Alexander the Great. 
Seleucus died B. C. 280, and was buried 
here. The city was taken by Ptolemy 
Euergetes B. C. 246, but was recovered 70 
years later by Antiochus Epiphanes. It 
retained its importance under the Romans, 
and was a free city in Paul's time. Seleu- 
cia had a good harbor, with an outer port, 
and an inner basin covering over 47 acres. 
The harbor is now choked with sand and 
mud; but its masonry is well preserved, 
and includes 2 ancient piers called Paul 
and Barnabas. A part of the city wall re- 
mains, with a gateway at its southeastern 
angle, through which Paul may have passed. 
The ruins, now Selukeyeh, are desolate, 
but a small village called Kalusi is near 
the ancient city. 

SELEU'CUS, the name of 6 of the Greek 
kings of Syria, from the death of Alexan- 
der the Great until Syria was made a Ro- 
man province, B. C. 65. Seleucus I., called 
Nicator, conqueror, reigned B. C. 312-280, 
founded Antioch and other cities, and was 
the most powerful of the Seleucidae. He 
was succeeded by his son Antiochus (I.) 
Soter, B. C. 280-261. The dynasty is in- 
cluded among the "4 horns" of the "he- 
goat," Dan. 8:8, 22, and several of the kings 
are denoted by the " king of the north," as 
opposed to the " king of the south," i. e., 
Egypt, in ch. 11. Verse 6 refers to the 3d 
Seleucid king Antiochus (II.) Theos, B. C. 
261-246 ; ver. 7-9 to his son and successor 
Seleucus (II.) Callinicus, B. C. 246-226; 
ver. 10 to his 2 sons, Seleucus (III.) Cerau- 
nus, B. C. 226-223, and Antiochus (III.) the 
Great, B. C. 223-187, whose course verses 
11-19 predict; from his reign dates the 
subjection of the Jews to the Seleucidae. 
Verse 20 refers to Seleucus (IV.) Philopa- 
tor, B. C. 187-175, styled " king of Asia " in 
*. Mace, ^-.t,, and " raiser of taxes " in Dan. 
528 



11:20. He was succeeded by his younger 
brother, Antiochus (IV.) Epiphanes, B. C. 
175-164, who terribly oppressed the Jews, 
as Daniel predicted, 11:21-30. The re- 
maining Seleucidae had somewhat short 
and troubled reigns. In the time of Simon 
Maccabaeus, B. C. 143, the Jews acquired a 
degree of independence for a time, and 
more completely under his son John Hyr- 
canus. 

The Seleucidic Era dated from the vic- 
tory of Seleucus I. over Antigonus, in Bab- 
ylonia, B. C. 312. This era was long domi- 
nant in Central and Western Asia. The 
Jews were forced to adopt it, for civil con- 
tracts, etc., after they passed from under 
the dominion of the Greek kings of Egypt 
to that of Antiochus the Great and his suc- 
cessors, B. C. 200 ; and continued to use it 
till the final close of their schools on the 
Euphrates, A. D. 1040, since when they 
have dated from the creation. 

SEM, Luke 3:36, A. V., Greek form of 
Shem. 

SEM'EI, Luke 3:26, or Sem'ein, R. V., 
one mentioned in the genealogy of Christ ; 
possibly Shemaiah, 1 Chr. 3:22. 

SENA'AH, thorny, a place whose inhab- 
itants returned with Zerubbabel, B. C. 536, 
Ezra. 2:35; Neh. 7:38; and according to 
Neh. 3:3, where the Hebrew article is pre- 
fixed (has-Senaah), built the fish-gate, B. C. 
445. It is traced in Magdal-Senna, men- 
tioned by Eusebius and Jerome, now Kh. 
el 'Aujah, 7 miles north of Jericho. 

SEN' ATE, Acts 5:21, probably the body 
of elders, constituting one of the 3 elements 
of the Sanhedrin, the other 2 being the 
chief priests and the scribes. See Sanhe- 
drin. 

SE'NEH, thorn- bush, apparently the 
southernmost of the 2 " sharp rocks " be- 
tween Geba (A. V. Gibeah) on the south 
and Michmash on the north, 1 Sam. 14:4, 5. 
Between Jeba and Mukhmas, which are 
about a mile apart, is the deep valley wady 
Suweinit, crossed by " the passage of Mich- 
mash," 1 Sam. 13:23; Isa. 10:28, 29. The 
rocks may denote its steep sides, or per- 
haps the hillocks which obstruct its bed. 

SE'NIR. See Shenir. 

SENNACH'ERIB or SENNACHE'RIB, on 
the monuments Sin-akhi-erba, Sin (the 
moon-god) increases brothers, king of As- 
syria, son and successor of Sargon, B. C. 
705-681. The Scripture references to him 
are remarkably confirmed and supplement- 
ed by contemporary inscriptions on cylin- 
ders, sculptured bulls, and slabs of stone 



SEN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEN 



exhumed from the long -buried ruins of 
Nineveh. In the 2d year of his reign he 
quelled a revolt in Babylon, where Mero- 
dach-baladan, dethroned a few years be- 
fore by Sargon, had reestablished himself 
as king. Appointing an Assyrian viceroy 
in Babylon, Sennacherib waged a success- 
ful war against the Aramaean tribes on the 
Tigris and Euphrates, the inhabitants of 
the Zagros mountains east of Assyria, and 
in a hitherto independent portion of Media. 
In B. C. 701 he led a campaign against the 
Phoenician and Philistine cities and Judah, 
all of which had been tributary to Assyria 
and had revolted. Compare 2 Kin. 16:7-9; 
18:7. He subdued Phoenicia and Philistia, 
defeating an Egyptian army sent to the re- 
lief of Ekron, and turned his arms against 
Hezekiah, who had encouraged the rebel- 
lion of the Ekronites. Sennacherib attacked 
the fortified cities of Judah, 2 Kin. 18:13; 
2 Chr. 32:1, of which he claims to have 
captured 46, with their suburban fortress- 
es and villages and their spoil ; he also 
claims to have taken captive over 200,000 
Judahites, and to have prepared to besiege 
Jerusalem by building towers around it 
and earth-mounds opposite its gates. If 
these records are correct, Isaiah may refer 
to this desolation and captivity of Judah in 
ch. 24: 1-12 ; and in ch. 22 : 1-13 to this siege 
of Jerusalem, for whose defence Hezekiah 
prepared by strengthening the walls and 
diverting the outer water-courses, 2 Chr. 
32:2-8. He sent ambassadors to Sennach- 
erib at Lachish with a message of sub- 
mission, and paid a tribute of 30 talents 
of gold and 300 talents of silver, 2 Kin. 
18:14. The amount of gold is the same in 
the Assyrian inscription, but the silver is 
there stated at 800 talents — the additional 
amount being perhaps afterwards extorted 
by Sennacherib on finding Hezekiah's re- 
sources equal to it, ver. 15. The Assyrian 
record adds that many of Hezekiah's cities 
were given to the kings of Ashdod, Aske- 
lon, Ekron, and Gaza. In B. C. 700 anoth- 
er revolt in Babylonia was quelled by Sen- 
nacherib, who made his eldest son viceroy. 
It is believed that Hezekiah " after this," 
2 Chr. 32:9, again revolted from Assyria, 
engaging the help of Egypt, as the Bible 
narrative implies, Isa. 30:1-7; 31:1; 36:6; 
that Sennacherib again invaded Judah, 
and there sustained that tremendous re- 
verse of which naturally his own monu- 
ments say nothing, but which seems to be 
referred to in an Egyptian story. A year 
or two may have intervened between these 

34 



2 invasions. From Lachish Sennacherib 
despatched ambassadors and troops to Je- 
rusalem to demand with insults Hezekiah's 
unconditional surrender, 2 Kin. 18:17-37; 
from Libnah also he sent a letter defying 
Jehovah, 2 Kin. 19:8-13. Hezekiah spread 
the threats and blasphemies of Sennache- 
rib before the Lord, and received through 
Isaiah assurances of divine protection — 
which were speedily fulfilled, and 185,000 
Assyrians were miraculously slain "that 
night," ver. 1-7, 14-35; Isa - 3 I: 4~9; 37 :2 9> 
33-36. This may have occurred at Libnah 
or at some point nearer Egypt, towards 
which Sennacherib may have marched to 
meet the Ethiopian army, 2 Kin. 19:9. An 
Egyptian story, reported by Herodotus, 
relates that Sennacherib was opposed at 
Pelusium by an inferior force under an 
Egyptian king named Sethos, who invoked 
the help of his gods, and that in the night 
field-mice nibbled the bowstrings of the 
Assyrians, who the next morning fled. 
Sennacherib returned to Nineveh, ver. 36, 
and appears to have thenceforth left Pales- 
tine and Egypt unmolested. He prosecu- 
ted successful wars in Armenia and Media 
and against the Babylonians again in re- 
volt, and their allies the Susianians, whom 
he assailed by way of the Persian Gulf 
with a Phoenician naval force. In the last 
8 years of his reign Babylon seems to have 
been independent, but submitted to his suc- 
cessor Esar-haddon. Sennacherib, while 
worshipping in a temple, was murdered 
by 2 of his sons, about B. C. 681, 2 Kin. 
19:37; compare ver. 7. He was succeeded 
by his younger and favorite son. 

Isaiah's portraiture of the pride of Sen- 
nacherib, who still was but an instrument 
of God, Isa. 10:12-27, is verified by the 
boastful tone of his inscriptions : he calls 
himself " the subduer of kings from the 
upper sea of the setting sun to the lower 
sea of the rising sun," i. e., from the Med- 
iterranean to the Persian Gulf. He was a 
great builder also. At Nineveh, which he 
made his capital, he built a magnificent 
palace over 8 acres in area, and containing 
more than 60 ground-floor apartments, in- 
cluding a hall 180 feet long and 40 feet 
wide. Planks of foreign timber, including 
cedars of Lebanon, Isa. 37:24, were em- 
ployed for ceilings, spanning the width of 
the rooms. This palace, much of which 
has been explored since its first unearth- 
ment by Layard in 1847, occupies the south- 
west corner of the mound of Koyunjik op- 
oosite Mosul. The huge alabaster tablets 

529 



SEN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEP 



wainscoting the rooms to the height of 10 
or 12 feet, were covered with bas-reliefs 
and cuneiform inscriptions; and though 




large portions of these have perished by 
violence and time, the remaining slabs and 
fragments are full of interest. Hunting 
530 



and building scenes are represented, the 
king often appearing as a spectator. His 
military exploits are portrayed, including 
his war against Phoenicia and Judah. A 
series of well-preserved bas-reliefs repre- 
sents the siege and capture of a large and 
strong city; part of it is already taken, 
while elsewhere the battle is fiercely ra- 
ging. Captives are seen flayed, impaled, 
and put to the sword. From one of the 
gates a long procession of prisoners is 
brought before the king, who is seated on 
his throne outside of the city. Two eunuchs 
stand behind him holding fans and nap- 
kins. The prisoners are presented by the 
vizier, accompanied by military officers. 
The inscription is thus translated : " Sen- 
nacherib the mighty king, king of the 
country of Assyria, sitting on the throne 
of judgment at the gate of the city Lachisa ; 
I give permission for its slaughter." The 
captives are partially stripped and have 
the appearance of Hebrews. Sennacherib 
also restored an ancient palace at Nineveh, 
partially exhumed in the mound of Neby 
Yunus, improved the city fortifications, 
embanked the Tigris channel, constructed 
aqueducts, and built a temple to Nergal. 

Little did Sennacherib anticipate the 
utter ruin of his own proud metropolis, 
and still less that the ruins of his palace 
should preserve to this remote age the tab- 
lets containing his own history, and the 
image of his god Nisroch so incapable of 
defending him, to bear witness for the God 
whom he blasphemed and defied. See 
■ Nineveh, Nisroch, Sargon, and So. 

SEN'TENCE, Acts 15:19, in the R. V. 
"judgment.*" 

SE'PHAR, "a mountain of the East," a 
boundary of the Joktanites, Gen. 10:30; 
generally identified with the ancient sea- 
port Dhafari or Zafar, on the Indian Ocean, 
east of the midway point of the southern 
coast of Arabia. A mountain near the 
town was celebrated for its frankincense. 
The district of Isfor is now occupied by a 
series of villages with adjacent ruins. See 
Mesha. 

SEPHA'RAD, Obad. 20, a place from 
which captive Jews were to return to Ju- 
dah. Jewish authorities interpret it as 
Spain, and the Spanish Jews have long 
been named Sephardim, in distinction 
from the other chief section of the race, 
the Ashkenazim or German Jews. It is a 
question, however, whether any Jews had 
been transported to Spain at the date of 
Obadiah's prophecy; and some regard 



SEP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEP 



Sepharad as identical with Sippara; see 
Sepharvaim; others with Sardis in Lydia; 
compare Joel 3 : 6. 

SEPHARVA'IM, a place whence colonists 
were transported to Samaria as substitutes 
for the captive Israelites, after B. C. 721, 
2 Kin. 17 : 24. It is identified with Sip- 
para, situated on both sides of the Euphra- 
tes (hence its dual Hebrew name), about 
20 miles north of Babylon. Sennacherib 
mentions Sepharvaim as a city subdued 
by the Assyrians before his time, 2 Kin. 
19:11-13, no doubt by Sargon and Tiglath- 
pileser II. Sippara was a chief seat of the 
worship of the sun, and appears in various 
inscriptions as Tsipar-sha-Shamas, Sippara 
of the sun, with the goddess Anunit wife 
of the sun — the 2 deities being probably 
intended by the " Adrammelech and Anam- 
melech " cruelly adored by the Sepharvites, 
2 Kin. 17:31. The Chaldaean account of 
the Deluge says that Xisuthros (Noah) 
buried the antediluvian records at Sippa- 
ra, and that his posterity recovered them 
thence. The modern town Mosaib is near 
the ancient site. 

SEP'TUAGINT, seventy, the oldest Greek 
version of the Old Testament. Its name, 
often represented by the Roman numerals 
LXX., is generally derived from the tradi- 
tion that the translators were 70 or 72 in 
number. According to Josephus, 6 elders 
fiom each tribe were sent to Alexandria 
with a copy of the Law requested by Ptol- 
emy Philadelphus, and translated it in 72 
days. The accounts of the origin of the 
translation vary in some points, but agree 
in stating that it was made at Alexandria, 
begun under the early Ptolemies, about B. 
C. 285, and that the Pentateuch was transla- 
ted first. The whole of the Old Testament 
seems to have been complete in Greek in 
the time of Ptolemy (VII.) Physcon, about 
B. C. 130. See Alexandria. Internal 
evidence suggests that it was made by 
different persons at different times from 
Egyptian Hebrew MSS., and by Alexan- 
drian Jews more or less imperfectly versed 
in Hebrew. The books of Moses are the 
best translated. The version is faithful in 
substance as a whole, but contains many 
errors. Its chronology differs materially 
from that of the Hebrew text, adding, for 
example, 606 years between the creation 
and the deluge. The version is of great 
value in the interpretation of the Old Tes- 
tament, and in some passages is believed 
to represent the older and more accurate 
Hebrew text than that of existing Hebrew 



MSS. It is frequently quoted by the New 
Testament writers, whose Greek is found- 
ed on that of the Septuagint. It was highly 
esteemed by the Jews at the coming of 
Christ; according to Philo a festival was 
held yearly at Alexandria to celebrate its 
completion. By its diffusion wherever 
Greek-speaking Jews were settled it pre- 
pared the minds of surrounding heathen 
inquirers for the gospel ; and when finally 
Christ was preached it made easy for 
Greeks and -Hellenistic Jews the verifica- 
tion of his claims by comparison of them 
with the LXX. Old Testament prophecies, 
Acts 17:11. See Quotations. It was 
translated into Latin by the close of the 
2d century, and later into Egyptian dia- 
lects, Ethiopic, and other languages. So 
constantly was it quoted by Christian teach- 
ers and writers that the Jews, pressed in 
controversy by references to it, began to 
deny its faithfulness to the Hebrew, and 
in the 2d century adopted in its stead a 
more literal Greek version by Aquila, a 
Jewish proselyte of Pontus. The LXX. is 
still the recognized authority in the Greek 
Church. The Apocryphal books were grad- 
ually and early added to the Septuagint. 
See Apocrypha. The oldest known MSS. 
of the Septuagint are 3, supposed to have 
been written in the 4th century, and now 
in St. Petersburg, London, and Rome. No 
Hebrew Old Testament MS. of an earlier 
date than the 10th century is known to 
exist. 




TOMBS HEWN IN THE ROCK, PETRA. 

SEP'ULCHRE, a burial-place or tomb. 
The 1st mentioned in the Bible, that of 
Abraham, was a cave in the field of Mach- 
pelah near Hebron, Gen. 23. See He- 

531 



SEP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEP 



BROX. ' Family sepulchres were common 
ar.d prized among the Hebrews, Gen. 
49:29-32; 50:13; Judg. 8:32; 16:31; 2 Sam. 
2:32; 21 : 14 ; corap. 2 Sam. 19:37 and 1 Kin. 
13:22. They had also public burial-places, 
2 Kin. 23:6; Jer. 26:23; Matt. 27:7. Their 
tombs were sometimes underground, Gen. 
35:8; 1 Sam. 31:13; Ezek. 39:15; Luke 
11:44; but were often in the side of a hill, 
2 Kin. 23:16. Natural caverns abound in 
the hills of Palestine, and were often used 
as tombs, being enlarged and otherwise 



adapted, Gen. 50: 



Sepulchres were 



also excavated in the solid rock at great 
expense, Isa. 22:16; Matt. 27:57-60; comp. 
Isa. 53:9. Richly adorned tombs of this 
kind are numerous in Petra. See cuts and 
S:-:la. Burial caves are found along the 
bases of hills in all parts of Syria: as on 
the south side of Hermon, the west side of 
Olivet, the hillside west of Nain, in the 
gorge of Barada. and in the sea-cliffs north 




OTHER TOMBS, ETC., IN PETRA. 

of Acre. Burial-grounds were usually out- 
side of city limits, as is now the case in 
Syria, Mark 5:1-5; Luke 7:11-14; and it 
appears to be noted as exceptional that the 
kings of Judah were buried in Jerusalem, 
on Mount Zion, 1 Kin. 2:10; 11:43; 15:24; 
2 Kin. 9:28; 2 Chr. 16:14; 32:33; 35:24; 
Neh. 3:16; comp. Acts 2:29. The good 
high-priest Jehoiada shared this royal hon- 
or, 2 Chr. 24:16, from which some of the 
kings were debarred, 2 Chr. 21 : 6-20 ; 26 : 23 ; 
28:27. The prophet Samuel was interred 
in "his house at Ramah," 1 Sam. 25:1, 
perhaps in the garden; comp. 2 Kin. 21:18 
532 



with 2 Chr. 33:20, or in a sepulchral house, 
Job 30:23; Eccles. 12:5. See also Josh. 
24:30; 1 Kin. 2:34. The kings of Israel 




TOMB OF ABSALOM," ROCK TOMBS, AND GRAVES 
IN THE KIDRON VALLEY. 

were buried in Samaria after they estab- 
lished their capital there, 1 Kin. 16:28; 
22:37. Sepulchral inscriptions seem to 
have been rare among the Hebrews, but 
burial-places were sometimes honored by 
"pillars," Gen. 35:20, or marked for dis- 
honor by heaps of stones, Josh. 7 : 26 : 8 : 29 ; 
2 Sam. 18 : 17. The Hebrew word translated 
" title " in 2 Kin. 23 : 17, R. V. " monument," 



sign 



Ezek. 39:1, 



Contact with 



sepulchres produced defilement according 
to the Mosaic law, Num. 19:16; comp. Isa. 
65:4. In the time of Christ it was the cus- 
tom of the Jews every spring to whitewash 
the outside of sepulchres as a guard against 
defilement, and Christ compares the hypo- 
critical Pharisees to such tombs, Matt. 23 : 27, 
28; also to "tombs which appear not," as 
not suggesting to their admiring observers 
any idea of their inward defilement, Luke 
11:44. l1: was thought an act of piety by 
the Pharisees to preserve and adorn the 
tombs of the prophets; yet they were as 
far as their fathers the prophet-killers had 
been from honoring the real principles of 
God's servants, as they showed by oppo- 
sing and killing the divine Prophet and his 
disciples, Matt. 23:29-36; Luke 11:47-51. 
In the East as elsewhere superstitious ven- 
eration for the tombs and bones of men 
reputed as saints is still combined with 
habitual violation of many of the laws of 
God. 

The Mishna, about A. D. 200. describes 
a Jewish rock tomb as consisting of a fore- 
court large enough to accommodate a bier, 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEP 



bearers, etc., and opening, through an en- 
trance closed by a large stone that could 
be rolled away, Matt. 27 : 59-66 ; Mark 15 : 46 ; 
16 : 1-8 ; Lu. 24 : 1-1 2 ; John 1 1 : 38-44 ; 19 : 38- 
42, into a chamber 3 yards square or more, 
whose 3 other sides contained recesses, 
each for one corpse. Sometimes the court 
gave entrance on different sides to several 
such chambers. The recesses were cut into 
the rock horizontally 6 feet or more, and 
were about 2 feet wide and 3 feet high ; the 
corpse was placed in one of these uncof- 
fined, with the feet outward, and the en- 
trance was closed by a stone. Sometimes 
there were 2 or 3 tiers of recesses, with a 
ledge in front on which the closing stone 



rested. Hebrew tombs of earlier times 
may have been simpler, as were those of 
the poor at all times, and did not always 
prevent bodies from touching each other, 
2 Kin. 13:21. After the introduction of 
Greek and Roman customs, shallow or 
shelf recesses were also used, parallel with 
the side of the chamber, not at right angles 
with it ; such are found in some of the sep- 
ulchres about Jerusalem, and of this sort 
apparently was Christ's tomb, in which one 
angel sat at the head and another at the 
foot of the recess, John 20 : 12. 

The most noted tombs of Palestine are 
the cave of Machpelah under the mosque 
at Hebron; the tomb of Joseph near She- 




chem, Josh. 24:32; the traditional tomb of 
David and his dynasty on Mount Zion, 
outside of the city wall and under a build- 
ing once a Christian church and now a 
mosque ; the traditional sepulchre of Christ 
under the " Church of the Holy Sepulchre," 
within Jerusalem ; the so-called " tombs of 
the kings," about % a mile north of Jeru- 
salem ; " of the judges," about a mile north 
of the city; and " of the prophets," on the 
west slope of the Mount of Olives. The 
last seems to be a specimen of a purely Jew- 
ish sepulchre — originally a natural cavern, 
having only the deep recesses, and no ar- 
chitectural mouldings such as indicate the 



late origin of many of the torcfbs around 
Jerusalem. The "tombs of the judges" 
has 3 chambers, with about 60 deep re- 
cesses arranged in 3 tiers. The extensive 
and costly sepulchre called "the tombs of 
the kings" is supposed by many to be the 
work of Helena, queen of Adiabene, a little 
kingdom east of the Tigris ; she was a 
proselyte to Judaism and a benefactress of 
the poor at Jerusalem in the famine pre- 
dicted by Agabus, Acts 11:28. The tomb 
is approached through a low arched door- 
way, closed by a cumbrous rolling stone, 
which admits into an open court excavated 
out of the rock, and 92 feet long by 87 feet 

533 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEP 




TOMBS OF THE PROPHETS," ON OLIVET. 



wide. On the west of this is a vestibule 39 
feet wide, with a richly-sculptured frieze. 
On the south side of the vestibule is the 
descent to the sepulchre, which consists of 
an entrance-hall about 20 feet square, with 
3 square chambers opening from it, 2 of 
them below its level and approached by 



steps ; one of these lower rooms gives en- 
trance on the north to a 4th chamber. In 
the sides of the chambers are many deep- 
recesses for the reception of the dead. The 
innermost chamber formerly contained 2 
richlv -ornamented stone sarcophagi. The 
tombs on the southern slope of the valley 








. 




,;: h - 


HRl 


5? 











of Hinnom, wady er-Rababi, in the early 
ages of the Christian church served as her- 
mitages, and were later used as dwellings 
for the poor and as shelter for flocks. 
534 



PLAN OF THE " TOMBS OF THE KINGS." 

Some bear Greek inscriptions of Christian 
origin. 

A more probable site for the sepulchre 
of Christ than that of the church in Jerusa- 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SER 



lem has been suggested by Capt. Conder : 
it is a tomb lately discovered outside of the 
walls of Jerusalem, near a locality which, 
according to a tradition current among 
Spanish Jews at Jerusalem, was the ancient 
place of execution, and which agrees with 
the description of the " house of stoning " 
given by Jewish writers of the 2d century. 
The tomb is of the shallow-recess form 
described above, John 19:17-20,41; 20:12. 

The Egyptians excavated large sepul- 
chres in the sides of the mountains that 
skirt the Nile valley, Exod. 14:11. The 
pyramids were erected as tombs for their 
kings. See Embalming. 

In the Chaldaean lowland, sepulchres, 
Gen. 11:28, as appears from excavations 
in the vast and crowded burial mounds 
around the sites of ancient cities, e. g., at 
Mugheir and Warka (probably Ur and 
Erech), were sometimes arched brick 
vaults large enough to hold several bodies 
deposited uncoffined; or the corpse was 
laid on a brick pavement and inclosed with 
a rounded cover of baked clay 7 feet long, 
2 or 3 feet high and broad ; or was placed 
in 2 great clay jars, which were then bitu- 
mened together at the mouths. Articles of 
personal property, for use and ornament, 
were buried with the dead in Egypt and 
Chaldaea. 

The Greeks commonly burned their dead 
and deposited the bones and ashes in urns 
to be buried in the public burying-places 
outside the cities. Among the Romans, 
who at first interred the dead, the practice 
of burning them, adopted from the Greeks, 
became general towards the end of the re- 
public. Burial was outside of the cities. 

SE'RAH, abundance ; a daughter of Ash- 
er, thrice named among those who migra- 
ted to Egypt, Gen. 46:17; Num. 26:46; 
1 Chr. 7:30. Why she was thus distin- 
guished is unknown, but the rabbis have 
many fables respecting her. The A. V. 
has Sarah in Numbers. 

SERA'IAH, warrior of Jehovah, I., a Ju- 
dahite, 1 Chr. 4:13, 14; comp. Josh. 15:17. 

II. A scribe of David, 2 Sam. 8:17; called 
also Sheva, 2 Sam. 20:25; Shisha, 1 Kin. 
4:3; Shavsha, 1 Chr. 18:16. 

III. A Simeonite, 1 Chr. 4:35; compare 
ver. 38-41. 

IV. One of the men charged by Jehoia- 
kim to take Jeremiah and Baruch, about 
B. C. 606, Jer. 36:26. 

V. A brother of Jeremiah's secretary Ba- 
ruch, Jer. 51 : 59-64 ; comp. Jer. 32 : 12. He 
went to Babylon on some embassy from 



king Zedekiah, B. C. 595; Jer. 51:59, mar- 
gin, and was commissioned by Jeremiah 
to perform there an act symbolical of the 
destruction of the city. He is called " a 
quiet prince " in the A. V., in the margin 
"chief of menucha" which is translated 
"resting-place" in Num. 10:33; he may 
have directed the caravan and its halts on 
its way to Babylon. 

VI. The high-priest at the capture of 
Jerusalem by the Chaldaeans, B. C. 58S; 
put to death by Nebuchadnezzar at Rib- 
lah, 2 Kin. 25:18-21; 1 Chr. 6:14; Jer. 
52 : 24-27 ; an ancestor of Ezra, Ezra 7:1. 

VII. One of the Jewish military leaders 
who accepted Gedaliah as governor, 2 Kin. 
25:23; Jer. 40:8. 

VIII. A priest who returned with Zerub- 
babel, B. C. 536, Ezra 2:2; Neh. 12:1, 12; 
called Azariah in Neh. 7:7. 

IX. A priest who sealed the covenant in 
the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, B. C. 445 ; 
perhaps the same mentioned as " ruler of 
the house of God," Neh. 11: 11. 

SER'APHIM, burning ones, beings be- 
held by Isaiah in his vision of God en- 
throned in the temple, Isa. 6:1-7. Their 
form is represented as human, with the 
addition of 6 wings, 2 pairs of which cov- 
ering the face and the feet indicate the 
deepest humility and reverence, the other 
pair being used promptly to execute the 
will of God. The seraphim surround his 
throne and responsively praise him. The 
prophet being overwhelmed with a sense 
of personal and national guilt, a seraph 
ministers to him from the altar, the ap- 
pointed provision for atonement, Heb. 1 : 14. 
The seraphim appear to be distinct from 
the cherubim in Ezekiel's vision, Ezek. 
1:5-25; 10; though the latter, in Ezek. 
1 : 13, 14, have the burning appearance 
supposed to be denoted by the word sera- 
phim; comp. Heb. 1:7. Gesenius derives 
the word, not from the Heb. sarafih, "to 
burn," but from the root of an Arabic word 
meaning "high, exalted." 

SER'GEANTS, Acts 16:35, ^, properly 
Roman lictors, public servants who bore 
bundles of rods, sometimes with an axe in 
the centre, before the magistrates of cities 
and colonies as insignia of their office, and 
who executed the sentences which their 
masters pronounced. 

SER'GIUS PAU'LUS, the Roman ruler of 
Cyprus, converted under Paul's ministry, 
Acts 13:6-12, A. D. 45; called "deputy" in 
the A. V. ; "proconsul" in the R. V. He 
was a man of intelligence and candor. 

535 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



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Cyprus, at first an imperial province after 
the assignment made by Augustus, B. C. 
27, and governed by a propraetor, was left 
by the emperor under the senate, and 
thereafter governed by a "proconsul." 
Luke's use of the proper Greek title is an 
instance of his minute accuracy. Coins of 
Cyprus struck in the time of the emperor 
Claudius, A. D. 41-54, give the same title 
to the governor of Cyprus. 

SER'MON ON THE MOUNT, the com- 
mon name of the longest reported dis- 
course of Jesus, Matt. 5-7. In Luke 6:20- 
49 there is probably a briefer report of the 
same, the variations being only what might 
well be expected from 2 different narra- 
tors. It was delivered near Capernaum 
early in the 2d year of Christ's public min- 
istry, probably A. D. 28, and as Matthew 
states on a mountain, as Luke says on a 
plain ; Christ no doubt having come down 
from the higher and more retired region 
to which he had withdrawn for prayer and 
the choice of the 12 apostles, to the verge 
of the mount where was "a level place," 
Luke 6:17, R. V., capable of accommoda- 
ting a large number of hearers — his disci- 
ples and the multitude. In it our Lord 
illustrates in many ways the divine and 
spiritual nature of true religion, having its 
throne in the heart and effectually control- 
ling the life, in contrast with a merely in- 
herited, ceremonial, or outwardly moral 
religion. 




THE COBRA DI CAPELLO. 

SER'PENTS. These reptiles, unclean by 
the Mosaic law, Lev. 11 : 10, 41, 42, are most 
numerous and venomous in tropical cli- 
mates. They are divided into 2 great class- 
es : the first including those which have on 
each side of the upper jaw a movable tu- 
bular poison-fang connected with a poison- 
sac at its root, and constituting nearly one- 
fifth of the species known to naturalists. 
536 



The remaining species, though destitute of 
these movable fangs, contain several kinds 
which are venomous. Venomous serpents 
abounded and still abound in North Africa, 
Arabia, and Syria, and are often referred 
to in the Bible; but the various terms em- 
ployed are not always so definite that we 
can apply them with certainty to existing 
species. See Adder, Asp, Cockatrice, 
Viper. The most frequent Hebrew term 
for the serpent is nachash, probably de- 
rived from its hissing. Allusion is made 
to the serpent's subtilty, Gen. 3:1; its in- 
sidious attack, Gen. 49:17; its fierceness 
and venom, Psa. 58:4; Prov. 23:32; its 
lurking in hedges and walls, Eccles. 10:8; 
Amos 5:19; its forked tongue, Psa. 140:3; 
its mode of progression, Prov. 30: 19 — aided 
by its scales, and its numerous ribs, at- 
tached only to the spinal vertebras ; and to 
the oviparous nature of most of the spe- 
cies, Isa. 59:5. A serpent-form was em- 
ployed by Satan to tempt Eve, Gen. 3: 1-13 ; 
hence, as well as for his crafty malignity, 
he is called "the serpent" and the "old 
serpent," 2 Cor. 11:3; Rev. 12:9, 14, 15, 
over whom Christ is to be completely vic- 
torious, Gen. 3:15; Rev. 20:1-3, 7 _I °; com- 
pare Rom. 16:20. It is not probable that 
the form and movement of the serpent were 
ever otherwise than they are at present; 
but after its agency in the fall thej^ were 
appointed a sign of the debasement and 
defilement of sin and of God's condemna- 
tion of it, Gen. 3:14. See Rainbow. The 
serpent symbolizes wickedness, Matt. 23 : 33. 
Among most heathen nations it has been 
an emblem of evil, probably from a tradi- 
tion of the fall. The Assyrian tablets of 
creation connect the agency of a serpent 
with the first sin of man. Zoroastrianism 
taught that the evil spirit Ahriman spoiled 
the beautiful region first prepared by the 
good spirit Ormuzd by sending into it a 
venomous serpent, and also that Ahriman 
under the guise of a serpent first taught 
man to sin. Yet the serpent was wor- 
shipped in Egypt and was regarded as the 
emblem of a beneficent power among the 
Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans. On 
Egyptian monuments the cobra occurs as 
the emblem of immortality and of the be- 
neficent god Kneph; and thus the first 
miracle performed before Pharaoh by Mo- 
ses and Aaron had a direct bearing on the 
idolatry of Egypt, Exod. 7:8-12; compare 
4:1-5, 17, 20, 28-30. Serpent-charming has 
from time immemorial been practised in 
the East, and is alluded to in the Bible. 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



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The serpent usually employed by the Egyp- 
tian charmers is the Egyptian cobra, or 
haj'e, a snake from 3 to 6 feet long, similar 
to the Naja tripudians, dancing naja, or 
cobra di capello, of India, with which the 
Hindoo jugglers perform their feats. Both 
these serpents when excited expand sev- 
eral pairs of anterior ribs and innate the 
fore part of the body so that it somewhat 
resembles a hood. The modern Egyptian 
charmers are said to be able to render the 
haje perfectly rigid by a peculiar pressure 
upon its neck, so that it can be held out 
horizontally like a rod; and this has been 
suggested as a possible explanation of the 
operations of Pharaoh's magicians. It is 
more probable, however, that the power of 
God worked with them to a certain ex- 
tent for the furtherance of his own pur- 
pose and glory; comp. Exod. 7:22; 8:7, 
18; 1 Sam. 28:11-14. The cerastes or 
horned viper is also charmed in Egypt. 
Serpents have no external ear-opening, and 
appear to take pleasure in shrill sounds;, 
hence the charmers whistle, or play on a 
pipe or flute, and sing a sort of incantation, 
and attract uncaught serpents from their 
concealment and capture them. The ser- 
pents on exhibition sway back and forth 
to the music, and allow themselves to be 
freely handled by the charmer, even while 
in full possession of fangs and poison-bags 
and using them immediately'afterwards on 
other animals. Eusebius, A. D. 270-340, 
speaks of serpent-charmers as abounding 
in Palestine and using a vocal charm, Psa. 
58:4, 5; Eccles. 10:11; Jer. 8:17; Jas. ^:j. 
See Charmer. 

The " fiery serpents " by which many of 
the rebellious Israelites were bitten and 
killed in the desert on the north of Sinai, 
Num. 21:4-6; Deut. 8:15, may have been 
so called from the agonizing heat caused 
by their bite. In our own day death has 
been known to follow the bite of a venom- 
ous serpent in 2 or 3 minutes. The "ser- 
pent of brass," Num. 21:7-9, had no heal- 
ing virtue in itself, but was a test of the 
penitence, faith, and obedience of the peo- 
ple. The true healer was God, Isa. 45:22. 
The apocryphal book of Wisdom, about 
B. C. 100, ch. 16:6, 7, says of this "sign of 
salvation," " He that turned himself to- 
wards it was not saved by the thing that he 
saw, but by Thee, that art the Saviour of 
all." Christ himself shows that the brazen 
serpent was a type of him — the believing 
view of whom is instant salvation to the 
soul infected by the fatal poison of sin, John 



3:14, 15; comp. Rom. 8:352 Cor. 5:21; Gal. 
3:13. The brazen serpent, having become 
an object of idolatrous worship, was de- 
stroyed by Hezekiah, 2 Kin. 18:4. See 
Nehushtan. 

Isaiah, 30:6, mentions the "fiery flying 
serpent " as a denizen of Egypt, or of the 
desert between Judah and Egypt; in ch. 
14:29 he applies the same term figuratively 
to some oppressor of the Philistines, possi- 
bly Hezekiah, 2 Kin. 18:8; comp. 2 Chr. 
26:1, 6, 7; or Sennacherib. (See.) The 
designation may refer to the burning effect 
of a serpent's bite and to the rapidity of its 
dart. In Egypt a serpent was a common 
symbol of a powerful king. Some power 
oppressive to the people of God is symbol- 
ized in Isa. 27: 1. 

The " crooked "' or rather "fleeing " ser- 
pent of Job 26: 13 is believed to be the con- 
stellation called " the Dragon " in both an- 
cient and modern times, passing between 
the " Great Bear" and the " Little Bear." 

The sagacity shown by serpents in avoid- 
ing danger is alluded to by Christ in warn- 
ing his disciples not to provoke unneces- 
sary persecution, Matt. 10:16; comp. ver. 
23; Acts 8:1. Immunity from harm by 
serpents was promised by Christ to his 
first disciples, Mark 16:18; Luke 10:19, 
and experienced by Paul, Acts 28:3-6; 
comp. Psa. 91:13. In the early Christian 
church the serpent symbolized Christ's vic- 
tory over the devil, the virtue of prudence 
or wisdom, and also the cross of Christ 
himself, John 3:14. 

SE'RUG, branch, a descendant of Shem 
and an ancestor of Abraham, Gen. 11:20- 
26 ; Luke 3 : 35, R. V. Jewish tradition says 
he was the 1st of his line that fell into idol- 
atry, Josh. 24:2. 

SER'VANT. This word is the A. V. ren- 
dering of several Hebrew and Greek words, 
most frequently of the Heb. ebed, from a 
verb signifying to work, and of the Greek 
doulos, from a verb meaning to bind. 
Both words might in a great number of 
cases be rendered " bond- servant " or 
"slave," denoting one in a state of invol- 
untary servitude to another, Gen. 41:12; 
comp. 39:1; Exod. 12:44; 1 Cor. 7:21, 22. 
This was the condition of the Israelites in 
Egypt, Exod. 1:13, 14; 20:2; Deut. 5:15. 
Sometimes the word denotes one who vol- 
untarily dedicates himself to another's ser- ' 
vice: thus Joshua was the "servant" of 
Moses, Exod. 33: 11, the Hebrew word here 
used being also translated "minister," 
Exod. 24:13. The servants of Pharaoh, of 

537 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



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Saul, and of David were their subjects in 
general, and their court officers and coun- 
sellors in particular. The Syrians and 
other nations were servants of David, that 
is, they obeyed him and paid him tribute, 
2 Sam. 8. The servants of God are those 
who are devoted to his service and obey 
his holy word. Israel is called the ser- 
vant of God, Lev. 25:42, 55; Isa. 41:8; and 
the term is applied preeminently to the 
Messiah, Isa. 52:13; Acts 4:27, 30, R. V.; 
Comp. Phil. 2:7. One appointed by God 
to perform any special work is called his 
servant, as Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 25 : 9. The 
apostles were in a peculiar manner the 
servants of Jesus Christ, Rom. 1:1, a title 
given also to all Christians, 1 Cor. 7 : 22. By 
nature man habitually obeys the prompt- 
ings of his own evil heart and the sugges- 
tions of the tempter, and so is " the bond- 
servant of sin;" from this bondage Christ 
delivers those who receive him as their 
Saviour and King, John 8:31-47; Rom. 
6:16-23. 

The households of some of the early 
patriarchs contained many servants, who 
were apparently treated with kindness and 
justice ; the highest trusts were sometimes 
confided to them, and they might inherit 
their master's estate, Gen. 14:11-16; 15:2- 
4; 24:1-10; Job 31 : 13-18. They shared the 
religious privileges of the household, Gen. 
17:9-13, 27; 18:19, and probably were not 
transferred to other masters. 

At the establishment of the Hebrew com- 
monwealth involuntary servitude was ev- 
erywhere prevalent ; and so far as it exist- 
ed among the Hebrews Moses sought to 
bring it under the restrictions demanded 
by religion and humanity. The mildest 
form of bond-service was that of a Hebrew 
in the house of another Hebrew. He might 
become bound to this service in various 
ways, chiefly through poverty, Exod. 21:2- 
11 ; Lev. 25:39-47; to acquit himself of a 
debt he could not otherwise pay, 2 Kin. 
4:1 ; to make restitution for a theft, Exod. 
22:3; or to earn the price of his ransom 
from captivity among heathen. This form 
of service could not continue more than 6 
or 7 years ; unless, when the 7th year ar- 
rived, the servant chose to remain perma- 
nently or until the Jubilee with his master, 
in token of which he suffered his ear to be 
bored before witnesses. Exod. 21:2, 6; 
Lev. 25:40. The Hebrew servant was not 
to be made to serve with rigor, nor trans- 
ferred to any harder bondage ; he had an 
appeal to the tribunals, a right to all reli- 
538 



gious privileges, the power of demanding 
release on providing a pecuniary equiva- 
lent, and a donation from his master at his 
release, Lev. 25:47-55; Deut. 15:12-18. The 
law likewise provided for the deliverance 
of a Hebrew who was in bondage to a res- 
ident foreigner, Lev. 25:47-54. But that 
the Mosaic regulations in regard to the 
treatment of Hebrew servants were at times 
violated appears from Jer. 34:8-23; comp. 
2 Chr. 28:8-15. At the return of the Jews 
from the Captivity they possessed 7,337 
servants or slaves, Ezra 2:65, presumably 
non-Hebrews. The attempt to resume the 
holding of Hebrews as bond-servants was 
promptly disallowed by Nehemiah, ch. 
5:1-13. Large numbers of Hebrews were 
at different times enslaved as war-captives 
by the Philistines and Phoenicians, Joel 
3:1-6; Amos 1:6, by the kings of Egypt 
and Syria, and by the Romans. 

From the heathen around and among 
them, especially from their captive enemies 
and the remains of the Canaanites, the 
Hebrews obtained many servants. These 
were protected by law, Deut. 1 : 16, 17; 
27: 19, and might become proselytes, attend 
the festivals, enjoy religious instruction 
and privileges, Exod. 12:44; Deut. 12:18; 
29:10-13; 31:10-13. The servant who was 
mutilated by his master was to be set free, 
Exod. 21:26, 27; the refugee from foreign 
oppression was to be welcomed, Deut. 
23:15, 16; and kidnapping or man-stealing 
was forbidden on pain of death, Exod. 
21:16; Deut. 24:7; 1 Tim. 1:10. See Neth- 
inim and Solomon's servants. The 
holding of non-Hebrew slaves survived 
the return from Captivity, but was opposed 
by the Pharisees. 

Hired servants, sometimes Gentiles, were 
also employed by the Hebrews, Exod. 
12:45; Lev - 2 5 :6 ; Isa - 16:14; Mark 1:20. 

The Romans held in bondage captives 
taken in war, and purchased slaves. Their 
bondage was perpetual, and the master 
held unquestioned control of the person 
and life of his slaves. Yet large numbers 
were set free, and in many instances Ro- 
man freedmen rose to the highest honors. 
A favorite slave of a Roman centurion was 
healed by Christ, Luke 7:2-10. Many of 
the ^early Christians were slaves, 1 Cor. 
7:21 ; such was Onesimus the bond-servant 
of Philemon. (See.) 

The allusions of the Bible to involuntary 
servitude imply that it is an evil and unde- 
sirable condition of life; yet the bondman 
who cannot obtain his freedom is divinely 



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SEV 



exhorted to contentment, i Cor. 7 : 20-24. 
Meanwhile the Bible gives directions as 
to the mutual duties of masters and ser- 
vants, Eph. 6:5-9; Col. 3:22-4:1; Tit. 2:9, 
10; Phile. ; 1 Pet. 2:18; and proclaims the 
great truths of the common origin of all 
men, the immortality of every human soul, 
and its right to the Bible and to all neces- 
sary means of knowing and serving the 
Saviour — the application of which to all 
the relations of master and servant, supe- 
rior and inferior, employer and employed, 
would prevent all oppression, which God 
abhors, Deut. 24:14; Psa. 103:6; Isa. 10:1- 
3 ; Amos 4:1; Mai. 3:5; Jas. 5 : 4. The prin- 
ciples of the Bible have operated to the 
mitigation and gradual abolition of slavery 
in Christian countries. 

The term applied to Phoebe, Rom. 16:1, 
is the feminine of the Greek word which is 
also translated " deacon." See Deacon- 
ess and Phebe. 

SER'VITOR, 2 Kin. 4:43, a servant or 
attendant. 

SET ON, Acts 18 : 10, assault. " Set to his 
seal," John 3:33, " set his seal to this." 

SETH, appointed, called SHETH in 1 Chr. 
1 : 1, the 1st son of Adam after the death of 
Abel, Gen. 4:25, 26; 5:3, 6, 8, and ancestor 
of the line of godly patriarchs, who believed 
the promises and held fast the truth trans- 
mitted through them from Adam. 

SE'THUR, hidden, Num. 13:13, a prince 
from the tribe of Asher, one of the 12 sent 
by Moses to explore Canaan. 

SET'TLE, Ezek. 43:14, 17, 20; 45:19, a 
border or ledge around the altar. 

SEVEN. As from the beginning this 
was the number of days in the week, so it 
often has in Scripture a sort of emphasis 
attached to it, and is very generally used as 
a round or perfect number. Clean beasts 
were taken into the ark by sevens, Gen. 7. 
The years of plenty and famine in Egypt 
were marked by sevens, Gen. 41. Accord- 
ing to the Mosaic law not only was there a 
7th day Sabbath, but the 7th month was 
particularly distinguished, every 7th year 
was a sabbath, and after every 7 times 7 
years came a jubilee. The great feasts of 
unleavened bread and of tabernacles were 
observed for 7 days ; the number of ani- 
mals in many of the sacrifices was lim- 
ited to 7. The golden candlestick had 7 
branches. Seven priests with 7 trumpets 
went around the walls of Jericho 7 days, 
and 7 times on the 7th day. In the Apoc- 
alypse we find 7 churches mentioned, 7 
candlesticks, 7 spirits. 7 stars, 7 seals, 7 



trumpets, 7 thunders, 7 vials, 7 plagues, 
and 7 angels to pour them out. 

Seven is often put for any round or 
whole number, just as we use "ten" or "a 
dozen ;" so in Matt. 12:45; 1 Sam. 2:5; Job 
5:19; Prov. 26:16, 25: Isa. 4:1; Jer. 15:9. 
In like manner 7 times or 7-fold often 
means abundantly, completely, Gen. 4:15, 
24; Lev. 26:24; P sa - 12:6; 79:12; Matt. 
18:21. And 70 times 7 is a still higher su- 
perlative, Matt. 18:22. 

The regard given to the number 7 was 
not restricted to the Hebrews, but pre- 
vailed among the Persians, Esth. 1 : 10, 14, 
the ancient people of India, and the Greeks 
and Romans to a certain extent. 

With the exception of six, seven is the 
only numeral word which the Shemitic 
languages have in common with the Indo- 
European. The Hebrew " sheba," seven, 
is essentially the same as the term in 
Greek, Latin, Sanscrit, Persian, Gothic, 
English, etc. The notion of 7 is also em- 
bodied in the Hebrew word signifying to 
swear, literally to "do 7 times;" compare 
Gen. 21:29-31. See Sheba. The half of 
7, 3> 2 , is believed to represent incomplete- 
ness, and secondarily suffering and disas- 
ter ; it appears in the prophetic term ''a 
time, and times, and half a time," Rev. 
12:14; Dan. 7:25; 12:7, and other equiva- 
lent expressions, Rev. 11:3; 12:6; 13:5. 

SEVEN, THE, Acts 21:8. Comp. Acts 
6:1-6. 

SEVEN STARS, THE, Amos 5:8. See 
Pleiades. 

SEVENTY WEEKS, Dan. 9 : 24-27. 
Counting " each day for a year," Ezek. 4:6, 
this is a period of 490 years, the last period 
of probation for the Jewish nation. It has 
been estimated to begin with the " com- 
mand," Dan. 9:25, of Artaxerxes Longima- 
nus for the rebuilding of Jerusalem, pub- 
lished at Jerusalem in July, B. C. 457, by 
Ezra, ch. 7; and to end with the divinely- 
appointed formal commencement of the 
proclamation of the gospel to the Gentiles, 
as represented by Cornelius and his friends. 
Acts 10:1-11:18, whose conversion would 
be placed by this calculation in A. D. 32. 
The 70th "week" of years is estimated to 
begin with Christ's entrance upon his pub- 
lic ministry at his baptism in the fall of 
A. D. 25; for one "week," i. e., 7 years, he 
personally, and after his ascension through 
his apostles, "confirmed the covenant with 
many;" compare the notices of numerous 
conversions among the Jews prior to the 
martyrdom of Stephen and the mission of 

539 



SEV 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHA 



Peter to Cornelius, Acts 2:41, 47; 5:14-16; 
6:7. " In the midst of the week," i. e., after 
a ministry of 3^ years, Christ superseded 
the sacrifices of the Mosaic ritual, Dan. 
9:26, 27, fulfilling their typical import and 
efficacy and providing the reason for their 
actual termination, by his sacrifice of him- 
self on the cross in the spring of A. D. 29. 
The destruction of Jerusalem by the Ro- 
man prince Titus, A. D. 70, is predicted in 
ver. 26, 27; compare Matt. 24:15-22; Luke 
21 :20. 

SEVERAL, 2 Kin. 15:5; Matt. 25:15, sep- 
arate, individual, or isolated. 

SHAALAB'BIN, Josh. 19:42, or SHAAL'- 
BIM, Judg. 1 :35, place of foxes, a town as- 
signed to Dan, but held for a time by the 
Amorites, whom the tribe of Ephraim as- 
sisted in subduing. It was in one of Solo- 
mon's commissariat districts, 1 Kin. 4:9, is 
associated with Beth-shernesh and Ajalon, 
and is probably represented now by the 
village Selbit, 3 miles northwest of Yalo or 
Ajalon. 

SHAAL'BONITE, 2 Sam. 23:32; I Chr. 
11:33, a native of Shaalbon, a place un- 
known. 

SHAARA'IM, or in the A. V., Josh. 15:36, 
incorrectly SHARA'IM, two gateways, I., a 
town in the Shephelah or plain of Judah, 
1 Sam. 17:52. It may be represented by 
the ruin Kh. es-Siagh, 13 miles west of Je- 
rusalem, 2V2. east of Beth-shemesh. 

II. Shaaraim in the list of the cities of 
Simeon, 1 Chr. 4:31, is probably identical 
with Sharuhen, Josh. 19:6, and Shilhim, 
Josh. 15:32. 

SHAASH'GAZ, servant of the beautiful, 
Esth. 2:14, a chamberlain of Ahasuerus. 

SHAD'DAI, in the A. V. always rendered 
" Almighty," an ancient name of God, self- 
appropriated in his revelations to the He- 
brew patriarchs, and in use by them, Gen. 
17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 43:14, before the name 
Jehovah was revealed in its full signifi- 
cance, Exod. 6:3. In the book of Job it is 
often used by Job, Eliphaz, and Elihu, Job 
5:17; 6:4; 32:8, and once by God himself, 
Job 40:2. It was also used by the Mesopo- 
tamian Balaam, Num. 24:4, 16, and contin- 
ued in occasional use in Israel, as by Nao- 
mi, Ruth 1:20, 21; David, Psa. 68:14; see 
also Psa. 91 : 1 ; Isaiah, ch. 13:6; Ezekiel, 
ch. 1 : 24 ; 10 : 5 ; and Joel, ch. 1 : 15. One 
of the Greek equivalents used in the Septu- 
agint, Pantokrator, Almighty or All-ruler, 
is also employed in the New Testament as 
one of the titles of God, 2 Cor. 6:18; Rev. 
1:8; 4:8, etc. 
540 



SHAD'OW sometimes denotes intense 
darkness and gloom, Psa. 23:4, and some- 
times a cool retreat; Isa. 32:2, or perfect 
protection, Psa. 17:8; Isa. 49:2. The long 
shadows cast by the declining sun are allu- 
ded to in Job 7:2; Jer. 6:4. The swift, 
never-ceasing motion of a shadow is an 
emblem of human life, 1 Chr. 29:15; Psa. 
102:11. The term is sometimes used to 
express the relation of the types of the 
Mosaic economy to the realities of the 
Christian dispensation, Col. 2 : 17 ; Heb. 
8:5; 10:1. 

SHA'DRACH, royal one, the Chaldaean 
name given to Hananiah at Nebuchadnez- 
zar's court, B. C. 604, Dan. 1:7. See Abed- 
nego. Shadrach and his 2 companions in 
the furnace, ch. 3, are alluded to among the 
examples of faith, Heb. 11:34. During the 
persecution of the Jews under Antiochus 
Epiphanes, Mattathias, father of Judas Mac- 
cabseus, encouraged his sons by referring 
to their deliverance, 1 Mace. 2:59. 

SHA'KING, Ezek. 37:7, an earthquake. 

SHA'LEM, peace, Gen. 33:18. Most in- 
terpreters read here, "Jacob came in peace 
to the city of Shechem ;" comp. Gen. 28 : 21 ; 
33:19.; Josh. 24:32; John 4:5. If, however, 
Shalem is a proper name, the town may be 
identified with Salim, a village 3^ miles 
east of Nablus, or Shechem. The Samari- 
tan codex and apparently Josephus favor 
the former reading ; the LXX. and Vulgate 
the latter. 

SHA'LIM, rather SHA'ALIM, jackals, 
LAND OF, 1 Sam. 9:4, an undetermined 
locality in Ephraim; perhaps the "land of 
Shual," 1 Sam. 13:17, in the region of Oph- 
rah. 

SHAL'ISHA, LAND OF, I Sam. 9:4, a 
district adjoining Mount Ephraim. The city 
Baal-shalisha, 2 Kin. 4:42, is thought to be 
traced at Tulluza, 6 miles east of Samaria, 
and the land of Shalisha in the plain south 
of the town and east of Shechem. 

SHAL'LECHETH, cutting out, I Chr. 
26:16, a gate on the west of Solomon's 
temple, communicating with the viaduct 
from his palace, 1 Kin. 10:5. Grove would 
place it at the gate now called es-Silsileh, 
the main entrance to the Haram area, 600 
feet from its southwestern corner. 

SHAL'LUM, retribution, I., the murderer 
of Zachariah, king of Israel, and usurper 
of his throne, B. C. 772. He reigned only 
1 month, and was killed in Samaria by 
Menahem, 2 Kin. 15:10-15. See Zacha- 
riah. 

II. See Jehoahaz, II. 



SHA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHA 



III. The husband of Huldah the proph- 
etess in the time of Josiah, B. C. 623, 2 Kin. 
22:14. 

Others of this name are alluded to in 



1 Chr. 2:40; 7:13; 9:17, 19, 31; Ezra 2:42; 
7:2; 10:24, 42; Neh. 3:12; 7:45; but little 
is known of them. 

SHAL'MAN. See next page. 




SHALMANE'SER, fire-worshipper, the I connected with the history of the kingdom 
name of 4 Assyrian_kings, 2 of whom are I of Israel. 

541 



SHA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHA 



I. Shalmaneser I. appears from inscrip- 
tions on bricks found at Kaleh-Shergat, 
anciently Asshur, an old capital of Assyria, 
to have reigned about B. C. 1320-1300. 

II. Shalmaneser II. succeeded his father, 
Asshur-natsi-pal, a great warrior and con- 
queror, and reigned 35 years, B. C. S58-823. 
He personally conducted 23 campaigns, 
besides others led by a tartan or general. 
In S54 he defeated the united forces of Ben- 
hadad II. king of Syria, the king of Ha- 
math, Ahab king of Israel, and kings of the 
Hittites and Phoenicians. In 842 he gained 
a decisive victory over Ben-hadad's suc- 
cessor, Hazael, whose territory he overran 
and plundered. Tyre, Sidon, and Byblus, 
and Jehu king of Israel, intimidated by his 
successes, sent him tributes. A few years 
before his death his eldest son led a revolt 
against him, but was subdued by his 2d 
son, Shamas-rimmon II., who succeeded 
Shalmaneser. At Calah (Nimrud) Shal- 
maneser built a palace whose ruins were 
uncovered by Layard in 1S40, and are 
known as the "central palace;" much of 
its material had been removed for use in 
later buildings. Here was found a 4-sided 
black marble obelisk, about 7 feet high, in 
excellent preservation, and containing on 
each side 5 bas-reliefs and records in cu- 
neiform writing. The bas-reliefs in the 2d 
row represent Israelite envoys presenting 
tributes of gold and silver to the king, be- 
fore whom the chief ambassador humbly 
prostrates himself. (See the illustration on 
the preceding page.) The accompanying 
inscription relates that this tribute was sent 
by Jehu, "son," i. e., successor, " of Khum- 
ri," or Omri. The obelisk is now in the 
British Museum. It seems possible that 
the " Shalman " referred to by Hosea, 10: 14, 
as the destroyer of Beth-arbel, may have 
been Shalmaneser II., who during his west- 
ern campaigns may have invaded Israel. 

III. Shalmaneser III., B. C. 781-771, 
reigned during a period of decline in the 
Assyrian power. 

IV. Shalmaneser IV., B. C. 727-722, 
succeeded Tiglath-pileser II., who had 
strengthened and reorganized the Assyr- 
ian Empire, had attacked Israel under Pe- 
kah, and transported Israelite captives 
from both sides of the Jordan to Assyrian 
territories, 2 Kin. 15:29; 1 Chr. 5:26. It 
was probably soon after Shalmaneser's ac- 
cession that he reasserted Assyrian domin- 
ion over Israel by invading it and securing 
from Hoshea the payment of tribute, 2 Kin. 
17:3. On Hoshea's defection and alliance 

542 



with Egypt, Shalmaneser returned and im- 
prisoned him, ver. 4. Soon after he over- 
ran the whole kingdom and besieged Sa- 
maria, which withstood the Assyrian arms 
3 years, ver. 5, 6. Sargon claims its cap- 
ture in his 1st year, and it seems probable 
that he usurped the Assyrian throne dur- 
ing Shalmaneser's prolonged absence in 
these campaigns. Scripture does not name 
Shalmaneser as the taker of Samaria, ver. 
6; 18:10. See Sargox. According to 
Josephus, Shalmaneser subdued the Phoe- 
nician cities ; but insular Tyre revolted 
and for 5 years sustained a siege the issue 
of which is unknown. He died in 722 B. C. 

SHAL'MAN, Hos. 10:14, probably not to 
be identified with Shalmaneser IV., as is 
commonly thought, since Hosea's prophecy 
seems to have been delivered years before 
that monarch's invasions of Israel. Shal- 
man is by some interpreters regarded as 
an Assyrian king before Pul. See Shal- 
maneser, II. 

SHAM'BLES, i Cor. 10 : 25, a public meat- 
market. 

SHAME'FACEDNESS, I Tim. 2:9, in R. 
V. " shamefastness," a character fixed in 
blushing modesty. " Shameful spewing," 
Hab. 2:16, in the R. V. "ignominy." 

SHAM'GAR, cup-bearer, son of Anath. 
the 3d judge of Israel, after Ehud and 
shortly before Barak, in a time of great in- 
security and distress, Judg. 3:31 ; 5 :6. He 
defended Israel and killed 600 Philistines 
with an ox-goad. See Plough. 

SHAM'HUTH^ desolation, 1 Chr. 27:8; 
perhaps the same as Shammoth, i Chr. 
11:27. 

SHA'MIR, a sharp point, I., a city in the 
mountains of Judah; probably Kh. el-Emi- 
reh, 12 miles south of Hebron. 

II. A city in Mount Ephraim, residence 
and burial-place of Tola, a judge of Israel, 
Judg. 10:1, 2; probably at Bir ed-D6wa, in 
wacfy Samur, 10 miles southeast of She- 
chem. 

SHAM'MAH, desolation, I., one of the 3 
chief of David's 30 heroes, who shared with 
David and Eleazar the honor of the exploit 
recorded in 2 Sam. 23:11, 12; 1 Chr. 11:12- 
14. Another feat in which he took part is 
described in 2 Sam. 23:13-17- 

II. A brother of David, 1 Sam. 16:9; 
17 : 13 ; elsewhere called Shimeah and Shim- 
ma, 2 Sam. 13:3, 32; 1 Chr. 2:13; 20:7. 

Others of this name are mentioned, Gen. 
36:13, 17; 2 Sam. 23:25, 33; 1 Chr. 11:27; 
27:8. 

SHAMMOTH, 1 Chr. 11:27. perhaps 



SHA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHA 



Shamhuth, i Chr. 27 : 8, and Shammah, 
2 Sam. 23:25. 

SHAMMU'AH, renowned, one of the 4 
sons of David and Bath-sheba, 2 Sam. 5: 14; 
1 Ch. 14:4; called Shimea in 1 Chr. 3:5. 

Others of this name are mentioned in 
Num. 13:4; Neh. 11:17; 12:18. The 2d of 
these is called Shemaiah in 1 Chr. 9:16. 

SHA'PHAN, coney, the scribe or secre- 
tary of king Josiah, sent with the governor 
of the city and the recorder to the high- 
priest, from whom he received the newly- 
found roll of the law and read it to the 
king, 2 Kin. 22:12; 2 Chr. 34:15-23. He 
was the father of Gemariah, Jer. 36:10, 
and perhaps of Ahikam and Elasah, 2 Kin. 
22:12; Jer. 26:24; 29:3; grandfather of Mi- 
chaiah, Jer. 36:11, and perhaps of Gedaliah 
and Jaazaniah, 2 Kin. 25:22; Ezek. 8:11. 

SHA'PHAT, judge, the father of Elisha, 
i Kin. 19: 16. 19. 

Four others of this name are mentioned 
in Num. 13:5; 1 Chr. 3:22; 5:12; 27:29. 

SHA'PHER, goodly, MOUNT, 22d station 
of the Israelites in the wilderness, Num. 
33:23; probably Jebel Sheraif, 30 miles 
west-southwest from 'Ain Kadeis (Kadesh) 
and 60 miles from the mouth of wady Arish 
on the Mediterranean. It is a conspicuous 
conical mountain 75 miles northwest of 
Elath. 

SHARATM, Josh. 15:36. See Shaaraim. 

SHA'RAR, father of one of David's he- 
roes, 2 Sam. 23:33; called Sacar in 1 Chr. 
n:35, A. V. 

SHARE, 1 Sam. 13:20, probably the iron 
point of the plough. 

SHARE'ZER, prince of fire, I., a son of 
Sennacherib, who assisted in slaying his 
father, 2 Kin. 19:37; Isa. 37:38. 

II. Zech. 7:2, 3, in the A. V. Sherezer; a 
delegate sent, B. C. 518, with Regem-me- 
lech and others from some of the returned 
Jews to inquire of the priests and prophets 
at Jerusalem whether, as the new temple 
was approaching completion, Ezra 4:24; 
5:1, 2; 6:14, 15; Hag. 1: 14, 15, it was proper 
to observe the fast bewailing the destruc- 
tion of the temple 70 years before, 2 Kin. 
25:8-10; Jer. 52:12-14. In answer the 
Lord rebuked the formality of their fasts, 
but gave them a gracious assurance of 
prosperity and joy, Zech. 7:4 to 8:19. 

SHA'RON, a plain, I., a level tract along 
the Mediterranean from Carmel to Joppa. 
or even as far south as Jamnia, about 60 
miles, varying in width from 8 to 15 miles. 
It was noted as a place for pasturage, 1 Chr. 
27:29, and flowers. Song 2:1, and for its 



fertility and beauty, Isa. 35:2. Its desola- 
tion in time of war is noted as a calamity, 
and its peaceful reoccupation is promised 
as a blessing, Isa. 33 : 9 ; 65 : 10. Many 
dwellers in Sharon accepted Christ, Acts 
9:35, R. V. According to some " Lasha- 
ron" in Josh. 12:18 is "the Sharon," with 
a preposition prefixed. The Hebrew arti- 
cle always accompanies the name, except 
in 1 Chr. 5:16. See II. 

Sharon is still very fertile, though its 
cultivation is decreased and made difficult 
for the settled villagers by the raids of 
Bedouins, who encamp on the plain and 
use parts of it as grazing-ground for their 
flocks. It is also much encroached upon 
by the sand ; a line of sand-dunes extends 
along the shore, in some places 3 miles 
wide and 300 feet high. The plain is cross- 
ed by several streams from the mountains 
on the east, the largest of which, the Nahr 
el Aujeh, breaks boldly through the sand- 
hills, empties into the Mediterranean north 
of Jaffa, and contains water all the year. 
Dense thickets' of cane line the streams, 
and extensive marshes are formed by the 
damming of the waters by the sand. East 
of the sand-dunes the plain and hilly slopes 
are in part thickly wooded with pine and 
oak, remnants of the '"great forest" of 
which Strabo spoke, A. D. 24. The heat 
of summer is excessive, and the climate 
somewhat unhealthy. Travellers describe 
the view of the plain from the tower of 
Ramleh as one of surpassing richness and 
beauty. The frowning hills of Judah on 
the east confront the glittering waters of 
the Mediterranean on the west. Towards 
the north and south far as the eye can 
reach spreads the beautiful plain, covered 
in many parts with fields of green or gold- 
en grain. Near by are the immense olive- 
groves of Ramleh and Lydda, and amid 
them the picturesque towers, minarets, and 
domes of these villages; while the hill- 
sides towards the northeast are thickly 
studded with native hamlets. The uncul- 
tivated parts of the plain are covered in 
spring and the early summer with a rich 
profusion of flowers. See Rose. 

II. A place occupied by Gad, east of the 
Jordan; perhaps equivalent to "the Mi- 
shor " or upland downs, called " the plain " 
in the A. V., Deut. 3:10 — a region suitable 
for pasturage like the western Sharon. 
This would agree well with the meaning of 
the word "suburbs," 1 Chr. 5:16, an out- 
lying pasture-ground, as around the Levit- 
ical cities. See Suburbs. 

543 



SHA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHE 



SHARU'HEN, home of grace, a city al- 
lotted to Simeon, on the south of Judah's 
portion, apparently=Shilhim, Josh. 15:32, 
and Shaaraim, 1 Chr. 4:31; traced in the 
ruins at Tell esh Sheriah, 12 miles north- 
west of Beer-sheba. 

SHA'UL, desired, the son of Simeon by 
a woman of Canaan, and father of the 
Shaulites, Gen. 46:10; Exod. 6:15; Num. 
26:13; 1 Chr. 4:24. See also Saul. 

SHA'VEH, a plain, the open valley where 
Abraham and the king of Sodom met, Gen. 
14:17, called also " the king's dale " or val- 
ley; it is usually identified with the place 
so called where Absalom erected a monu- 
ment, 2 Sam. 18:18. Robinson regards it 
as the upper part of the Kidron valley, 
north of Jerusalem; Stanley would place 
it east of the Jordan. 

SHA'VEH-KIRIATHA'IM, Gen. 14:5, a 
plain near the town of Kirjathaim— at Ka- 
reyat, about 11 miles east of the Dead Sea, 
5 miles northwest of Diban or Dibon. 

SHA'VING. The Egyptians, except when 
mourning, shaved the head and beard, as 
appears from the ancient monuments and 
the statements of Herodotus. Hence Jo- 
seph, as the servant of an Egyptian, shaved 
himself when called before Pharaoh, Gen. 
41 : 14. The Egyptians, however, wore 
some artificial head-covering, as a wig or 
a cap, except the priests, who are repre- 
sented with naked heads or with some 
symbolical head-dress. Egyptian women 
wore long hair, in elaborate curls. The 
Assyrians, and usually the Babylonians, 
retained the hair on the head and face, but 
Babylonian priests shaved their faces 
smooth. The Hittites shaved off the eye- 
brows, moustache, and beard ; the Moab- 
ites shaved the fore part of the head, Ara- 
bian tribes the temples; comp. Jer. 9:26; 
25:23; 49:32, margins, where the Arabian 
custom is alluded to. It is also mentioned 
by Herodotus. By the Mosaic law the 
Hebrews were forbidden to " round the 
corners of their heads " or " mar the cor- 
ners of the beard," Lev. 19:27; and the 
priests were especially forbidden to shave 
the head or face in mourning or at any 
time, Lev. 21:5; Ezek. 44:20; these regu- 
lations being designed to distinguish God's 
chosen people from the heathen around 
them, Deut. 14:1, 2. Shaving the face and 
head was, however, prescribed in examin- 
ing a suspected leper and in the ceremony 
of his purification, Lev. 13:29-34; 14:8, 9; 
comp. Num. 8:5-7; Deut. 21:12. During 
the period of a Nazarite's vow the hair 
544 



was permitted to grow without the usual 
trimming, and at the termination of the 
vow the head was shaved, Num. 6:1-9, 18, 
19; Acts 18:18; 21:24. Samson's Nazarite- 
ship was intended to be life-long, Judg. 
i3 : 5> 7; 16:17, 19; comp. 1 Sam. 1:11. The 
Hebrews and other bearded nations, like 
Orientals of the present da\-, cherished 
the beard and resented any insult to it, 
2 Sam. 10:4, 5. See Beard. Neglect of it 
in David's time was a sign of mourning, 
2 Sam. 19:24. Shaving the head and sha- 
ving or shortening the beard were common 
signs of mourning among the Arabians and 
Syrians, Job 1:20; Isa. 15:2; Jer. 47:5; 
48:37; Ezek. 27:31 ;.and the custom, though 
forbidden by Moses, became so prevalent 
among the Israelites, Jer. 41:5, that the 
prophets often refer to it as a synonym for 
mourning, Isa. 22:12; Amos 8:10; Micah 
1:16; Jer. 16:6; Ezek. 7:18; compare Ezra 
9:3. Modern Arabs in towns frequently 
keep their heads shaved, according to the 
Moslem requirements; but the Bedouins 
and fellahin permit both beard and hair 
to grow. 

SHAV'SHA, 1 Chr. 18:16. See Seraiah. 

SHEAL'TIEL. See Salathiel. 

SHEAR'ING-HOUSE, Heb. BETH-EKED 
ha-roim, 2 Kin. 10:12, 14, margin, a place 
between Jezreel and Samaria, where Jehu 
killed 42 members of the royal family of 
Judah. The Septuagint and Eusebius make 
it a proper name, Beth-eked ; and the latter 
speaks of it as a village of Samaria, in the 
plain of Jezreel, 15 Roman miles from Me- 
giddo; Conder suggests Akadah, on the 
western side of the plain. 

SHE'AR-JASH'UB, the remnant shall re- 
turn, Isa. 7:3; 10:21, the name of one of 
Isaiah's sons ; supposed to have had a pro- 
phetic meaning, like Maher-shalal-hash- 
baz. Comp. Isa. 8:18. 

SHE'BA, I., son of Raamah, Gen. 10:7; 
1 Chr. 1:9. His posterity are supposed to 
have settled on the Persian Gulf. See 
Cush and Raamah. 

II. Son of Joktan, of the race of Shem, 
Gen. 10:28; 1 Chr. 1:22. See Sabeans, II. 

III. Son of Jokshan and grandson of 
Abraham by Keturah, Gen. 25:3; 1 Chr. 
1:32. He is supposed to have settled in 
Arabia Deserta. 

SHE'BA, Queen of. See Sabeaxs, II. 

SHE'BA, seven or an oath. In the He- 
brew this name differs from the foregoing. 
I. A turbulent Benjamite, who after the 
death of Absalom made a fruitless effort to 
excite a rebellion in Israel against David. 



SHE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHE 



Being pursued and besieged in Abel-beth- 
-maachah, near the southern part of Leba- 
non, he was beheaded by the people of the 
•city, 2 Sam. 20. 

II. A Gadite chief in Bashan, 1 Chr. 5 : 13. 

III. A town in Simeon, Josh. 19:2, by 
some identified with Shema ; at first as- 
signed to Judah, Josh. 15:26. Probably 
found at Tell es Seba', 3 miles east of 
Beer-sheba, on the road to Moladah. 

SHE'BAH, or SHI'BEAH, fem. of the 
preceding, Gen. 26:33; comp. margin; the 
4th well reopened by Isaac's servants, Gen. 
26:18,23-32; 21:25-31. See Beer-sheba. 

SHE'BAM, fragiwnce, a town in the pas- 
toral district east of the Jordan, Num. 32:3; 
probably=SiBMAH, which see. 

SHEBAN'IAH, whom the Lord makes to 
grow, the name of 2 priests and 2 Levites. 
I. Neh. 9:4,5; 10:10. — II. Neh. 10:4; 12:14. 
—III. Neh. 10:12.— IV. 1 Chr. 15:24. 

SHEBA'RIM, breaches, Josh. 7:5, a point, 
perhaps in a craggy ravine, to which the 
Israelites fled before the men of Ai„ 

SHE'BER, a fracture ; son of Caleb and 
Maachah, 1 Chr. 2:48. 

SHEB'NA, youthful vigor, I., a "treas- 
urer " or prefect of the palace of king Hez- 
ekiah, Isa. 22:15, a proud and imperious 
man, whose degradation the prophet was 
commissioned to foretell, ver. 16-25. He 
was to be tossed " like a ball " into a large 
country. See Wheel. Gen. Gordon, in 
crossing the Korosko desert in the Soudan, 
saw many balls of matted dry grass, some 
of them 3 feet in diameter, driven cease- 
lessly over the hot sands by the wind : an 
impressive image of a restless soul driven 
away in its wickedness. 

II. A scribe or secretary of Hezekiah, 
2 Kin. 18:18 to 19:7; Isa. 36:3-22; 37:2-7. 
Some regard him as the same as the pre- 
ceding. 

SHE'CHEM, shoulder, I., a Hivite prince 
who abducted Jacob's daughter Dinah, and 
who, with his father Hamor and many 
other Shechemites, was treacherously slain 
by Simeon and Levi, Gen. 34. 

II. A descendant of Manasseh, Num. 
26:31 ; Josh. 17:2. 

III. Another of Manasseh's posterity, 
1 Chr. 7:19. 

IV. A city of Central Canaan, in the val- 
ley between Mounts Gerizim and Ebal. 
Abraham here erected his first altar in Ca- 
naan, Gen. 12:6, 7. Jacob, returning from 
Padan-aram, encamped near Shechem, 
then a city of the Hivites, bought land, 
-which he bequeathed as a special portion 

35 



to Joseph, and erected an altar, Gen. 33: iS- 
20; 48:22; John 4:5. In revenge for a 
wrong his sons captured and spoiled the 
city, Gen. 34. Under an oak near She- 
chem Jacob, before departing, buried the 
amulets and teraphim of his household, 
Gen. 35: 1-4. His sons returned with their 
flocks to this fertile region; and here Jo- 
seph, journeying from Hebron, 50 miles 
south, sought them, Gen. 37:12-17. After 
the Conquest Joseph's bones were buried 
in his inheritance near Shechem, Josh. 
24:32; Acts 7:16. The town lay in Ephra- 
im's territory, and was assigned to the Ko- 
hathite Levites and made a city of refuge, 
Josh. 20:7; 21:20, 21. From its central 
position and sacred associations it became 
a gathering-place of the tribes. Near its 
site occurred the solemn reading of the 
law, with accompanying curses and bless- 
ings, where Mounts Ebal and Gerizim most 
nearly approach each other, and persons 
on the opposite sides and in the valley can 
readily converse, Deut. 11 : 29; 27; 28; 
Josh. 8:30-35. Here Joshua won the tribes 
to a solemn engagement to serve Jehovah, 
in commemoration of which he set up "a 
great stone " under the oak already hal- 
lowed by Abraham and Jacob, Josh. 24:1- 
28. By this same monument probably Gid- 
eon's son Abimelech was made king, Judg. 
9:6; and from Mount Gerizim, at whose 
foot the city nestled, Jotham prophesied ill 
against the people and king, Judg. 9:7-20; 
a prediction fulfilled 3 years later in their 
destruction, ver. 22-57. Shechem was after- 
wards rebuilt. David alludes to it as rep- 
resenting the promised land west of the 
Jordan, Psa. 60:6. Rehoboam went thither 
to be crowned, but there gave the 10 tribes 
occasion to revolt, 1 Kin. 12:1-18. The 
city became the first capital of the northern 
kingdom under Jeroboam, ver. 25, but the 
seat of government was soon transferred 
to Tirzah, 1 Kin. 14:17; 15:21, ^- After 
the Assyrian conquest and captivity, B. C. 
721, Shechem doubtless received its share 
of heathen colonists, 2 Kin. 17:6, 24-41. 
After the Babylonian conquest of Judah, 
B. C. 588, Shechemites were among those 
slain at Mizpah by Ishmael, Jer. 41:5-7; 
the "treasures in the field" for which 10 
were spared, ver. 8, were probably provis- 
ions hid in covered pits, such as are still 
used for the same purpose in the dry hill- 
sides of Palestine. Shechem became the 
chief city of the Samaritans, as near their 
national temple on Mount Gerizim, and so 
continued at least till John Hyrcanus cap- 

545 



SHE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHE 



tured the city and destroyed the temple, 
B. C. 129. See Gerizim and Samaritans. 
Near Shechem was Jacob's well, at which 
Christ talked with the Samaritan woman, 
John 4. Later, in the time of Josephus, the 
city, which doubtless suffered in the Jew- 
ish war, was rebuilt by the Romans and 
named Flavia Neapolis, jF. new town, in 
honor of Flavius Vespasian, Roman general 
and emperor. Many coins of the city under 
this title are extant, and it is still retained 
in the Arabic form Nabulus or Nablus. 
Whether the "Sychar" of John 4:5 was 
identical with Shechem, whose ordinary 
Greek form " Sychem " was used by Ste- 



phen, Acts 7:16, is a disputed question. 
See Sychar. Shechem was no doubt vis- 
ited by the apostles and disciples in their 
evangelizing tours through Samaria, Acts 
8:25; 9:31; 15:3. The Christian philoso- 
pher and martyr Justin, a heathen by birth, 
was born at Neapolis about A. D. 100. Pas- 
tors of Neapolis are mentioned as attend- 
ing church councils until A. D. 536. The 
city was taken by the Moslems in the 7th 
century. It submitted to the Crusaders 
after the taking of Jerusalem, A. D. 1099, 
but was retaken by the Moslems A. D. 
1242, and has since remained in their 
hands. 




VIEW OF NABLUS AND MOUNT GERIZIM FROM THE NORTHWEST- 



The valley in which Nablus lies extends 
8 or 9 miles northwest; it is 2,360 feet 
above the sea, and the mountains Gerizim 
on the south and Ebal on the north rise 
some 600 and 800 feet higher. On the east 
the valley opens into the northern end of 
the fertile plain el-Mukhna, 1% miles wide 
and about 10 miles long from north to 
south. Along this plain runs the road to 
Jerusalem, 30 miles south of Nablus; the 
road leads northeast to Tubas or Thebez, 
10 miles from Nablus, and thence nearly 
30 miles to the'southern end of the Sea of 
Galilee. Sebustiyeh, or Samaria, is 5^ 
miles northwest of Nablus, on a hill at the 
end of the valley ; Nazareth is nearly 30 
miles north of Nablus. At the foot of 
Mount Gerizim, [where the Nablus valley 
546 



opens on the plain, and close to the road to 
Jerusalem, is Jacob's well, still called Bir- 
Yakub, a site acknowledged by Jews, Sa- 
maritans, Christians, and Moslems. Here 
Jesus, "wearied with his journey," sat "at 
the 6th hour," noon, probably in Chisleu 
or December, while his disciples went " into 
the city to buy food;" here he revealed his 
Messiahship to the Samaritan woman and 
received her fellow-citizens. At " Sychar " 
he spent 2 days, reaping the harvest of 
souls of which he had spoken to his disci- 



ples, John 4:5-8, 25-42. 



The well is sur- 



rounded by the ruins of a Christian church, 
built in the 4th century and destroyed be- 
fore the time of the Crusades. Its depth 
in 1838 was 105 feet, but is now decreased 
to 75 feet by the stones which have fallen 



SHE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHE 



or been thrown in. See Jacob's Well. 
About a quarter of a mile northeast of the 
well is the traditional site of Joseph's tomb, 
now covered by a square inclosure with 
high whitewashed walls, a Mohammedan 
wely 's, i.e., saint's tomb. The Moslems claim 
that Joseph's bones were removed hence 
to the cave of Machpelah. A quarter of a 
mile farther, at the foot of Mount Ebal, is 
the village of Askar, by some identified 
with Sychar. See Sychar. There are 
ancient tombs around the mountain base. 
Nablus is a mile and a half northwest of 
Jacob's well, but may anciently have lain 
farther east than now. The road lies 
through a beautiful little valley, more than 
half a mile wide at its opening on the 
Mukhna, but narrowing, again expanding, 
and then contracting again to its narrowest 
at Nablus. About half way between the 
well and the city is the watershed between 
the Jordan and the Mediterranean. The 
springs which rise on both sides of this 
point and flow eastward and westward were 
in the possession of the Canaanites when 
Jacob, according to the tradition cited by 
the Samaritan woman, dug his well. About 
three-quarters of a mile from the well, in a 
recess at the northern foot of Mount Geri- 
zim, is a place now named el-Amud, the 
pillar, which the Samaritans make the site 
of the oak — A. V. "plain" — of Moreh, 
Gen. 12:6; 35:4, and the stone of Joshua, 
Josh. 24:26. The valley is well watered 
by several streams, and is fertile and cul- 
tivated; near the town it is well wooded, 
olive-trees being most abundant. The 
town is surrounded by flourishing gardens 
and orchards of figs, mulberries, grapes, 
almonds, oranges, apricots, and other fruits. 
The main street runs from the eastern gate 
to the western, and contains most of the 
bazars. The side streets are narrow, vault- 
ed, and dark. The houses are high, built 
of stone, with domes and battlements on 
the flat roofs. There are 5 mosques, 3 of 
which were originally churches of the Cru- 
saders. The Samaritans live in the south- 
western quarter, near their synagogue, and 
from the western gate of the city a road 
leads up to their sacred place on Mount 
Gerizim. The population is variously esti- 
mated at from 9,000 to 13,000, all Moham- 
medans except about 140 Samaritans, a few 
Jews, and about 650 Christians, chiefly of 
the Orthodox Greek Church. The inhabi- 
tants are actively engaged in manufactures 
and trade ; about 20 factories make soap 
from olive-oil, and pile their refuse in heaps 



outside of the city; woollen and cotton 
goods are also manufactured ; and the pro- 
ducts supply the neighborhood and are 
sent to distant points by caravans. 

The following extracts are from Dr. 
Clarke's description of this place : " There 
is nothing in the Holy Land finer than a 
view of Nablus from the heights around it. 
As the traveller descends towards it from 
the hills it appears luxuriantly embos- 
omed in the most delightful and fragrant 
bowers, half concealed by rich gardens and 
by stately trees collected into groves all 
around the bold and beautiful valley in 
which it stands. ... In the morning after 
our arrival we met caravans coming from 
Grand Cairo, and noticed others reposing 
in the large olive plantations near the 
gates. . . . 

" Upon the hills around flocks and herds 
were feeding as of old ; nor in the simple 
garb of the shepherds of Samaria was there 
anything repugnant to the notions we may 
entertain of the appearance presented by 
the sons of Jacob. . . . 

'• Perhaps no Christian scholar ever at- 
tentively read the 4th chapter of John 
without being struck with the numerous 
internal evidences of truth which crowd 
upon the mind in its perusal. . . . In- 
dependently of its importance as a theo- 
logical document, ... a volume might be 
filled with the illustration it reflects on the 
history of the Jews and on the geography 
of their country. All that can be gathered 
on these subjects from Josephus seems but 
as a comment to illustrate this chapter. 
The journey of our Lord from Judaea into 
Galilee, the cause of it, his passage through 
the territory of Samaria, his approach to 
the metropolis of this country, its name, 
his arrival at the Amorite field which ter- 
minates the narrow valley of Sychem, the 
ancient custom of halting at a well, the 
female employment of drawing water, the 
disciples sent into the city for food, by 
which its situation out of the town is obvi- 
ously implied, the question of the woman 
referring to existing prejudices which sep- 
arated the Jews from the Samaritans, the 
depth of the well, the Oriental allusion con- 
tained in the expression 'living water,' the 
history of the well and the customs there- 
by illustrated, the worship upon Mount 
Gerizim — all these occur within the space 
of 20 verses." 

SHECHI'NAH, divelling, a word not 
found in the Bible, but used in the Jewish 
Targums and by Christian writers to de- 

547 



SHE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



/ SHE 



note the visible majestic manifestation of 
the presence of Jehovah, as in the cloud 
concealing and also revealing his glory, 
Num. 16:42, which guided the Israelites, 
enveloped Sinai, Exod. 13:21, 22; 19:9, 16, 
18, came to the tabernacle at its dedica- 
tion, rested on it during its sojourn in the 
wilderness, Exod. 40 : 34-38, and abode 
within it on the mercy -seat, Lev. 16:2; 
2 Sam. 6:2; which also came to Solomon's 
temple at its dedication, 1 Kin. 8:10, 11, 
and abode there on the mercy-seat, 2 Kin. 
19:15; Psa. 80:1, perhaps with intervals of 
withdrawal, till the destruction of the tem- 
ple, Psa. 91 : 1 ; 99: 1, but was absent, as the 
Jews claim, from the rebuilt temple. The 
Jews based an expectation of the return of 
the Shechinah in the days of the Messiah 
on such prophetic passages as Ezek. 43:7, 
9; Hag. 1:8; Zech. 2:10; comp. Isa. 4:5. 
Allusion is made in the New Testament to 
this "glory of the Lord," Acts 7:2; Rom. 
9:4; Heb. 9:5. Similar manifestations at- 
tended the birth and transfiguration of 
Christ, Luke 2:9; Matt. 17:5; 2 Pet. 1:17, 
18. As a type, the Shechinah pointed to 
the incarnation of the Son of God, John 
1:14; comp. Heb. 1 -.3. 




THE BROAD-TAILED SYRIAN SHEEP. 

SHEEP. This animal was early domes- 
ticated, Gen. 4:2, and offered in sacrifice, 
ver. 4. Much of the wealth of the ancient 
patriarchs consisted in sheep, Gen. 12:16; 
13:2, 5; 24:35; 26:14; 32:5, 14; Job 1:3; 
42:12. They formed an important part of 
the possessions of the sons of Jacob at their 
settlement in Egypt, Gen. 46:32; 47:1, 3, 
and of their descendants at the Exodus, 
Exod. 12:38, and on and after their en- 
trance into the promised land, Num. 32:1 ; 
1 Sam. 25:2; 2 Sam. 12:2. Scripture says 
that Pharaoh gave Abraham sheep, not 
horses ; and it is worthy of note that con- 
543 



temporary Egyptian monuments show 
sheep, but no horses till after the Hyksos' 
invasion. They are among the animals 
accounted " clean " and eatable by the 
Mosaic law, Lev. 11:2, 3; Deut. 12:20, 21; 
14:4. Their milk was in common use for 
food, Deut. 32:14; Isa. 7:21, 22; their flesh 
was often eaten when animal food was em- 
ployed, as on festive occasions, in the exer- 
cise of hospitality, or ordinarily in the 
households of persons of high rank, 1 Sam. 
25:18 ; 2 Sam. 12:4; 17:29; 1 Kin. 4:22, 23 ; 
Neh. 5:18; Isa. 22:13; Amos 6:4. Their 
wool was spun into cloth, Lev. 13:47; Deut. 
22:11 ; Job. 31:20; Prov. 31:13. Sheep-skins 
formed one of the coverings of the taber- 
nacle, Exod. 26:14; 36:19, and were worn 
by the poor, Heb. 11:37. Tribute was paid 
by the Moabite king Mesha in sheep and 
wool, 2 Kin. 3:4; and they were important 
articles of trade, as between Tyre and the 
Syrians and Arabians, Ezek. 27:18, 21. 
Sheep were offered as sacrifices on many 
occasions, Gen. 15:9; 22:13; Exod. 20:24; 
the Mosaic law prescribed 2 lambs as a 
daily burnt-offering, Exod. 29:38, 39, and 4 
for the Sabbath, Num. 28:3-10; and rams 
and lambs were among the burnt-offerings 
appointed for the new moons, the 3 great 
feasts, and the Day of Atonement, Num. 
28: 11 ; 29. A lamb was the usual Passover 
victim, Exod. 12:3-5; and from the sheep 
were often taken peace-offerings and sin 
or trespass-offerings, Lev. 3:6, 7; 4:32; 
5:6, 15, 18; 6:6. See Sacrifice. When a 
sheep was presented as a peace or sin- 
offering, in addition to the internal parts 
required to be burned on the altar, as 
when the victim was an ox or a goat, the 
"whole rump," that is, the tail, is speci- 
fied, Exod. 29:22 ; Lev. 3:9:7:3. Dr. Rus- 
sell describes 2 varieties of Syrian sheep : 
the so-called Bedouin sheep, resembling 
our ordinary sheep ; and the more numer-* 
ous broad-tailed sheep, whose tail is com- 
posed of a delicate fat resembling marrow, 
which is often used in cooking instead of 
butter, and, cut into small pieces, forms an 
ingredient in many dishes. The tail of an 
ordinary sheep of this sort often weighs 15 
pounds, and that of a fatted specimen may 
weigh 3 times as much. Probably this 
broad-tailed sheep anciently, as now, was 
the favorite variety, and the Israelites were 
commanded to devote to Jehovah its choi- 
cest part. 

Sometimes strong towers were erected 
for the defence of the flock, Gen. 35:21 ; 
Mic. 4:8, as is still the case in lonely dis- 



SHE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHE 



tricts. When the sheep were to be shorn 
they were, as now, collected in a fold. 
Frequently also, as now in the East, the 
sheep were not folded at night, Luke 2:8. 
Christ informed the Jews that besides his 
" own sheep " in the " fold " of Israel, he 
had other sheep among the Gentiles who 
would " hear his voice," and whom he 
Avould gather with Jewish believers into 
"one flock," John 10:16, R. V. None can 
pluck them out of his hand, John 10:27-29. 

SHEEP'-GATE, a g£tte of Jerusalem as 
rebuilt by Nehemiah, Neh. 3:1, 32; 12:39. 
It is believed to be referred to by John as 
near the pool of Bethesda, John 5:2, R. V. 
Tradition would identify it with the pres- 
ent St. Stephen's gate, beyond the north- 
east corner of the temple inclosure. More 
probably it was in the centre of the west- 
ern wall, at the present Bab-el-Kattanin, 
near which is the Hammam esh-Shifa, heal- 
ing bath. 

SHEEP'- MARKET, John 5 : 2, rather 
SHEEP-GATE, as in the R. V. See Sheep- 
gate. 

SHEETS, Judg. 14:12, A. V.; "shirts," 
as in the margin ; probably the garments 
worn next to the skin. 

SHEK'EL, weight. The shekel was pri- 
marily only a certain weight, and as such 
a common standard of measure and valu- 
ation for. many articles, as spices, Exod. 
30:23, 24; hair, 2 Sam. 14:26; brass or 
bronze and iron, Gen. 24:22; Exod. 38:24, 
2 5> 2 9l Josh. 7:21; 1 Sam. 17:5, 7. It was 
equal to about l /& an ounce avoirdupois. 
Uncoined silver, in the form of ingots, 
rings, etc., was weighed by shekels in pay- 
ment as money, as by Abraham to Ephron, 
Gen. 23:15, 16, and by Jeremiah to Hana- 
meel, Jer. 32:9, 10. In distinction from the 
common shekel, the " shekel of the sanctu- 
ary," equal to 20 gerahs, probably denotes 
a just and full shekel according to the 
standard weight preserved in the house of 
God, Exod. 30:13; Ezek. 45:12; compare 
Lev. 19:36; Ezra 8:29, t>3- By this were 
to be weighed all taxes, fines, and contri- 
butions for sacred purposes, Exod. 38:24- 
26; Lev. 5:15; 27:2-7, 25; Num. 3:45-50; 
18:14-16. Whether a shekel "after the 
king's weight " differed from this is un- 
known, but in 2 Sam. 14:26 a copyist's 
error of " 200 " instead of " 20 " shekels is 
suspected. In silver by weight in shekels 
civil taxes were paid, 2 Kin. 15:20; Neh. 
5:15, and dues in general, 2 Sam. 24 : 24. In 
a time of famine at Samaria a half-pint of 
food ordinarilv despised was worth 5 shek- 



els, 2 Kin. 6:25; but soon after a "meas- 
ure," Heb. seah, = 10 quarts, of fine flour 
sold for a shekel, 2 Kin. 7 : 1, 16, 18. A time 
of scarcity is shown by the rating of a choe- 
nix, = \% pints, of wheat at a denarius, or 
nearly ^ ofa shekel, Rev. 6:6. Dishonest 
merchants cheated their customers by giv- 
ing small measure, weighing the silver 
paid them with too heavy shekels, Amos 
8:5; comp. Mic. 6:10, 11. See Ephah. 
Where amounts are mentioned a word is 
often omitted in the Hebrew, as in Gen. 
20:16; 37:28; Song 8:11; instead of "pie- 
ces," the word supplied should always be 
" shekels," as it is in some cases, Judg. 
17:2, etc.; 1 Kin. 10:29. Half, third, and 
quarter shekels of silver are mentioned, 
Exod. 30:13, 15; 1 Sam. 9:8; Neh. 10:32. 
The Jews became acquainted with coined 
money in the lands of their captivity, and 
after their return Ezra and Nehemiah men- 
tion the Persian gold coin called " daric," 
A. V. "dram," Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:70-72; 
but the practice of Aveighing silver still 
continued, Zech. 11:12, 13. About B. C. 
139 Simon Maccabaeus, then high -priest 
and governor of the Jews, received per- 
mission from the Syrian king Antiochus 
VII. "to coin money with his own stamp," 
1 Mace. 15:6, and there are silver shekels 
and half-shekels still extant which are at- 
tributed to him. The obverse of these 




shekels, the first Jewish coinage, bears a 
vase, perhaps a representative of the pot of 
manna, and an inscription meaning "the 
shekel of Israel ;" the reverse bears a twig 
with 3 buds, perhaps indicating Aaron's 
almond-rod, and an inscription meaning 
"Jerusalem the holy." The letters are 
nearly identical with those now known as 
Samaritan. See Samaritan Pentateuch. 
Bockh estimates the original weight of this 
shekel at about 274 Paris grains. It equal- 
led about 60 cents of U. S. currency. The 
' tribute" (Greek two drachmas) asked of 
Christ at Capernaum, Matt. 17:24-27, R. V., 
was the half-shekel tax mentioned by Jo- 
sephus as annually paid by the Jews in his 
time into the temple treasury; compare 
Exod. 30:13; 2 Kin. 12:4, 5; 2 Chr. 24:6-9; 

549 



SHE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHE 



the "'piece of money " found in the fish's 
mouth, in Greek "stater," = 4 drachmas 
or 1 shekel, was just the amount required 
for 2 persons. The "30 pieces of silver" 
paid to Judas for betraying Christ, Matt. 
26:15; comp. Zech. 11:12, was the valua- 
tion set on a slave's life, Exod. 21 -.32, 

SHE'LAH, petition, I., Judah's youngest 
son, Gen. 38:5, 11, 14, 26; 46:12; Num. 
26:20; 1 Chr. 2:3. 

II. Son of Arphaxad, 1 Chr. 1:18, 24; 
called Salah in Gen. 10:24. 

SHE'LEPH, drawn out, the 2d son of 
Joktan, Gen. 10:26; 1 Chr. 1:20. An Ara- 
bian tribe and district in Yemen in South 
Arabia are mentioned by Arabic writers 
as bearing from him the name Sulaf. 

SHELO'MITH, peaceful, Lev. 24:11, a 
woman of the tribe of Dan, whose hus- 
band was an Egyptian and whose son was 
stoned for blasphemy. 

SHELU'MIEL, friend of God, Num. 1:6; 
2:12, a Simeonite prince at the Exodus. 

SHEM, name, a son of Noah, Gen. 5:32; 
6:10, always named before Ham and Ja- 
pheth, as the eldest son, or as the forefa- 
ther of the Hebrews. In Gen. 10:21 "el- 
der " may be applied to Shem instead of 
Japheth. Shem was 98 at the time of the 
Flood, Gen. 7:13; comp. 11:10; his son Ar- 
phaxad was born 2 years after the Flood. 
The Hebrews were descended from Ar- 
phaxad's grandson Eber, through his son 
Peleg, Gen. 11:12-16, 18-26; many Arabian 
tribes descended from Eber through his 
son Joktan, Gen. 10:25-30. Elam, Asshur, 
Lud, and Aram, also sons of Shem, ver. 22, 
were progenitors of other nations. Shem 
died, aged 600, Gen. 11:10, 11. According 
to the apparent chronology of the Hebrew 
text, in his first century he was contempo- 
rary with Methuselah, whose first 243 years 
contemporized with Adam ; and when Shem 
died Abraham was 148 years old. Shem 
received from his father a blessing, Gen. 
9:26, in the form of a doxology to "Jeho- 
vah," afterwards to reveal himself as pecu- 
liarly the " God of Shem," of whose line 
were the chosen patriarchs and Israel, and 
finally the Messiah, Luke 3:23-36. Many 
Jewish and Christian scholars regard part 
of Gen. 9:27 as included in the blessing of 
Shem, explaining, as the Hebrew allows, 
" God shall . . . dwell in the tents of Shem ;" 
comp. Exod. 25:8; Num. 5:3; others read, 
" Japheth shall dwell in the tents of Shem," 
and find it fulfilled spiritually in the admit- 
tance of the Gentiles to the church of God, 
Eph. 2:13, 14; 3:6. The servitude of Ca- 
55° 



naan under Shem, Gen. 9:26, was fulfilled 
partly in the subjugation of the Canaanites 
to Israel, Josh. 23 : 4 ; 2 Chr. 8 : 4, 7, 8 ; comp. 
Gen. 10:15-18; 15:18-21. The regions peo- 
pled by Shetn's descendants intersect por- 
tions of Japheth and Ham. A family of 
languages is called Shemitic, as pertaining 
to nations descended from Shem; it in- 
cludes Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, 
Ethiopic, etc. ; but in this general class are 
included several languages spoken by na- 
tions descended from Ham. 

SHE' MA, fame, Josh. 15:26, a town in 
the territory first assigned to Judah. See 
Sheba, III. Probably found at Tel Jem- 
neh, 9 miles south by west of Gaza. 

SHEMA'IAH, fehovah hears, the name of 
many Hebrews, of whom we specify, I., 
one of the chief Levites who helped David 
transport the ark from Obed-edom's house 
to Jerusalem, 1 Chr. 15:8, 11, 12; about B. 
C. 1042. 

II. A Levite who made for David a reg- 
ister of the 24 priestly classes, 1 Chr. 24:6; 
about B. C. 1015. 

III. A prophet by whom God forbade 
Rehoboam's projected attempt to recover 
by arms the revolted 10 tribes, 1 Kin. 12:21- 
24, and a few years later called Rehoboam 
and his court to repent at the invasion of 
Shishak, 2 Chr. 12:5-8. He was a chroni- 
cler of Rehoboam's reign, ver. 15. 

IV. A false prophet among the exiled 
Jews in Babylon, who opposed the prophet 
Jeremiah and incurred divine judgments on 
himself and his family, Jer. 29:24-32. His 
appellative, " the Nehelamite," is translated 
" dreamer " in the margin ; comp. ver. 8. 

V. A false prophet hired by Sanballat 
and Tobiah, who sought to terrify Nehe- 
miah into a cowardly retreat within the 
temple, Neh. 6:10-14. 

SHEME'BER, soaring aloft, king of Ze- 
boim in Abraham's time, Gen. 14:2-10. 

SHE'MER, lees of wine, called SHO'MER 
in 1 Chr. 7:32; the former owner of the 
hill on which Omri built Samaria, 1 Kin. 
16:24. 

SHEM'INITH, the eighth, Psa. 6; 12, 
titles; 1 Chr. 15:21. It seems to denote 
not an instrument, but a part in music, 
perhaps the lowest ; or, as others think, a 
a certain musical time or key. 

SHEMU'EL, heard of God, 1 Chr. 6:33, 
the true Hebrew name of the prophet 
Samuel. 

SHEN, the tooth, 1 Sam. 7:12, probably 
a sharp conspicuous rock, like "Seneh, " 
1 Sam. 14:4. 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHE 



SHE'NIR and SE'NIR, snowy peak, the 
Amorite name for Mount Hermon, Deut. 
3:9; Ezek. 27:5; or perhaps for a portion 
of Hermon, 1 Chr. 5:23; Song 4:8. The 
part of Anti-Lebanon north of Damascus, 
now called Jebel esh-Shurky, east moun- 
tain, was mentioned as Senir by the Ara- 
bian historian and geograper Abulfeda, 
A. D. 1300. See Hermon and Sirion. 

SHE'OL, a Hebrew word, transferred in 
the R. V. in many passages of the 65 in 
which it occurs and in which in the A. V. 
it is incorrectly rendered "hell," "the 
grave," or "the pit." It denotes, not the 
final abode of the lost, nor the place where 
dead bodies are deposited, but the realm 
of departed spirits, both the righteous, Gen. 
37:35; Psa. 16:10, and the wicked, Psa. 9:17. 
See Hell, Soul. 

SHE'PHAM, /naV/w/, Num. 34:10, 11, a 
place on the eastern border of the land 
promised to Israel, between Hazar-enan 
and Riblah. 

SHEPHATI'AH, the name of 8 men allu- 
ded to in the following passages : 2 Sam. 
3:4; 1 Chr. 12:5; 27:16; 2 Chr. 21:2; Ezra 
2:4; ver. 57; Neh. 11:4; Jer. 38:1. 

SHEPHE'LAH, THE, the lowland, the 
southern portion of that region of Canaan 
lying between the central hills and the 
Mediterranean, the northern part being 
called Sharon. " The Shephelah " often 
occurs in the Hebrew and always with this 
definite signification ; it continued to be so 
used down to the 5th century, and is men- 
tioned by Eusebius and Jerome. It should 
have been transferred to the English, but 
is rendered in the A. V. " the vale," Deut. 
1:7; Josh. 10:40; 1 Kin. 10:27; 2 Chr. 1 :i5; 
Jer. 2>Z '■ 13 ! " the valley " or " valleys," Josh. 
9:1; 11:2, 16; 12:8; 15:33; Judg. 1:9; Jer. 
32:44; "the plain," Jer. 17:26; Obad. 19; 
Zech. 7:7; "the low plains," 1 Chr. 27:28; 
2 Chr. 9:27; and "the low country," 2 Chr. 
26:10; 28:18. In 1 Mace. 12:38 it appears 
as " Sephela." Josh. 15:33-47 contains a 
list of 43 cities included in the Shephelah, 
showing that it embraced not only the mar- 
itime plain from Ekron to the " river of 
Egypt " southwest of Gaza, but also the 
lower hills leading up to " the mountains of 
Judah." It formed one of the 3 main divis- 
ions of Judah, the others being "the Moun- 
tains " and the Negeb, in the A. V. " the 
south," Judg. 1:9; Jer. 32:44. The region 
was favorable for olive and sycamore trees, 

1 Chr. 27:28; 2 Chr. 9:27, and for cattle, 

2 Chr. 26:10. Though in the territory of 
Judah. the Philistines long retained the 



corn -producing maritime plain, with its 
cities, 2 Kin. 8:1-3; Obad. 19. See Phi- 
listia. The Shephelah rises from 100 to 
500 feet above the sea, and is still exceed- 
ingly fertile ; the lower western plain and 
the broad valleys among the hills produce 
large crops of grain, and on the hills olive- 
groves still flourish. The hilly district con- 
tains many villages, with houses of stone 
or mud, and also many ruins of ancient 
sites. Ancient wells and some fine springs 
occur. The hills are of soft white lime- 
stone, with bands of brown quartz between 
the strata. 

In Josh. 11 : 16, the 2d " Shephelah," with- 
out the article in the Hebrew, in the A. V. 
"valley of the same," evidently refers to 
the lowland adjoining Mount Ephraim — 
"the mountain of Israel" — i. e., probably 
the northern continuation of the Shephe- 
lah, elsewhere called Sharon. 

SHEP'HERD, or Pastor. Abel was a 
keeper of sheep, Gen. 4:2. When men 
began to multiply and to follow different 
employments, Jabal son of Lamech was 
acknowledged as father, that is the first, of 
shepherds and nomads, Gen. 4:20. A large 
part of the wealth of the ancient patriarchs 
consisted in flocks and herds, the care of 
which was shared by their sons, daughters, 
and servants, Gen. 13:7; 29:9; 37:2. Shep- 
herds were also employed, but were not 
highly esteemed, Job 30:1. Jacob seems 
to have been pressed by Laban beyond 
the requirements of the pastoral law, Gen. 
31:39; compare Exod. 22:13; Amos 3:12. 
Oriental law still provides that a cattle- 
tender may exonerate himself from blame 
or loss by carrying to his employer some 
portion of an animal that has died without 
the tender's fault ; but if he cannot prove 
his innocence and due carefulness he must 
bear the loss. Moses and David were both 
shepherds before they were called to be 
leaders of Israel, Exod. 3:1-10; 1 Sam. 
16:11-13; Psa. 78:70-72. Shepherds were 
highly honored in receiving from heaven 
tidings of the birth of Christ, Luke 2:8-20. 
In the time of the kings, the " chief herds- 
man " held a post of importance and honor, 
1 Sam. 21:7; 1 Chr. 27:29-31. In Spain, 
flocks of merino sheep sometimes number 
10,000, and are under the care of a chief 
shepherd with some 50 assistants. Char- 
din mentions a clan of Turcoman shep- 
herds whose sheep and goats numbered 
3,000,000, and who had besides camels, 
horses, oxen, and cows amounting to 400,- 
000. In Palestine and its vicinity, besides 

551 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHE 



those who united the keeping of flocks and 
herds with the tillage of the ground, there 
were and still are numbers of nomads or 
wandering shepherds confining themselves 
to no settled home. These dwellers in 
tents often had a wide range of pasture- 
grounds, from one to another of which they 
drove their flocks as occasion required, 
Gen. 37:12-17. In the vast deserts east 
and south of Palestine they found many 
spots which in winter and spring were 
clothed with verdure, Exod. 3:1; Psa. 65 : 12, 
13. But the heat of summer withered these 
" pastures of the wilderness " and drove 
the shepherds and their flocks to seek for 
highlands and streams. There are many 
indications in Scripture of the conscious 
strength and independence of the ancient 
shepherd patriarchs, of the extent of their 
households, and the consideration in which 
they were held, Gen. 14:14-24; 21:22-32; 
26:13-16; 30:43; Job 1:3. The Egyptiatis, 
however, despised shepherds, Gen. 46:34, 
a fact attested by the ancient monuments, 
which represent shepherds as of low caste, 
slovenly, and in some cases deformed. 

God sometimes takes the name'of Shep- 
herd of Israel, Psa. 80:1; Jer. 31:10; and 
kings, both in Scripture and ancient wri- 
ters, are distinguished by the title of " Shep- 
herds of the people." The prophets often 
inveigh against the "shepherds of Israel," 
that is, the kings, who feed themselves and 
neglect their flocks, or distress them and 
lead them astray, Ezek. 34:10. In like 
manner Christ, as the Messiah, is often 
called a shepherd, Zech. 13:7, and also 
takes on himself the title of "the Good 
Shepherd," who gives his life for his sheep, 
John 10:11, 14, 15. Paul calls him the 
great Shepherd of the sheep, Heb. 13:20, 
and Peter gives him the appellation of 
Chief shepherd, 1 Pet. 5:4. His ministers 
are in like manner the pastors or under- 
shepherds of the flock, Jer. 3:15; 23:3, 4; 
Acts 20 : 28-30 ; Eph. 4:11. In many passa- 
ges where the word "feed" occurs, the 
expressive original word means " be a 
shepherd to," Psa. 28:9; John 21:16; Acts 
20:28; 1 Pet. 5:2; Rev. 7:17. 

In John 10:1-16, 27-29, our Saviour says 
the Good Shepherd lays down his life for 
his sheep, that he knows them and they 
know him, that they hear his voice and fol- 
low him, that he goes before them, that no 
one shall force them out of his hands, and 
that he calls them by their names. These, 
however, being all incidents taken from the 
customs of the country, are by no means 
552 



so striking to us as they must have been 
to those who heard our Lord, and who 
had often witnessed such methods of con- 
ducting this domesticated animal. Mod- 
ern travellers in the East meet with many 
pleasing confirmations of the truth of Scrip- 
ture in respect to these particulars; they 
see the shepherd walking before his flock, 
any one of which will instantly run to him 
when called by its own name. The hire- 
ling, or bad shepherd, forsakes the sheep, 
and the thief enters, not by the door of the 
sheepfold, but climbs in another way. See 
Sheep. The Bible applies many of the 
excellences of the faithful shepherd in il- 
lustration of the Saviour's care of his flock. 
The shepherd was responsible for each 
member of the flock intrusted to him, Exod. 
22:10-13; J°hn 10:28; he had need of great 
courage and endurance, Gen. 31 :4o; 1 Sam. 
17:34, 35; John 10:15; he exercised a ten- 
der care towards the feeble, carried the 
lambs in his arms, Gen. 33:13; Isa. 40:11 ; 
Mark 10:14, 16; and searched for the lost 
sheep, bringing it back from the " land of 
drought and the shadow of death " into 
green pastures and by the still waters, Psa. 
23; Luke 15:4-7- 

SHEPHU'PHAN, serpent, 1 Chr. 8:5, a 
grandson of Benjamin ; called Shu'pham, 
Num. 26:39; Shup'pim, i Chr. 7:12, 15; 
and Mup'pim, Gen. 46:21. 

SHE'RAH, consanguinity, 1 Chr. 7:24, a 
female descendant of Ephraim, founder of 
several towns, 

SHERD, an earthenware vessel or frag- 
ment, Isa. 30:14; Ezek. 23:34. 

SHEREBI'AH, heat of Jehovah, a Levite 
trusted and faithful in the return from Cap- 
tivity, Neh. 8:7; 9:4, 5; 10:12; 12:8, 24. 

SHERE'ZER, Zech. 7:2. See Share- 
zer, II. 

SHER'IFFS, Dan. 3:2, 3, in the Babylo- 
nian kingdom, probably officials answering 
to the muftis or " head-doctors " of Moham- 
medan law in the Turkish Empire. 

SHE'SHACH, a poetical or symbolical 
name for Babylon, Jer. 25:26; 51:41- The 
word may designate Babylon as the city 
with bronze gates; or may signify, from 
the Persian, " the house of the prince;" or 
it may contain the name of one of the di- 
vinities worshipped by the Babylonians. 

SHESHBAZ'ZAR, Ezra 1:8, 11; 5 :I 4> l6 ; 
comp. Ezra 2:1, 2; 3:8-10; Zech. 4:9; the 
Chaldean or Persian name of Zerubbabel. 

SHETH, tumult, I., 1 Chr. i:i, the more 
correct form of the patriarch Seth's name. 
See Seth. 




SHEPHERD IN THE BETHLEHEM VALLEY 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHI 



II. Num. 24:17; the word here is proba- 
bly not a proper name: instead of " chil- 
dren of Sheth," it is proposed to render 
"sons of tumult," i. e., the tumultuous 
warriors of Moab; comp. Jer. 48:45. 

SHE'THAR, star, one of the 7 chief 
princes of Persia and Media under Ahasu- 
erus or Xerxes, B. C. 483, Esth. 1 : 14; comp. 
Ezra 7:14. 

SHE'THAR-BOZ'NAI, star of splendor, a 
Persian officer in Palestine under Tatnai, 
in the reign of Darius Hystaspis, B. C. 520, 
Ezra 5:3, 6; 6:6, 13. See Tatnai. 

SHE'VA, 2 Sam. 20:25. See Seraiah, II. 

SHEW'-BREAD, or SHOW-BREAD. See 
Bread. 

SHIB'BOLETH, an ear of grain, Gen. 
41 :5, a branch or twig, Zech. 4: 12, a stream 
ox flood, Psa. 69:2, 15. The Ephraimites, 
jealous of the Gileadites' victory over the 
Ammonites, provoked a war with the Gile- 
adites under Jephthah, and were defeated. 
When an escaping Ephraimite sought to 
pass the Jordan, denying that he was an 
Ephraimite, the Gileadites guarding the 
fords bade him say shibboleth, but as he 
pronounced it sibboleth, he was discovered 
and killed. In this war 42,000 Ephraimites 
perished, Judg. 12:1-6; comp. ch. 11. This 
incident shows that variations of dialect 
existed among tribes of the same nation 
and speaking the same language. It is no 
wonder, therefore, that the same word is 
found written in different ways, according 
to the pronunciation of different tribes. 
Thus in the time of Christ the peculiarities 
of Peter's dialect bore witness that he was 
brought up in Galilee, Matt. 26:73. Shib- 
boleth is naturalized in English in the 
sense of a party test or watchword. 

SHIB'MAH, balsam, a town in Reuben, 
east of the Jordan, Num. 32:38. See Sib- 
mah. 

SHIC'RON, drunkenness, a landmark in 
the northern boundary of Judah, Josh. 
15:11. Traced at Kh. Sukerei, 5 miles 
northeast of Ashdod. 

SHIELD, BUCK'LER, TAR'GET, a piece 
of defensive armor, in all ages before fire- 
arms rendered them useless, of different 
forms and sizes, not uniformly distinguish- 
ed in the A. V. ; usually round or oval. 
The large shield, tsinnah, 1 Chr. 12:24, 34, 
was sometimes borne before a warrior by 
an attendant when not in actual combat, 
1 Sam. 17:7, 41. A smaller shield, magen, 
Judg. 5 : 8, often translated " buckler," 
1 Chr. 5:18, was in common use, and the 2 
are often mentioned together as soldiers' 



equipments, 2 Chr. 14:8; Jer. 46:3; Ezek. 
23:24. Both Hebrew terms are applied to 
God as the protector of his people : magen 
in Gen. 15:1; Deut. 33:29; Psa. 84:9, 11; 
trinnah in Psa. 5:12. Earthly rulers are 
also called "shields," Psa. 47:9. From 

1 Kin. 10:16, 17 it appears that much more 
material was required for the trinnah or 
" target " than for the magen or " shield." 
Shields were borne on the left arm held 
by a thong near the elbow and another 
grasped by the hand, or with a central 
knob or handle. They were made with 
a light wooden framework covered with 
tough hides, and so might be burned, Ezek. 
39:9; often with projecting bosses or spikes, 
Job 15:26, and rounded and polished to 
turn aside weapons. Sometimes they were 
rimmed with iron or cased with gold, as 
the shields made by Solomon for religious 
or state processions, 1 Kin. 10:16, 17, taken 
by Shishak, and replaced by Rehoboam 
with bronze ones, 1 Kin. 14:25-28. Metal 
shields were used by the soldiers of Anti- 
ochus V., 1 Mace. 6:39. The surface was 
kept in good condition by applying oil, Isa. 
21:5, and was further protected by a cover 
when not in use, Isa. 22:6. Saul's shield 
was cast away in battle and " not anoint- 
ed," 2 Sam. 1:21. Shields protected the 
wearers in besieging cities, Isa. 37 : 33 ; 
Ezek. 26:8, being so interlocked as to form 
an unbroken front. The word rendered 
"shield" in Job 39:23; 1 Sam. 17:45, and 
"target" in 1 Sam. 17:6, means a lance or 
javelin. Paul the prisoner takes the shield 
of his Roman guard as the symbol of Chris- 
tian faith, Eph. 6:16; 1 John 5:4; compare 

2 Sam. 22:36. See Arms. 
SHIGGA'ION, pi. SHIGIO'NOTH, Psa. 7, 

title ; variously derived and interpreted by 
Hebrew scholars: as a song or psalm, a 
song of praise or of lamentation, an irreg- 
ular lofty ode. "Upon Shigionoth," or 
"after the manner of the Shiggaion," Hab. 
3:1, may be a musical direction as to the 
accompaniment of the " prayer " or ode. 

SHI'HON, ruins, Josh. 19:19, a town of 
Issachar ; traced at Ayun esh-Shain, 3 miles 
northwest of Mount Tabor. 

SHI'HOR, black, 1 Chr. 13:5. See River 
of Egypt and Sihor. 

SHI'HOR-LIB'NATH, black-white, a point 
in the boundary of Asher, Josh. 19:26, the 
Nahr Namein, a stream emptying into the 
Bay of Acre, a little southeast of that city. 

SHIL,' HIM, fotmlains, Josh. 15:32, a town 
in the south of Judah. See Sharuhen. 

SHIL'LEM, Gen. 46:24; Num. 26:49 
553 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHI 



called Shallum in i Chr. 7:13, recompe?ise ; 
a son of NaphtalL 

SHILO'AH, Isa. 8:6. See Siloam. 

SHI'LOH, Gen. 49:10= This term in Ja- 
cob's prophetic blessing upon Judah has 
been applied by some scholars to the town 
Shiloh — until Judah " come to Shiloh;" but 
this town did not then exist, nor was Judah 
there dethroned. The common view, sup- 
ported by the ancient Jewish and Christian 
versions (the Jewish Septuagint, the tar- 
gums of Onkelos and Jerusalem, the Ara- 
bic version, the Christian, Syriac, and Latin 
versions, and the Samaritan Pentateuch) 
refers the word to the Messiah. All are 
not, however, agreed as to the literal sig- 
nification of" Shiloh :" some translate, "till 
He come to whom it belongs" i. e. y the 
sceptre; comp. Ezek. 21:27; others, "the 
Peacemaker;" others still, " the . Desired 
One." The most probable meaning is " the 
Peaceful One," of whom Solomon, peaceful, 
was a type, and who is termed in Isa. 9:6 
"the Prince of Peace;" comp. John 14:27. 
The last clause of the verse is to be ren- 
dered, "and unto him shall the obedience 
of the peoples be," including heathen na- 
tions. Compare Matt. 11 : 28-30; 23:37, and 
Isaiah's description of the combined peace 
and power of the Messiah, Isa. 42 : 1-3. 
The prophecy thus falls into line with the 
previous divine announcements to Abra- 
ham, Isaac, and Jacob of a Seed in whom all 
the nations should be blessed, Gen. 12:3; 
22:18; 26:4; 28:14; comp. John 8:56; Gal. 
3:16, while it goes beyond them in defin- 
ing among Jacob's 12 sons the one from 
whom the Seed, the " Lawgiver between 
his feet," should descend; compare Num. 
24:17; Zech. 9:9, 10; Rev. 5:5. It is fur- 
ther expanded in such passages as Psalms 
2, 72, and no. King David and his line 
long held the sceptre of Judah, 1 Chr. 5:2, 
and Isaiah predicted the springing of a 
powerful " rod," an everlasting kingship, 
from the stock of Jesse, Isa. n : 1-12. The 
beginning of the fulfilment of the prophecy 
of the Messiah's reign was announced to 
Mary by Gabriel, Luke 1 :32, 33. After the 
fall of the actual kingdom of Judah, the 
tribal name survives as that of a national- 
ity, the term Yehudim, Judaeans or Jews, in- 
cluding representatives of the other tribes, 
Neh. 1:2; Esth. 2:5; 3:6; John 5:1; Acts 
26:3-7. The final passing away of the civil 
power from Judah, indicated by the " tax- 
ing " at Christ's birth, and completed in the 
destruction of Jerusalem, did not occur till 
Shiloh had come, to assume a spiritual 
554 



sceptre which is in no danger of ever pass- 
ing away. 

SHI'LOH, peace, rest, a city of Ephraim, 
19 miles north of Jerusalem, n south of 
Shechem, about 2 miles east of the main 
road between them via Bethel, Judg. 21:19. 
Here, when the Promised Land was sub- 
dued, the Israelites assembled and estab- 
lished the ark and tabernacle, previously 
at Gilgal; here Joshua allotted the portions 
of the 7 tribes not already located, Josh. 
18; 19; to Eleazar and Joshua and the el- 
ders at Shiloh the Levites applied for their 
promised cities, Josh. 21 ; from Shiloh Josh- 
ua solemnly dismissed the tribes whose 
possessions were east of the Jordan, Josh. 
22:1-9, and hence a deputation of inquiry 
was sent to them on a rumor of idolatry, 
ver. 10-34. The tabernacle and ark, the 
centre of the worship of Jehovah, remained 
at Shiloh through the period of the Judges, 
Judg. 18:31. Here, at an annual "feast of 
the Lord," the remnant of the Benjamites 
seized maidens of Shiloh for wives, Judg. 
21 : 19-23 ; comp. Exod. 15 : 20; Psa. 68 : 25. 
At Shiloh Hannah's vow was made and ful- 
filled, 1 Sam. 1:8 to 2:11 ; and here Samuel 
grew up and was called to be a prophet of 
the Lord, 1 Sam. 2:18-21, 26; 3; 4:1. The 
ark, removed by Saul to the battlefield and 
captured by the Philistines in Eli's time, 
1 Sam. 4:2-22, was not returned to Shiloh, 
ch. 5:1 to 7:2; 2 Sam. 6:2, n, 12 ; and the 
tabernacle was transferred to Gibeon, 
1 Kin. 3:4; 1 Chr. 16:39. This catastrophe 
was a striking proof that sacred objects 
and forms have no talismanic virtue, but 
will surely fail those who rely upon them 
instead of God. The degradation of Shi- 
loh because of the iniquities of Israel, 
1 Sam. 2:12-17, 22-25, is referred to by 
Asaph, Psa. 78:58-60, and cited by leremi- 
ah as a type of God's vengeance on Jeru- 
salem and the temple, Jer. 7:12-14; 26:6, 9. 
The prophet Ahijah was a resident of Shi- 
loh, 1 Kin. 11:29; 12:15; 14:2-4. See also 
Jer. 41:5. In Jerome's time, A. D. 340-420, 
Shiloh was in ruins. 

Shiloh has been identified with Seilun, 
where, on a low hill, surrounded by higher 
hills, are ruins of a comparatively modern 
village, with hewn stones and foundations 
of a much earlier date. In a little valley 
half a mile northeast are a spring and pool 
affording an abundant supply of water— 
the scene probably of the dance and cap- 
ture of the "daughters of Shiloh;" and 
near by are rock-hewn tombs, among which 
Jewish tradition places those of Eli and hfa 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHI 




SEILUN, FORMERLY SHILOH. 



sons. Traces of terraces are on the hills, 
proofs of former cultivation. The position 
of Shiloh was both central and secluded, 
and well fitted for the national sanctuary 
of Israel. 

SHILO'NI, Neh. 11:5. See Shilonites. 

SHI'LONITE, an appellation of Ahijah, 
as a native or resident of Shiloh, 1 Kin. 
11:29; comp. ch. 14:2, 4. 

SHI'LONITES, THE, 1 Chr. 9:5, descend- 
ants of Judah's son Shelah, Gen. 46:12; 
elsewhere called Shelanites, Num. 26:20, 
and in Neh. 11:5 Shiloni, A. V. 

SHIM'EA, SHIM'EAH, rumor, I., a bro- 
ther of David, 2 Sam. 13:3; 21:21; 1 Chr. 
20:7; called Shammah, 1 Sam. 16:9, and 
Shimma, 1 Chr. 2:13. 

II. A son of David and Bath-sheba, 1 Chr. 
3:5; called also Shammua, 2 Sam. 5:14; 

1 Chr. 14:4. 

III. A Merarite Levite, 1 Chr. 6:30. 

IV. A Gershonite Levite, 1 Chr. 6:39. 
SHIM'EAM or SHIM'EAH, splendor, a 

Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8:32; 9:38. 

SHIM'EATH,/aw<?, an Ammonitess, mo- 
ther of Zabad or Jozachar, one of the 2 
murderers of king Joash, 2 Kin. 12:21; 

2 Chr. 24:26. 

SHIM' 'EI, famous, the name of 14 or more 
Hebrews, of whom the following may be 
specified: 

I. A son of Gershon the son of Levi, 
Num. 3:18; 1 Chr. 6:17, 42; 23:7, 9, 10; 



called Shimi, Exod. 6:17. It is to his de- 
scendants, probably, that reference is made 
in Zech. 12:13; comp. Num. 3:21. 

II. The son of Gera, a Benjamite and a 
kinsman of Saul, who insulted king David 
when fleeing before Absalom, and humbled 
himself on David's return. On both occa- 
sions David spared and forgave him ; but 
when dying he cautioned Solomon against 
a man who knew no restraints but those 
of fear. Shimei gave his parole never to 
leave Jerusalem, but broke it by pursuing 
his fugitive servants to Gath, and was put 
to death on returning, 2 Sam. 16:5-14; 
19:16-23; 1 Kin. 2:8, 9, 36-46. 

III. An officer under David, and perhaps 
under Solomon, 1 Kin. 1:8; 4:18. 

SHI'MI, Exod. 6:17, and SHIM'ITES, 
Num. 3:21. See Shimei, I. 

SHIM'MA, hearing, 1 Chr. 2:13. See 
Shimea, I. 

SHIM'RITH, watchful , a Moabitess, mo- 
ther of Jehozabad, one of the murderers 
of king Joash, 2 Chr. 24:26, who in 2 Kin. 
12:21 is called the son of Shomer. 

SHIM'ROM, watch, 1 Chr. 7:1, A. V., 
properly SHIM'RON, a son of Issachar, 
Gen. 46:13; Num. 26:24. 

SHIM'RON, watch, an ancient city of 
Canaan, whose king, under Jabin, opposed 
Joshua and was defeated, Josh. 11:1 ; comp. 
ver. 5-12; probably the same as Shimron- 
meron, whose king was one of the 31 allies 

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defeated by Joshua, Josh. 12:20. Shimron 
was allotted to Zebulun, Josh. 19: 15. It is 
traced at Semuniyeh, 14 miles southeast of 
Haifa, and 11 miles west of Mount Tabor. 

SHIM'RONITES, descendants of Issa- 
char's son, Shimron, Num. 26:24. 

SHIM'RON-ME'RON, Josh. 12:20. See 
Shimron. 

SHI'NAR, THE LAND OF, contained the 
cities of Babel, Erech, Calneh, and Accad, 
Gen. 10:10. In this region the confusion 
of tongues occurred, Gen. 11:2-9. One of 
its kings, retreating with his allies from a 
successful inroad on Canaan, was pursued 
and routed by Abram, Gen. 14:1-17. Its 
textile fabrics were early and widely prized, 
Josh. 7:21 (Heb. "garment of Shinar"). 
The term is used by Isaiah, 11: 11, Daniel, 
1:2, and Zechariah, 5:11. Shinar is prob- 



ably to be identified with the Sumer or 
Shumer of the cuneiform inscriptions, a 
name there denoting apparently the south- 
ern portion of the "land of the Chalde- 
ans," " Babylonia," or " Mesopotamia " in 
its wider sense, Acts 7:2. "Sumer and 
Accad " frequently occurs in the inscrip- 
tions as a name for the whole rich and 
populous alluvial plain along the Euphra- 
tes and Tigris, from the Persian Gulf (which 
anciently extended northward beyond the 
present junction of the 2 rivers) to a point 
a little north of modern Bagdad, more than 
200 miles. A highly -cultivated non-She- 
mitic people appear to have early held this 
region, compare Gen. 10:8-10, before the 
Shemitic Chaldaeans subjugated it, adopt- 
ing the civilization and preserving the dia- 
lect of the conquered race. 




A LARGE ANCIENT SHIP: FROM A PAINTING AT POMPEII. 



SHIP. The Hebrews were not a mari- 
time people. The Mediterranean and Red 
Sea ports were usually in the hands of their 
heathen neighbors. When Solomon re- 
quired timber from Lebanon, the ships of 
Tyre conveyed it to Joppa, 2 Chr. 2:16; 
comp. Ezra 3:7; and when he undertook 
foreign navigation he again had recourse 
to Phoenicians, 1 Kin. 9:26-28, who were 
long celebrated for the ships and their ex- 
tensive commerce. The attempt of Jehosh- 
aphat in foreign commerce was a failure, 
1 Kin. 22:48. The people of the northern 
kingdom, by contact with the Phoenicians, 
may have acquired some naval skill ; comp. 
the prophetic "blessing" of Jacob upon 
Zebulun, Gen. 49:13, and of Moses upon 
Zebulun and Issachar, Deut. 33:18, 19; 
also Deborah's rebuke to Dan and Asher, 
Judg. 5: 17; and Ahaziah's offer of aid to 
Jehoshaphat, 1 Kin. 22:49; 2 Chr. 20:35, 36. 
Of the Phoenician ships, with their cedar 
masts, oaken oars, and sails of Egyptian 
cloth, some idea may be gained from Ezek. 
27, a description in accord with represen- 
tations of Phoenician galleys in Assyrian 
sculptures. For an account of a tempestu- 
ous voyage in an ancient merchant-ship 
556 



from the port of Joppa, see Jonah 1. These 
ships, Prov. 31:14, which also carried pas- 
sengers, are those commonly referred to in 
the Old Testament ; but the following pas- 
sages relate to ships of war, Num. 24:24; 
Dan. 11:30, 40, and probably Isa. 33:21; 
Ezek. 30:9. Ancient Egyptian monuments 
represent ships with a central mast, a large 
square sail, and also many rowers. War- 
ships were often armed with a sharp pro- 
jecting prow, and were used as rams. The 
Chaldaeans doubtless had ships on the Per- 
sian Gulf, Isa. 43: 14. The " ships " on the 
Sea of Galilee were fishing-boats, impelled 
by oars, Mark 6:48; John 21:6, and some- 
times having a mast and sail, Luke 8:23. 
The verb "was full " in Mark 4:37 is better 
rendered in the R. V., " was filling." Paul 
made many voyages in ships, and was sev- 
eral times wrecked, 2 Cor. 11:25. In his 
voyage as a prisoner to Rome he sailed in 
3 ships, the first probably being a coasting 
vessel of small size, Acts 27:2, R. V., the 
others large Alexandrian corn-ships, Acts 
27:6; 28:11. In Greek and Roman ships 
there were usually several banks of row- 
ers, one above another, who could propel 
the vessel steadily and swiftly without the 



SHI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHI 



aid of a sail. Their merchant-ships were 
■of larger and heavier build, often from 500 
to 1,000 tons burden, and relied upon sails ; 



that in which Paul was wrecked carried 
276 persons, besides a cargo of wheat, 
Acts 27:37, 38. Besides the large mast, 




PART OF A WAR-GALLEY : FROM AN ANCIENT BAS-RELIEF. 



with a long yard and a large square sail, 
top-sails were also used, and a fore-sail 
attached to a smaller mast at the bow, ver. 
40, R. V. In a gale the heavy top-gear of 
the mainmast was taken down, ver. 17, 
R. V. The great strain on the mainmast 
was sometimes relieved and prevented 
from causing leaks by the use of "helps," 
i. e., cables or chains passed around the 
ship to tighten it, ver. 17. Ships were 
steered by two large paddle-rudders pro- 
jecting through row-locks, one on each side 
of the stern ; these were lashed up when 
at anchor, out of the way of the ground- 
tackle, and loosed when again needed, 
ver. 40, R. V. The anchors resembled 
those of modern times, and were frequent- 
ly cast from the stern, ver. 29. The ship's 
outfit included a boat, ver. 16, 17, 30, 32. 
Ships were often highly ornamented at the 
prow and stern, which were similar in 
shape; an eye being often painted on each 
side of the bow, ver. 15, R. V.— literally 
" could not look at the wind." The " sign " 
by which a vessel was known was often a 
sculptured image of its tutelar divinity, 
Acts 28:11. An ancient ship could sail 7 
miles an hour. Having no compasses, 
ancient navigators guided their course by 
the heavenly bodies, Acts 27:20, making a 
harbor on dark nights if practicable, Acts 
20:13-16; 21:1, and not willingly remain- 



ing at sea in winter, when the sky was 
often obscured, Acts 27:9, 12; 28:11. The 
Romans spoke of the sea as " closed " from 
November till March, when it was "open- 
ed " again. Luke's faithful description of 
the voyage and shipwreck of Paul and him- 
self, Acts 27 ; 28, gives many details as to 
ancient navigation confirmed by such noti- 
ces as we find in classic authors, ancient 
sculptures, pictures, and coins, and the re- 
sults of modern study. See Tarshish. 

SHIPH'MITE, 1 Chr. 27:27, probably a 
native of Shepham. 

SHIPH'RAH and PU'AH, midwives in 
Egypt, who through the fear of God spared 
the newborn sons of the Hebrews, contrary 
to the orders of the king. God rewarded 
their kindness to his people, though con- 
demning no doubt the untruthfulness of 
their excuse to the king. He "made them 
houses," that is, probably gave each of 
them a numerous family, Exod. 1:15-21. 

SHI'SHA, 1 Kin. 4:3. See Seraiah, II. 

SHI'SHAK, a king of Egypt who afforded 
a refuge to Jeroboam fleeing from Solo- 
mon, 1 Kin. 11:40. Perhaps incited by 
Jeroboam when the latter had become king 
over Israel, Shishak, with a vast army of 
subjects and allies, invaded the kingdom 
of Judah in the 5th year of Rehoboam, 
about B. C. 969, captured his fortified cit- 
ies, and appeared before Jerusalem, forcing 

557 



SHI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHI 



Rehoboam to yield to him the treasures of 
the temple and of the royal palace, inclu- 
ding the golden shields made by Solomon, 
I Kin. 14:25, 26; 2 Chr. 12:2-9; compare 
11:5-10. 

Shishak is identified with the Sesonchis 
of the Egyptian priest-historian Manetho, 
B. C. 300, the Sheshonk I. of the monu- 
ments, first king of the 22d or Bubastite 
dynasty. He overthrew the rival dynasty 
of Tanis (into which probably Solomon had 
married) and that of Thebes, and estab- 
lished his court at Bubastis, taking as the 
title of his standard, " He who attains roy- 
alty by uniting the two regions " — Upper 
and Lower Egypt. Shishak has left a rec- 
ord of his conquests, including that of Ju- 
dah, on a wall of the great temple at Kar- 
nak, Thebes. He is represented in a large 
bas-relief as preparing to inflict death, in 
the presence of the chief Theban god Amun, 
upon a group of captives. Each conquered 
country or city is personified, its name be- 




ing written in an oval shield attached to 
the figure. One of these figures, with He- 
brew features, has on its shield the charac- 
ters which stand for Joudh-Malek, followed 
by the character for land, the whole signi- 
fying " kingdom of Judah." See Reho- 
boam. Many other symbols are believed 
to denote fortified cities of Judah and Le- 
vitical cities of Israel — which it is conjee- 
553 



tured Jeroboam may have abandoned to 
Shishak to punish them for adhering to 
Rehoboam and leaving Israel, 2 Chr. 11:13, 
14. Shishak reigned at least 21 years, and 
was succeeded by his son Osorthon or 
Usarken, possibly the Zerah of Asa's reign. 
See Pharaoh and Zerah. 

SHIT'TAH-TREE, Isa. 41:19. See Shit- 

TIM-W r OOD. 

SHIT'TIM, the acacias, the place where 
the Moabites and the Midianites, by Ba- 
laam's advice, seduced Israel into sin, for 
which a terrible punishment was inflicted 
on the Israelites, Num. 25, and later upon 
the Midianites, Num. 31. Shittim, or Abel- 
shittim, was the last encampment of the 
Israelites before crossing the Jordan into 
Canaan, Num. 33:49; Josh. 2:1 ; 3:1. It is 
the well-watered plain extending from the 
foot of the mountains of Moab to the Jor- 
dan, and was named from the number of 
acacias which grew there. It is now called 
Ghor es-Seisaban, and is described by 
Tristram as "the largest and richest oasis 
in the whole Ghor" or Jordan depression. 
At the southern extremity is Suweimeh, 
identified by Dr. Merrill and others with 
Beth-jeshimoth; and at the northern mar- 
gin is Tell Refrain, whose " marshy ver- 
dure," according to Tristram, identifies it 
with Abel-shittim, meadow of the acacias. 

SHIT'TIM, THE VALLEY or ivinier-tor- 
rent OF, Joel 3:18; probably some wady 
on the west of the Jordan ; by some identi- 
fied with the gorge through which the Kid- 
ron in rainy seasons flows to the Dead Sea ; 
comp. Ezek. 47:1, 8. 

SHIT'TIM -WOOD, Exod. 25:5. The 
wood of the shittah-tree, Isa. 41 : 19, was 
much employed in constructing the taber- 
nacle and its furniture : the boards, bars, 
and pillars of the building, the ark, the 
show-bread table, and the incense-altar, 
with their staves, were of shittim-wood 
overlaid with gold; the burnt-offering altar 
and its staves were of the same wood over- 
laid with brass, Exod. 25 ; 26 ; 27 ; 30 ; 36 ; 
yj ; 38. The shittim-wood is identified 
with the acacia, several varieties of which 
grow in Egypt, Arabia, and Palestine. 
The Acacia seyal is the only timber-tree 
of anv considerable size growing in the 
deserts of Arabia ; it is scattered over the 
Sinaitic peninsula, and is found on the 
western shore of the Dead Sea, where it 
gives its name to wady Seyal, south of Ain 
Jidy, or En-gedi. See Shittim. The seyal 
at a distance resembles an apple-tree. Its 
wood is close-grained, hard, and of a brown 



SHO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHU 



color, being both handsome and exceed- 
ingly durable. The leaves are decom- 
pound and pinnate, the blossoms cluster in 
yellow, fibrous-looking balls, and the fruit 




resembles a locust-pod. The bark is yel- 
low and smooth, and the branches abound 
in long, sharp thorns. From cracks or in- 
cisions in the seyal and some other acacias 
exudes the well-known gum-arabic, which 
the Arabs gather and sell and sometimes 
use as food. They convert much of the 
wood into charcoal. The trunk is some- 
times 3 or 4 feet in diameter. 

SHO'A, Ezek. 23:23, is variously inter- 
preted, as a title, noble, or the name of a 
place, or of some Chaldaean tribe. 

SHO'BACH, the general of Hadarezer, 
king of Syria-Zoba; he was defeated and 
killed in a battle with David, 2 Sam. 10: 15- 
18. He is called Shophach in 1 Chr. 19:16- 
18. 

SHO'BI, taking captive, a chief Ammon- 
ite who befriended David in his flight from 
Absalom, 2 Sam. 17:27-29, son of a former 
king, Nahash, also friendly to David, 2 Sam. 
10:1, 2; comp. Prov. 17:17; 27:10. 

SHO'CHO, 2 Chr. 28:18; SHO'CHOH, 
1 Sam. 17:1;. SHO'CO, 2 Chr. 11:7. See 
Socoh. 

SHOES. See Sandals. In Egypt and 
Syria taking off one's slipper and striking 
another with it, or throwing it at him, is 
still a customary token of renunciation, as 
of an unworthy son— and perhaps, play- 
fully, of a daughter leaving her parents at 
her marriage; in lieu of this the modern 
Arab sometimes exclaims, "My shoe at 
3'ou!" Compare Ruth 4:7, 8; Psa. 60:8; 
108:9, and the treatment of the refractory 
brother by the Mosaic law, Deut. 25:5-9. 
A missionary in Alexandria reports that 
the Moslems thus renounce their relatives 
converted to Christianity. 



SHO'MER, keeper, I., an Asherite, called 
also Shamer, 1 Chr. 7:32, .34. 

II. Parent, perhaps father, of Jehozabad, 
2 Kin. 12:21; comp. 2 Chr. 24:26. 

SHO'PHACH, 1 Chr. 19:16, 18. See Sho- 

BACH. 

SHO'PHAN, bareness, Num. 32:35, prob- 
ably to be connected with the " Atroth " 
preceding, to distinguish it from the Ata- 
roth of ver. 34, both in Gad, east of the 
Jordan. 

SHOSHAN'NIM, lilies, Psa. 45; 69, titles; 
SHOSHAN'NIM-E'DUTH, lilies, a testimo- 
ny, Psa. 80, title ; SHU'SHAN-E'DUTH, lily, 
a testimony, Psa. 60, title. These expres- 
sions are all inscribed " to the chief musi- 
cian," and may safely be regarded as indi- 
cating the melody " after " or " in the man- 
ner" of which — A. V. "upon" — the Psalm 
was to be sung. Some, however, see in 
the terms an allusion to the subject-matter 
of the Psalm ; and others regard the shu- 
shan, pi. shoshannim, as a lily-shaped mu- 
sical instrument, a cymbal, a trumpet, or 
an instrument with 6 strings. 

SHOULD, John 6:71, would; in Acts 
23:27, "was about to be." 

SHOUL'DER. Burdens being commonly 
borne on the shoulder, Num. 7:9; Psa. 
81:6, to "bow the shoulder" denotes ser- 
vitude, Gen. 49:15, and to "withdraw" it 
denotes rebellion, Neh. 9:29; Zech. 7:11. 

SHOVEL, Isa. 30:24, a winnowing fork 
or fan. 

SHOW-BREAD. See BREAD. 

SHRINE. See Diana. 

SHROUD, Ezek. 31:3, cover or shelter. 

SHU'A, noble, daughter of Heber, 1 Chr. 
7:32. 

SHU'AH, depression, a son of Abraham 
and Keturah, Gen. 25:2; 1 Chr. 1:32; per- 
haps the progenitor of Bildad the Shuhite, 
Job 2:11. 

SHU'AH, prosperity, a descendant of 
Caleb son of Hur, 1 Chr. 4:11. 

SHU'AL, jackal, or fox, THE LAND OF; 
a region towards which one of the maraud- 
ing Philistine bands went from Michmash, 
1 Sam. 13:17; probably the range south- 
east of Shechem, on the east border of 
Ephraim, overlooking the Jordan valley. 
See Shalim and Zeboim. 

SHU'HAM, a son of Dan, Num. 26:42; 
called Hushim in Gen. 46:23. 

SHU'HITE. See Shuah. 

SHU'LAMITE, the title of the bride in 
Solomon's Song, 6:13; literally the Shulam- 
mitess, Heb. hash-Shulammith, which some 
interpret as equivalent to "the Shunam- 

559 



SHU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHU 



mitess," or woman of Shunem— as if con- 
trasting the rustic origin of the bride with 
that of " the daughters of Jerusalem," Song 
i :5, 6, etc. Others regard it as a figurative 
proper name, derived from the same root 
with Solomon — Heb. Shelomoh, peaceful — 
and corresponding with it as a feminine 
form, as Julia with Julius. Still others 
consider it a simple appellative, meaning 
"the peaceful." See Shunammite and 
Shunem. 

SHU'NAMMITE, a female of Shunem; 
applied to Abishag, i Kin. 1:3, 15; 2:17, 21, 
22; and to Elisha's hostess, 2 Kin. 4:12, 25, 
.36; comp. ver. 8. See Shunem. 

SHU'NEM, double resting-place, a city in 
Issachar, Josh. 19:18. Here was the first 
encampment of the Israelites before the 
battle of Gilboa, 1 Sam. 28:4. Abishag, 
king David's nurse, was of Shunem, 1 Kin. 
1:3; also the woman who entertained Eli- 
sha and whose son the prophet restored to 
life, 2 Kin. 4:8-37. It is now represented 
b>y the village of Sulem, on the southwest- 
ern slope of Jebel Duhy, " the hill of Mo- 
reh," 6 miles south of Tabor and north of 
Gilboa, 3^2 miles north of Jezreel. It is a 
mud hamlet, with a fountain and trough, 
surrounded by fine grain-fields and fruit- 
gardens, and looking westward across the 
plain of Esdraelon to Mount Carmel. Its 
people are rude and unfriendly, and its 
boys are still to be seen playing bare-head- 
ed in the grain-fields under the scorching 
sun. 

SHUR, wall or fort, a place east of the 
northeastern border of Egypt. Hagar, 
fleeing from Sarah, was " in the way to 
Shur" when met by the angel, Gen. 16:7; 
comp. ver. 17. Abraham "dwelt between 
Kadesh and Shur," Gen. 20:1; it is men- 
tioned as one of the boundaries of the Ish- 
maelites, Gen. 25:18, and as an ancient 
boundary of the Amalekites, the southern 
Geshurites, and the Gezrites, 1 Sam. 15:7; 
27:8; comp. Josh. 13:2,3. The Israelites, 
after crossing the Red Sea, entered upon 
the wilderness of Shur, Exod. 15:22, 23, 
called also the wilderness of Etham, Num. 
t,^ : 8. The region indicated stretched along 
the northeastern frontier of Egypt, inclu- 
ding the district now called el-Jiffar — white 
shifting sands with a few fertile spots. 
E. H. Palmer derives the name Shur from 
the long wall -like range which stretches on 
the east of Suez northward to the Mediter- 
ranean, and which Dr. Trumbull claims 
was so fortified and guarded as to prevent 
the Israelites from attempting the northern 
560 



and direct route from Egypt, and turn 
them to the south by the way of Suez, 
Exod. 13: 17, 18. 

SHU'SHAN, lily, the capital of Elam and 
a very ancient city. It is mentioned in the 
inscriptions of Assur-bani-pal as captured 
by him, about B. C. 650, and a plan of the 
city is given. It passed into the hands 
of the Babylonians at the division of the 
Assyrian Empire between Nabopolassar of 
Babylon and Cyaxares of Media. In the 3d 
year of Belshazzar Daniel was at Shushan 
"on the king's business," when he beheld 
"the vision of the ram and the he-goat," 
Dan. 8:1, 2, 27. The conquest of Babylon 
by Cyrus transferred Shushan to the Per- 
sians, and it became the capital and chief 
residence of the Achaemenian kings, being 
cooler than Babylon and more central than 
Ecbatana and Persepolis, their summer 
resorts. Darius Hystaspis founded at Shu- 
shan the grand palace referred to in Esther 
as occupied by his son and successor Xer- 
xes, Esth. 1:2, 5. Nehemiah was at Shu- 
shan when he received from Jerusalem the 
intelligence that led him to seek leave from 
Artaxerxes to rebuild the walls of the holy 
city, Neh. 1:1-28. As Susa, Shushan is 
often mentioned by classic authors as the 
Persian capital, the province of Elam being 
called Susis or Susiana, and also Cissia. 
The city retained its eminence till the Mac- 
edonian conquest, when Alexander found 
there treasure worth ^12,000,000. After 
this period Susa declined and Babylon in- 
creased. It was taken by Antigonus, B. C. 
315. The Moslems gained Susiana A. D. 
640. 

The site of Shushan has been identified 
with the ruins of Sus or Shush in lat. 32 
10' N., long. 48 26' E., on the east bank of 
the Shapur River, 275 miles east of Baby- 
lon, 175 miles north of the Persian Gulf. 
See Ulai. The remains consist of 4 prin- 
cipal mounds, in a circuit of 3 miles, with 
lesser mounds eastward, the whole within 
a circumference of about 7 miles. Of the 
4 chief mounds, the westernmost, of earth, 
gravel, and sun-dried brick, measures 
about 2,580 feet around the summit, the 
highest point being 119 feet above the river. 
Its sides are steep, and it is believed to 
have been the citadel. West of it is the 
traditional tomb of Daniel. East of the 
citadel mound is the great central platform, 
covering more than 60 acres, and from 40 
to 70 feet high. The square northern 
mound shows the remains of a vast palace : 
the central hall, about 200 feet square, had 



SHU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SID 



36 columns, probably about 60 feet high. 
Adjoining on the north, east, and west 
were 3 porches, each with 12 columns, and 
each 200 feet wide by 6$ feet deep. In one 
of these the great feast of Ahasuerus was 
probably held. The "king's gate," where 
Mordecai sat, Esth. 2 : 19, 21, may have 
been the hall 100 feet square, 150 feet or 
more from the northern portico ; and this 
intervening apartment, the " inner court," 
where Esther implored the king's favor, 
ch. 5:1, 2. The "royal house," ch. 1 :g, and 
the "houses of the women," ch. 2:9, 11, 
would be south of the great central hall, 
between it and the citadel. Shush now 
abounds in wild beasts — lions, wolves, 
boars, etc., Ezek. 33:24. The summer heat 
is intense, but is sometimes mitigated by 
breezes from the mountain range 25 miles 
eastward. Spring in this region is delight- 
ful ; and after the winter rains the country 
is clothed with verdure and the air is laden 
with the scent of flowers. 

SHU'SHAN-E'DUTH, Psa. 80, title. See 
Shoshannim. 

SIB'BECHAI, or SIB'BECAI, a thicket, 
2 Sam. 21:18; 1 Chr. 11:29; 20:4; 27:11, 
one of David's heroes ; called Mebunnai 
in 2 Sam. 23:27. 

SIB'MAH, balsam, SHIB'MAH, and SHE'- 
BAM, Num. 32:3, a town beyond the Jor- 
dan, rebuilt or fortified by the tribe of 
Reuben, ver. 38; Josh. 13:15, 19. The Is- 
raelites conquered this region from the 
Amorites, as the latter had taken it from 
the Moabites, Num. 21:25-31. After the 
trans-Jordanic tribes of Israel were carried 
captive by the Assyrians, the Moabites 
seem to have reoccupied their ancient pos- 
sessions, 2 Kin. 15:29; 1 Chr. 5:26. Sib- 
mah was renowned for its grapes, Isa. 16:6- 
11; Jer. 48:32. Jerome says it was hardly 
500 paces from Heshbon, and some trace 
of it may be preserved in the ruined vil- 
lage es-Sameh, 4 miles northeast of Hes- 
ban. 

SIB'RAIM, double hill, a landmark in the 
northern boundary of Israel, between Da- 
mascus and Hamath, in the portion assign- 
ed to Dan in Ezekiel's vision of the resto- 
ration of the tribes of Israel, Ezek. 47:16; 
comp. ver. 13-17; 40:1-4; 48:1. 

SI'CHEM, Gen. 12:6, A. V. See She- 

CHEM. 

SID'DIM, THE VALE OF, the scene of the 
battle between Chedorlaomer and his allies 
and the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, etc., 
Gen. 14:3, 8-10; it abounded in wells of 
bitumen, ver. 10. The Hebrew word here 
36 



rendered "vale" is the same used in the 
term "the valley of Jezreel " — a long low 
plain; probably a section of the Arabah 
somewhat lower than the rest is indicated. 
It is generally believed to have been the 
site of the cities afterwards destroyed. In 
Gen. 14:3 it seems to be identified with the 
Salt Sea. For the view which locates the 
vale of Siddim in part or wholly in the 
shallow southern portion of the Dead Sea, 
see Sea, III. Some scholars now main- 
tain that the cities stood at the northern 
end of the Dead Sea, and hence look for 
the vale of Siddim there also. Dr. Merrill 
suggests identifying it with the plain of 
Shittim, in which he claims to have found 
many bitumen pits. See Shittim. 

SI'DON, the Greek form of the name 
properly called in the Old Testament ZI'- 
DON (Heb. Tsidon, fish-town) ; a celebra- 
ted Phoenician city on the east coast of 
the Mediterranean, 20 miles north of Tyre, 
40 miles south of Beirut, and 123 north of 
Jerusalem, on the northern slope of a 
promontory jutting out from a narrow plain 
between the Lebanon range and the sea. 
Zidon, now Saida, was one of the oldest 
cities in the world, its founder having been 
apparently a great-grandson of Noah, Gen. 
10 : 15, 19 ; 49 : 13. At the division of Canaan 
" Great Zidon " was allotted to Asher, Josh. 
11:8; 19:28, but was never subdued by the 
Hebrews, Judg. 1:31; 3:2,; 10:12. In the 
time of the Judges it was still the chief city 
of the Phoenicians, Judg. 18:7, 28, who were 
generally called Zidonians by the Hebrews. 
Its principal deities were Baal and Ashto- 
reth, into whose worship the Israelites 
were at different times seduced, Judg. 10:6; 
1 Kin. 11: 1, 5, 33 ; 16:31 ; 2 Kin. 23:13. The 
Zidonians were among the oppressors of 
Israel in the time of the Judges, Judg. 10: 12. 
Friendly relations subsisted under David 
and subsequent kings, 2 Sam. 24:2, 6. Its 
people were noted for arts and manufac- 
tures, commerce and navigation, Isa. 23:2; 
Ezek. 27:8. They assisted in the construc- 
tion of Solomon's temple, 1 Kin. 5:6; 1 Chr. 
22:4, and in the rebuilding of the temple 
under Zerubbabel, Ezra 3:7. For much of 
their food supply they depended on Pales- 
tine, 1 Kin. 5:9, 11; Ezek. 27:17; Acts 12:20. 
Zarephath, the scene of one of Elijah's mir- 
acles, was in its territory, 1 Kin. 17:9; Luke 
4:26. Zidon continued under the govern- 
ment of its own kings, but after David's 
time was usually subordinate to Tyre, Isa. 
23 ; Ezek. 28. It joined Tyre in selling in- 
habitants of Judah into slavery, and was 

56i 



SID 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SID 




SAIDA, THE ANCIENT SIDON, FROM THE NORTH. 



threatened by the prophets, though less 
severely than Tyre, Isa. 23:4; Jer. 25:22; 
27:3; 47:4; Ezek. 28:20-23; 3 2 -3°; J°el 
3:4-8; com p. Amos 1:9. 

Homer celebrates the skill of Zidonian 
workmen, and mentions the presence of 
Zidonian ships at the siege of Troy. In 
the 9th, 8th, and 7th centuries B. C. Zidon 
was tributary to Assyria ; it was destroyed 
by Esar-haddon about B. C. 680, but was re- 
built. It was next subject to the Babyloni- 
ans, Jer. 27:2-7. Under the Persian domi- 
nation Zidon recovered preeminence over 
Tyre ; according to Herodotus, Zidonian 
ships and sailors were the best in the fleet 
which Xerxes led against Greece, B. C. 
480, and the king of Zidon sat next to Xer- 
xes in council. It rebelled iti the reign of 
Artaxerxes (III.) Ochus, but was betrayed 
to the Persians by its king, and 40,000 citi- 
zens perished in the flames of the city, kin- 
dled by themselves, B. C. 351. After the 
battle of Issus, Zidon, which had gradually 
recovered prosperity, willingly yielded to 
Alexander the Great, B. C. t,S3> an d its fleet 
assisted him in subduing Tyre. After his 
death it was subject to Egypt, and then to 
the Seleucidae; and fell under the Roman 
power B. C. 65, and became a wealthy and 
flourishing city. 

People from Tyre and Sidon, or the ad- 
jacent region, attended upon the teaching 
of Christ, Mark y.j, 8; Luke 6:17; com- 
pare Matt. 11:20-22; Luke 10:13, 14. The 
neighborhood, and possibly the city itself, 
562 



which is about 40 miles northwest of the 
Sea of Galilee, was visited by Jesus, Matt. 
15:21; Mark 7:24, 31, R. V. The gospel 
was preached tothe Jews at Sidon after the 
martyrdom of Stephen, Acts 11:19, an d 
Paul visited Christian friends there on his 
way to Rome, Acts 27:3. See also Acts 
12:20. 

A paster from Sidon attended the Coun 
cil of Nicaea, A. D. 325. Sidon surrendered 
to the Moslems after their conquest of Syria, 
A. D. 636. It suffered greatly during the 
Crusades, being repeatedly taken and lost, 
destroyed and rebuilt, between its capture 
by Baldwin I. in mi and its final recovery 
by the Moslems in 1291, when it was again 
destroyed. It gradually recovered, and 
until 1791 was the principal commercial 
city on the Syrian coast, a position to which 
Beirut has succeeded. 

Saida is beautifully situated on a prom- 
ontory with an island in front of it; its 
southern harbor is abandoned, and the 
northern is so choked with sand and stones 
as to be inaccessible to any but the small- 
est vessels. The city is surrounded by 
walls and has many large and fine houses. 
The population is estimated at 10,000, 7,000 
being Mohammedans and the rest Greek 
Catholics, Maronites, Orthodox Greeks, and 
Jews. Saida is the seat of a flourishing 
Protestant mission of the American Pres- 
byterian Board. There are remains of 
quays built of large hewn stones, frag- 
ments of marble and granite columns, Mo- 



SID 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SIL 



saic pavements, pottery, etc. ; and on the 
island ruins of a mediaeval castle. In the 
environs oranges, lemons, citrons, bana- 
nas, etc., grow luxuriantly. Numerous 
sepulchral caverns exist at the base of the 
mountains east of the city, and sarcophagi 
of various shapes and materials have been 
found in them — one, of black syenite, bear- 
ing the name of " Ashmanezer, king of the 
Sidonians," and found in 1855, being now 
in Paris. Its probable date was during 
the Persian domination. 

SIDO'NIANS, Deut. 3:9; Josh. 13:4, 6; 
Judg. ^:^; 18:7; 1 Kin. 5:6; 11 :i. See 
Sidon. 

SIEVE, SIFT. Ancient writers mention 
4 qualities of flour, implying sieves of dif- 
ferent degrees of fineness. The allusion in 
Isa. 30:28; Amos 9:9; Luke 22:31 seems to 
be to the husbandman's process of winnow- 
ing grain to remove the chaff, rather than 
to the household task of sifting meal or 
Hour; comp. Matt. 3:12. 

SIGN, a token, pledge, or proof, Gen. 
•9:12, 13; 17:11; Exod. 3:12; Isa. 8:18. 
Also a supernatural portent, Luke 21:11, 
25, and a miracle, regarded as a token of 
the divine agency, Exod. 4:7-9; Mark 8:11, 
The "signs" of the Old Testament were 
not evenly distributed, but seem to have 
been more numerous than usual at 3 crit- 
ical epochs : at the delivery of Israel from 
Egypt and their establishment in Pales- 
tine; at the period of their apostasy, in the 
days of Elijah and Elisha; and during their 
captivity, in the time of Daniel. The mir- 
acles of Christ were foretold, Isa. 42:7; 
Matt. 8:17. Comp. the question of John's 
■disciples and the miracles which Jesus 
wrought as his reply, Luke 7 : 19-23 ; also 
Matt. 12:23; John 7:31. Those recorded 
"by the evangelists were only specimens of 
many others, Matt. 4:23; 8:16; Luke 6:17- 
19; John 2:23. The "signs of heaven" 
were the movements and aspects of the 
heavenly bodies, from which heathen as- 
trologers pretended to obtain revelations, 
Isa. 44:25; Jer. 10:2. See Ship. 

SIG'NET. See Rings and Seal. 

SI'HON, sweeping away, bold. This king 
■of the Amorites was reigning at Heshbon 
on the Israelites' arrival at his border, he 
having driven out the Moabites to the south 
of the Arnon. On refusing passage to the 
Israelites and attacking them, he was slain 
and his army routed, and his dominions 
were divided between Reuben and Gad. 
Num. 21:21-31, 34; 32:1-5, 33-38; Deut. 
.2:24-36; Josh. 13:15-28. In several later 



books reference is made to his signal over- 
throw, Judg. 11 : 12-28; Psa. 135:10, 11. His 
name seems to be preserved in Shihan and 
Jebel Shihan, 3 or 4 miles south of the Ar- 
non, and the ruins called Shihan 4 miles 
south of the Jabbok. 

SI'HOR, properly SHI'HOR, black, turbid. 
In Isa. 23 : 3 ; Jer. 2 : 18, this word must mean 
the Nile; in Josh. 13:3; 1 Chr. 13:5, it is 
probably a name for " the river of Egypt," 
Num. 34:5; 1 Kin. 8:65, the desert winter- 
torrent now called wady el-Arish, a boun- 
dary between Canaan and Egypt, flowing 
northwest into the Mediterranean about 45 
miles southwest of Gaza. 

SI'LAS, a contraction of SILVA'NUS, a 
forester ; one of the chief men of the early 
church at Jerusalem, deputed, with Judas 
Barsabas, to accompany Paul and Barnabas 
to Antioch, bearing the decree of the coun- 
cil at Jerusalem as to the relations of Gen- 
tile converts to the Mosaic law, Acts 15:22- 
30; compare ver. 1-2 1. Silas, himself "a 
prophet " (see Prophet) spent some time 
preaching at Antioch, ver. 32, ^ After the 
separation of Paul and Barnabas, Silas ac- 
companied the former, A. D. 51, on his 2d 
missionary tour through the provinces of 
Western Asia, Acts 15:36-16: 10, and his 1st 
visit to Europe; he was imprisoned with 
Paul at Philippi, and seems to have been a 
Roman citizen, 16:11-40. After some stay 
at Thessalonica he parted from Paul at 
Beroea, Acts 17:1-15, but rejoined him at 
Corinth, Acts 18:5, perhaps bearing the 
donations referred to in 2 Cor. 11:9; Phil. 
4: 15- He may have returned with Paul to 
Syria, Acts 18 : 18-22. During the 18 months 
spent at Corinth, ver. 11, Paul sent 2 epis- 
tles to the Thessalonians, A. D. 52, 53, in 
the superscriptions to which he inserts the 
name of Silvanus, 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 
1:1; and in an epistle to the Corinthians, 
A. D. 57, he mentions the labors of Silva- 
nus among them, 2 Cor. 1 : 19. This fellow- 
worker with Paul is supposed to be the 
same whom Peter commends as a " faithful 
brother," and by whom he sent an epistle 
to the Jewish Christians in Asia Minor, 
1 Pet. 5:12. 

SILK has been from ancient times a pro- 
duct of China, whence it was early export- 
ed to India. It may have become known 
to the Hebrews through the foreign com- 
merce of Solomon and his successors ; com- 
pare Isa. 49:12. See Sinim. The word 
shesh, rendered "silk " in the A. V., Gen. 
41:42; Exod. 25 : 4, margins, and Prov. 3 1. -22, 
is however the same elsewhere correctly 

563 



SIL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SIL 



translated " fine linen." Ezekiel, 16: 10, 13, 
describing rich attire, uses another word, 
denoting something drawn out fine, which 
may well denote silk — which was probably 
well known in Assyria and Babylonia long 
before Ezekiel's captivity, B. C. 598. Pliny 
says that the raw material came to Greece 
from Assyria, and was worked up by Gre- 
cian women. Silk was among the valuable 
spoils taken from the Syrians by Judas 
Maccabaeus, about B. C. 166, 1 Mace. 4:23. 
It is mentioned among the luxuries of the 
typical Babylon, Rev. 18:12. Under the 
Roman emperors, a robe composed wholly 
of silk was accounted too luxurious for a 
man; and one of the extravagances im- 
puted to the emperor Heliogabalus, A. D. 
218-222, was that he wore such a robe. 

SIL/LA, 2 Kin. 12:20, a place near which 
king Joash was killed; apparently in the 
valley south of Jerusalem. 

SIL'LY, Hos. 7:11; 2 Tim. 3:6, simple 
and heedless, rather than foolish. 

SILO'AH, The pool of, Neh. 3: 15, prop- 
erly the pool of Shelach, i. e., the dart, a 
corruption probably of the more ancient 
form Shiloach — from shelach, to send, 
Isa. 8 : 6. The pool is believed to have been 
included within the ancient wall of Jeru- 
salem at the southeast corner. The " wa- 
ters of Shiloah," gently fertilizing the adja- 
cent gardens and symbolizing the blessings 
of Jehovah, in whom alone Judah should 
have trusted, Isaiah, 8 : 6-8, contrast with 
the desolating flood of the swollen Euphra- 
tes, symbolizing the kingdom of Assyria, 
alliance with which was secured by Ahaz 
to his impoverishment, 2 Kin. 16 : 5-9 ; 2 Chr. 
28:16-21; and whose forces were erelong 
to desolate the kingdom of Israel, 2 Kin. 
15:29 ; 17:3-6, and to sweep through Judah, 
2 Kin. 18:13-17; 19:32-36. See Siloam. 

SILO'AM, THE POOL OF, to which Christ 
sent the blind man, John 9:7, 11, is doubt- 
less the same as the above. Josephus lo- 
cates it at the mouth of the Tyropceon 
valley, and Jerome in the valley of the son 
of Hinnom. It still exists at the junction 
of these 2 valleys, at the foot of Ophel, 
the southward prolongation of the temple 
mount, and nearly 1,900 feet from the Ha- 
ram wall. Though the smallest of the 
ancient pools of Jerusalem, it alone retains 
its old name, under the Arabic form " Bir- 
ket Silwan." It is an artificial reservoir, 
about 52 feet long, 18 feet wide, and 19 feet 
deep, with steps leading to the bottom. 
The water does not now exceed 3 or 4 feet 
in depth, but flows off by an opening in the 
564 



southeastern end of the reservoir, in a sin- 
gle stream, afterwards subdivided to irri- 




POOL OF SILOAM. 

gate fruit and vegetable gardens in the 
valley below. The reservoir is partly cut 
out of the rock and partly of masonry, and 
is in a ruinous condition; broken columns 
extend from top to bottom around its sides, 
possibly supports of a building mentioned 
by travellers in the Middle Ages as built 
over the pool. The water is supplied from 




UPPER POOL, OR FOUNTAIN OF THK V 



the much smaller " Fountain of the Virgin," 
Ain Sitti Maryam— or "Fountain of the 
Mother of Steps," Ain Um ed-Deraj— about 
1,200 feet north of Siloam, on the eastern 
side of Ophel ; the connection is by a zig- 
zag underground channel cut through the 
rock, 1,708 feet long. This passage, whose 
height varies from 16 feet at its Siloam out- 
let to 16 inches in some places, was trav- 



SIL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SIL 



ersed by Dr. Robinson, and more recently 
by Barclay, Warren, and Sayce. Several 
side channels were discovered, now block- 
ed with rubbish, supposed to have once 
brought to the conduit water from the city 
pools or the temple wells. The water 
ebbs and flows at intervals varying with 
the season in the " Mother of Steps " — so 
named from the 2 nights of steps leading 
down to it — and less perceptibly in Siloam. 
In the upper fountain Dr. Robinson saw it 
rise a foot and fall again within 10 minutes. 
The water has a peculiar taste, slightly 
brackish, especially in the dry season, and 
probably due in part to the use of both 
reservoirs by washerwomen and tanners. 
In 1880 an inscription was discovered on 
the east side of this conduit, on a tablet 
set in the wall 19 feet from the Siloam end : 
6 lines of pure Biblical Hebrew, probably 
of the time of king Hezekiah, commemora- 
ting the skill of the excavators, who worked 
from both ends and met midway. The con- 
duit enters a rock-cut chamber 5 or 6 feet 
broad, at the northwest angle of Siloam, 
at the base of the cliff above the pool ; into 
this " vestibule " a few steps lead, under 
which the water falls into the pool. Flow- 
ing out from Siloam the stream seems an- 
ciently to have passed into another reser- 
voir before watering the gardens ; this 2d 
pool, perhaps 5 times as large as Siloam, 
is now abandoned and overgrown with 
trees ; it may have been the " king's pool " 
of Neh. 2:14; it is now called " Birket el- 
Hamra," the red pool. According to the 
Rabbins it was from the pool of Siloam that 
a Levite drew water to pour on the sac- 
rifice on "the last or great day" of the 
Feast of Tabernacles, in memory of the 
water from the rock of Rephidim, Exod. 
17:1-6, a custom thought to be alluded to 
by Christ, John 7:37, 38; and from Siloam 
was taken the water to be mingled with 
the ashes of a red heifer for purification. 
The gardens below Siloam, Isa. 8:6, are 
the greenest spot about Jerusalem. 

SILO'AM, The tower in, Luke 13:4, 5, 
at some point in the city wall, which it is 
believed then inclosed Siloam, Neh. 3:15, 
26. Christ teaches us in this passage that 
temporal calamities are not always proofs 
of special guilt, though the utmost suffer- 
ings here endured are far less than the sins 
even of the best of men deserve, Lam. 3 : 39. 

East of the Kidron valley, near the foot 
of the southern height of Mount Olivet and 
opposite the rough gray slope between the 
"Virgin's Fount" and Siloam pool, is the 



" kefr" or village Silwan, an irregular and 
dirty village on the site of an old quarry, 
and probably near the spot where altars 
were erected by Solomon to Chemosh and 
other idols, 1 Kin. 11:7; 2 Kin. 23:13. 

SILVA'NUS. See Silas. 

SIL/VER is first mentioned in Scripture 
in the history of Abraham, Gen. 13:2; 
20:16, though iron, gold, and lead are spo- 
ken of before the Deluge. It was used in 
building the tabernacle, Exod. 26:19-25, 
and the temple and its furniture, 1 Chr. 
28:14-17; 29:2-7; for trumpets, Num. 10:2, 
ornaments, Gen. 24:53, vessels of various 
sorts, Gen. 44:2; Num. 7:13, and in the 
covering and adornment of idols, Deut. 
29:17; Isa. 40:19; Dan. 5:4, 23; Acts 17:29. 
It was the chief medium of trade, and as 
such was anciently weighed out uncoined, 
Gen. 23:16; Job 28:15; Zech. 11:12. Sil- 
ver coins were common in New Testament 
times, Luke 15:8, 9. See Shekel and 
Money. The Hebrew word for silver, 
"keseph," also denotes money in general, 
like the French "argent." Solomon ob- 
tained silver, which in his reign was very 
abundant in Israel, 1 Kin. 10:27, from Ara- 
bia, 2 Chr. 9:14, and from Tarshish, 1 Kin. 
10:22; 2 Chr. 9:21 — whence also Tyre was 
supplied, Ezek. 27 : 12. The Midianites 
were nomads, yet gold and silver are men- 
tioned in Num. 31:22, 50-54; Judg. 8:24- 
26, as abundant among them ; a statement 
confirmed by Capt. Burton's discovery of 
ancient mine-workings in that land and an 
abundance of precious metals. Masses of 
almost pure silver are sometimes found, 
but it usually occurs in rock veins, Job 
28:1, in combination with other metals. 
The mining and refining of silver are re- 
ferred to in Psa. 12:6; Prov. 25:4; Ezek. 
22 : 18-22 ; and filigree work in Prov. 25: n. 
In Mai. 2>'-2> there is a reference to the so- 
called fulguration of silver, the sudden 
brightening of its surface at the end of the 
smelting process, when the last film of the 
oxide of lead disappears from the molten 
mass and the pure silver flashes forth. 

The silver breast and arms of the image 
in Nebuchadnezzar's vision, Dan. 2:32, are 
usually interpreted as representing the 
Medo - Persian Empire, which succeeded 
the Babylonian, ver. 39; comp. Dan. 5:28, 

3i- 

SIL'VERLING, Isa. 7:23, literally "sil- 
ver," as the word is elsewhere rendered; 
probably the quantity denoted by a shekel. 
See Silver. 

SIM'EON, hearing, I., the 2d son of Ja- 
565 



SIM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SIM 



cob and Leah, Gen. 29:33, one of "the 12 
patriarchs " or fathers of the tribes of Isra- 
el, Acts 7:8. His disposition was revenge- 
ful and violent. He and Levi took a vin- 
dictive and cruel revenge on Shechem and 
his people for the injury done to their sister 
Dinah, and were reproved by their father, 
Gen. 34. There is no record that Simeon 
relented, as Reuben and Judah did, in re- 
gard to the murderous purpose against 
Joseph, Gen. 37:18-33. It may have been 
as the one either actively or by omission 
guiltiest in this matter that Simeon was 
afterwards detained as a hostage by Jo- 
seph, Gen. 42:21-24, 33, 36. He was re- 
stored to his brethren on their 2d visit to 
Egypt, Gen. 43:23, and afterwards settled 
in Egypt with his 6 sons, Gen. 46: 10 ; Exod. 
1:1, 2. Jacob in his dying address rebukes 
the sin of Simeon and Levi in regard to 
the Shechemites, and predicts the visita- 
tion of it upon their descendants, Gen. 
49 : 5-7; comp. Exod. 20:5. See Simeon, 
Tribe of. 

II. An eminently pious man at Jerusa- 
lem, under the special influence of the Holy 
Spirit, Luke 2:21-35. He was awaiting 
" the consolation of Israel," compare Isa. 
40:1, and the Holy Spirit had revealed to 
him that he should live to behold the long- 
promised Messiah. So he was led to the 
temple just when Joseph and Mary pre- 
sented Jesus there in obedience to the law; 
comp. Exod. 13:12, 13; 22:29; Num. 18:15, 
16; Lev. 12:1-8; he took the child in his 
arms, gave thanks to God, and blessed 
Joseph and Mary, uttering a remarkable 
prediction of the effects of the Saviour's 
coming; comp. Isa. 42:6; 45:17-25; 49:6. 

III. Sym'eon Ni'ger, the black, Acts 
13:1, one of the prophets and teachers of 
the Christian church at Antioch. Some, 
without proof, identify him with Simon the 
Cyrenian. 

IV. This is the name given to Peter in 
Acts 15:14, though he is elsewhere called 
Simon. 

V. A name in the genealogy of Joseph, 
Luke 3:30. 

SIM'EON, TRIBE OF. At the 1st census 
in the wilderness of Sinai the tribe had 
59,300 men, Num. 1:1-3, 22. 23, being ex- 
ceeded only by Judah and Dan ; 38 years 
later, in the plains of Moab, Simeon was 
the smallest of the tribes, numbering only 
22,200 men, Num. 26:1-4, 14; the tribe may 
have suffered more severely than the rest 
in chastisement for special sins, if its char- 
acter is at all indicated by the flagrant and 
566 



obstinate wickedness of Zimri, one of its 
princes, Num. 25:6-9, 14. Simeon belonged 
to the " camp of Reuben," which encamped 
south of the tabernacle, and was 2d to the 
camp of Judah in the order of marching, 
Num. 2:10-16; 10:18-20. Simeon had its 
station on Gerizim, the mount of blessing, 
at the solemn ceremony at Shechem, Deut. 
27:12; comp. Josh. 8:33. In conformity 
with the prediction of Jacob that Simeon 
should be scattered and divided in Israel, 
Gen. 49:7, the territorial limits of the tribe 
seem to have been at the outset loosely 
defined and to have varied somewhat in 
later times. Their portion under Joshua 
was only a district set off from the territory 
previously assigned to Judah, Josh. 19: 1-9, 
including 18 cities, with villages, in the 
south of Judah ; comp. Josh. 15:26-32. In 
this region, which the Judahites helped the 
Simeonites to conquer, Judg. 1:3, 17, the 
latter were dwelling in David's time, 1 Chr. 
4:24-33, and their warriors helped to es- 
tablish him king over all Israel, 1 Chr. 
12:23-25, 38; 2 Sam. 5:1-3. At the divis- 
ion of the kingdom, B. C. 975, the Sime- 
onites apparently sympathized with the 
seceding northern tribes, Simeonites being 
mentioned among the "strangers" outside 
of Judah and Benjamin who were affected 
by the reformation of Asa, B. C. 941, 2 Chr. 
15:9-13; and again in the reformation of 
Josiah, B. C. 630-624, 2 Chr. 34:6-9, which 
extended to the " remnant of Israel " left 
after the Assyrian captivity, the cities of 
Simeon are so classed with Manasseh, 
Ephraim, and Naphtali as to suggest that 
a part of the tribe had been " scattered " 
into the northern kingdom. In the earlier 
reign of Hezekiah, B. C. 726-697, two expe- 
ditions of Simeonites had conquered terri- 
tory south and east of their original por- 
tion, 1 Chr. 4:34-43- The name of Simeon 
is omitted from the benedictions of Moses, 
Deut. 33, but is mentioned in Ezekiel's vis- 
ion of the restoration of Israel, in which the 
tribe is placed between Benjamin and Issa- 
char, Ezek. 48:24, 33; and in the vision of 
John, Rev. 7:7. 

SIM'EONITES, members of the tribe of 
Simeon, Num. 25:14; 26:14. Judith, the 
heroine of a story in the Apocrypha, is rep- 
resented as a Simeonite, Judith 8:1; 9:2, 
also her husband Manasses, 8:2, and Ozi- 
as, a governor of their city Bethulia, near 
the plain of Jezreel, 6:14, 15. 

SI'MON, a contraction for Simeon, or 
borrowed by the post-captivity Jews from 
the Greeks. 



SIM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SIN 



I. One of the 12 apostles, Matt. 4:18. 
See Peter. 

II. Another of the 12 apostles, distin- 
guished as " the Cananaean," Matt. 10 : 4, 
R. V., or "zealot," Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13, 
R. V. The " Zelotes " of Luke is the Greek 
equivalent for the Chaldee term used by 
Matthew and Mark, 3: 18, which has no ref- 
erence to Canaan or Cana, but is derived 
from the Hebrew kana, zeal, and desig- 
nates Simon as a member of the faction of 
the Zealots, fierce defenders of the Mosaic 
law and ritual. 

III. One of the " brethren " of Jesus, Matt. 
13:55; Mark 6:3. Some have supposed 
him the same with Simon Zelotes, or with 
the Symeon who succeeded James in the 
pastorate at Jerusalem, A. D. 62, and suf- 
fered martyrdom in Trajan's reign at the 
age of 120. Both identifications are prob- 
ably erroneous. 

IV. A Pharisee in Galilee, at whose house 
Jesus was anointed by a penitent sinner, 
Luke 7:36-50. 

V. A leper, probably healed by Jesus. 
At his house in Bethany Jesus was anoint- 
ed by Mary, a sister of Lazarus, Matt. 
26:6-13; Mark 14:3-9; comp. John 12:1-8. 

VI. A man of Cyrene, who was compelled 
to bear the cross of Jesus when the Saviour 
was exhausted, Matt. 27:32; Mark 15:21; 
Luke 23:26; comp. John 19:17; an igno- 
minious yet most blessed ministry. Mark, 
writing for Roman Christians, calls him 
"the father of Alexander and Rufus," the 
latter being perhaps the Rufus residing at 
Rome, to whom with his mother Paul sent 
a cordial greeting, Rom. 16: 13. 

VII. Simon Iscariot, the father of Judas 
Iscariot, John 6:71, R. V.; 13:2, 26, R. V. 

VIII. A tanner, in whose house at Joppa 
Peter lodged, Acts 9:43 ; 10:6, 17, 32. 

IX. A Samaritan sorcerer, often called 
"Simon Magus," i. <?., the magician. By 
the practice of magical arts this imposter 
acquired an ascendency over the people of 
Samaria, who seem to have regarded him 
as divine. Under Philip's preaching many 
of his fellow-citizens became Christians, 
and Simon also professed conversion and 
was baptized— having long " amazed " the 
people by his false wonders, and now being 
truly "amazed" at the genuine miracles 
wrought through Philip, Acts 8:4-13, R. V. 
On the arrival of Peter and John he sought 
to purchase from them the divine gift of 
imparting the Holy Spirit. Peter denoun- 
ced his hypocrisy, to his great alarm, but 
he showed no true penitence, Acts 8 : 14-24 ; 



comp. Exod. 8:8. Peter bade him ask 
mercy from God, evidently far from claim- 
ing any power in himself to forgive sin. 
There are doubtful traditions as to Simon's 
subsequent course. The sin of buying and 
selling spiritual offices and privileges, or 
ecclesiastical preferments, called simony 
after Simon Magus, was severely censured 
and punished by early ecclesiastical and 
civil law. It however became frequent in 
the corrupted Church of Rome, being more 
odious to Peter than to many who have 
claimed to be his especial followers. 

SIM'PLE and SIMPLICITY are some- 
times used in the Bible in a good sense, 
denoting sincerity, candor, and an artless 
ignorance of evil, 2 Sam. 15:11 ; Rom. 16:19; 
2 Cor. 1:12; 11:3; sometimes in a bad 
sense, denoting a heedless foolishness both 
mental and moral, Prov. 1:22; 9:4; 14:15; 
22:3; and sometimes in the sense of mere 
ignorance or inexperience, Prov. 1:4; 
21 :n. 

SIN, any thought, word, desire, action, or 
omission of action, contrary to the law of 
God or defective when compared with it, 
1 John 3:4; 5:17. 

The origin of sin is a subject which baf- 
fles all investigation ; and our inquiries 
are much better directed when we seek 
through Christ a release from its penalty 
and power, for ourselves and the world. 
Its entrance into the world and infection 
of the whole human race, its nature, forms, 
and effects, and its fatal possession of ev- 
ery unregenerate soul, are fully described 
in the Bible, Gen. 3; 6:5; Psa. 51:5; Matt. 
15:19; Rom. 5:12; Jas. 1:14, 15. 

As contrary to the nature, worship, love, 
and service of God, sin is called ungodli- 
ness or impiety, Rom. 1:18; as a violation 
of the law of God and of the claims of man, 
it is a transgression or trespass ; as a devi- 
ation from eternal rectitude, it is called in- 
iquity or unrighteousness, Exod. 34:7. As 
the evil and bitter root of all actual trans- 
gression, the depravity transmitted from 
our first parents to all their seed, it is called 
by theologians "original sin," or in the 
Bible "the flesh," Rom. 7:18; Gal. 5:16-21. 
The just penalty or "wages of sin is death," 
Rom. 6:23 ; this was threatened against the 
first sin, Gen. 2 : 17, and all subsequent 
sins: "The soul that sinneth it shall die," 
Ezek. 18:4, 20. A single sin, unrepented of 
and unforgiven, destroys the soul, as a sin- 
gle break renders a whole ocean cable use- 
less. Its guilt and evil are to be measured 
by the holiness, justice, and goodnes- of 

567 



SIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SIN 



the law it violates, the eternity of the mis- 
ery it causes, and the greatness of the Sac- 
rifice necessary to expiate it. 

" Sin " sometimes denotes the sacrifice 
of expiation, the sin-offering, described in 
Lev. 4:3, 25, 29. So Hos. 4:8; Rom. 8:3; 
and in 2 Cor. 5:21 Paul says that God was 
pleased that Jesus, who knew no sin, should 
be our victim of expiation: " For he hath 
made him to be sin for us who knew no 
sin, that we might be made the righteous- 
ness of God in him." Thus many under- 
stand Gen. 4: 7, "sin," or a sin-offering, 
"coucheth at the door," implying that the 
use and meaning of sacrifices for sin had 
already been revealed. See Sacrifice. 

For the sin against the Holy Ghost see 
Blasphemy. 

SIN, mire, a fortified city on the north- 
east frontier of Egypt, and exposed to the 
predicted invasion of Egypt by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and probably also to later inva- 
sions, Ezek. 30: 15, .16. It is identified with 
the Pelusium, muddy, of Greek and Latin 
authors, 2 miles from the sea, in the midst 
of morasses, on the easternmost or Pelusiac 
outlet of the Nile, now dry. It witnessed 
many great battles. Its exact site is not 
determined : some place it at the mounds 
of el-Farma, one mile from the Bay of 
Tineh, the supposed Pelusiac mouth of the 
Nile, and 14 miles east of the Suez Canal ; 
others at the mound Abu-Khiyar, between 
el-Farma and Tel-Defenneh, or Tehaphne- 
hes, which is 13 miles west of the Suez 
Canal. The mounds are now approached 
only by boats, except during the driest part 
of summer. 

SIN, WILDERNESS OF, between Elim 
and Rephidim, Exod. 16:1; 17:1; Num. 
33:11, 12. Here, a month after leaving 
Egypt, the Israelites received their first 
miraculous supply of quails and of manna ; 
and here the Sabbath was reinstituted, 
Exod. 16:2-34. It is believed to be the 
desert plain now called el-Markha, running 
along the east shore of the Gulf of Suez 25 
miles, from wady Taiyibeh to wady Feiran. 
It is a dreary region and has little vegeta- 
tion. Travellers report having seen many 
quails there. 

SI'NA, Acts 7:30, 38, A. V., the Greek 
form of Sinai. 

SI'NAI, tkornbush, the mount in Arabia 
Petraea from which God proclaimed the 
Ten Commandments to assembled Israel, 
in the 3d month after they left Egypt, Exod. 
19:1-20; 20; Deut. 4:10-13, 33, 36; 5:1-22; 
and to which Moses retired at several times 
568 



to receive from God various ordinances for 
his people, Exod. 20:21; 24:1; Lev. 27:34; 
Deut. 5 : 23-31. Here Moses remained for 
two periods of 40 days, miraculously sus- 
tained without food, at the end of the first 
period receiving the 2 tablets of stone in- 
scribed with the Ten Commandments by 
God, Exod. 24:12; 31:18; 32:15, 16, 19; 
here he had a vision of the divine glory 
and continued his intercession for Israel 
after their idolatry of the golden calf, Exod. 
34 : 5 _ 9! comp. Exod. 33:18-23; and here, 
at the close of the second 40 days, he re- 
ceived the stone tables substituted for those 
which he had broken, Exod. 34:1-4,28, 29; 
comp. Deut. 9:9-19, 25 to 10:5. In this 
same region Moses had, a year or two be- 
fore, beheld the burning bush and been 
commissioned by God to liberate Israel, 
Exod. 3:1 to 4:17; Acts 7:30, 38. Here 
also, 6 centuries later, God revealed him- 
self to Elijah, who had fled from the wrath 
of Jezebel, 1 Kin. 19:1-18. The manifested 
presence of God and his sublime and aw- 
ful delivery of the law on Mount Sinai are 
referred to in Judg. 5:5; Neh. 9:13; Psa. 
68:8, 17. In the New Testament the dis- 
pensation proclaimed from Sinai is con- 
trasted with the gospel of the grace of God, 
Gal. 4:24, 25; Heb. 12:18-29. 

The Scripture use of the 2 names Sinai 
and Horeb is such as to make it probable 
that Horeb, dry, was the general name for 
the mountain group, and Sinai the name of 
the special summit on which Jehovah " de- 
scended in fire " and " talked with " Israel, 
Exod. 19:16, 18; Deut. 5:4; 33:2. 

Modern usage applies the name Sinai to 
the whole peninsula flanked by the 2 gulfs 
of the Red Sea, as well as to the central 
group of mountains, and to an individual 
peak of that group. 

The peninsula of Sinai is a triangle, 
whose base extends from the head of the 
Gulf of Suez to that of Akaba, about 150 
miles; its western side, along the Gulf of 
Suez, being about 190 miles long, and its 
eastern side, along the Gulf of Akaba, about 
130 miles. It contains about 11,500 square 
miles, one-tenth more than the State of 
Vermont. On its northern border is a 
broad sand-belt, adjoining the bare lime- 
stone ridge which forms the southern bor- 
der of the desert et-Tih. A gravelly plain 
of varying breadth extends along the Gulf 
of Suez, but the coast along the Gulf of 
Akaba is narrow, being closely approached 
bv mountains. A rugged mass of granite 
mountains occupies the body of the penin- 



SIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SIN 




PLAIN ER-RAHAH, AND CONVENT OF ST. CATHARINE. 



sula, the eastern and western ranges meet- 
ing in an angle at the south. Deep wadys 
leap up from the borders to the central 
heights. The mountains are of granite and 
gneiss, with some outcropping of limestone, 
and on the north and west buttresses of red 
sandstone. The highest summits are over 
8,000 feet above the sea. The cliffs some- 
times show gorgeous tints of red, purple, 
and green, but the whole aspect 
of the region, though grand, is 
naked and desolate. The pen- 
insula contains iron, copper, and 
turquoise. The Egyptians early 
established colonies there, and 
at times conducted mining oper- 
ations — notably at Maghara, 15 
miles east of the Gulf of Suez, 
where hieroglyphic inscriptions 
exhibit the names of Pharaohs 
from the 4th dynasty to the 19th 
— from the building of the great 
pyramid of Gizeh to the He- 
brew Exodus. At this time the 
peninsula was inhabited by the 
Amalekites and Midianites, and 
later by the Nabathaean Arabs, 
whose chief city was Petra in 
Idumaea. See Sela. With the 
rest of Arabia Petraea the penin- 
sula was annexed to the Roman 
Empire, A. D. 105. Christian- 
ity was early planted here, and 
coexisted with the native Saba- 
ism, or worship of the heavenly bodies. 
Christian refugees from persecution in 



Egypt fled here, and many brotherhoods of 
monks were formed, on Mount Serbal and 
in wady Feiran. They suffered much from 
the attacks of the Arabs, and in A. D. 527 
Justinian authorized them to build a church 
surrounded by a fortified convent, the orig- 
inal of the present convent of St. Catha- 
rine. Mohammedanism established its 
sway over the peninsula in the 7th century. 




WADY MUKATTEB. 



In many parts of the peninsula, but 
chiefly in wady Mukatteb, written, which 

569 



SIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SIN 



enters wady Feiran from the northwest, 
there are many inscriptions on the native 
rocks, short and rudely cut, largely of 
proper names — neither Jewish nor Chris- 
tian, often preceded by such words as 
"peace," "blessed," "in memory of" — 
mingled with rough representations of 
men and animals, stars, crosses, ships, etc. 
Prof. Palmer, of the English ordnance sur- 
vey, pronounces the language Aramaean, 
the characters Nabathaean, and the inscrip- 
tions "the work of idle loungers." They 
appear to range through several centuries, 
from the 2d B. C. to the 4th A. D., and 
some are in Greek, Coptic, and Arabic. 

The loftiest summits of the Sinaitic pen- 
insula are Jebel Serbal, in the northwest, 
6,734 feet; Jebal Musa, 7,363 feet; Jebel 
umm-Shaumer, 8,449 feet; Jebel Catharina, 
8,536 feet; Jebel Zebir, 8,551 feet. The 
district around Jebel Musa, which is in the 
centre of the mountain range, has, with the 
exception of the oasis in wady Feiran, and 
near Tur on the Gulf of Suez, the best sup- 
plies of water and pasturage in the penin- 
sula, and to it the Bedouins resort when 
springs and wells elsewhere are dry. 



There has been much discussion as to 
which mountain was the scene of God's giv- 
ing the law, the chief claimants being Ser- 
bal, Musa, and Ras Sufsafeh. The Scrip- 
ture requirements are: 1. The summit must 
be visible from a level space large enough 
to accommodate 2,000,000 of people, Exod. 
19:11; 20:18. 2. The mount must rise ab- 
ruptly from the plain, Exod. 19:12; Deut. 
4:11; Heb. 12:18. 3. The neighborhood 
must afford a supply of water and pas- 
turage — a condition met by all 3 claim- 
ants. 

Jebel Serbal, 2 miles south of wady Fei- 
ran through the rugged wady Aleiyat, does 
not fulfil the 1st and 2d requirements; it 
rises more than 4,000 feet above the valleys 
at its base, but its summit, a ridge 3 miles 
long, is broken into a number of sharp 
peaks, and the surrounding valleys are " a 
wilderness of boulders and torrent-beds." 
Only an occasional glimpse of the moun- 
tain can be obtained from wady Feiran. 

About 20 miles southeast from Jebel Ser- 
bal is an isolated ridge 2 miles long from 
northwest to southeast, and nearly a mile 
broad. Its highest peak is at the southern 




extremity, and is now called Jebel Musa, 
mountain of Moses, being identified by 
monastic tradition from Justinian's time 
with the sacred summit; but wady Sebai- 
yeh, the keeper's valley — so called with ref- 
erence to Exod. 3:1 — is too contracted and 
570 



rugged to have afforded standing-ground 
for the Hebrew host. 

The northern peak of the same ridge, 
Ras es-Sufsafeh, peak of the willow— from 
a willow-tree on its side— meets all the re- 
quirements. It rises abruptly from wady 




MOUNT SERBAL. 



KTLXv 



SIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SIN 



er-Rahah high above all the other moun- 
tains near it and in sight, and is so isolated 
from them by the plain and by deep and 
steep ravines, that bounds might have been 
set around it. At its very base lies the 
wady er-Rahah, rest, a plain 2 miles long 
from southeast to northwest, and half a mile 
wide, containing 2,000,000 square yards 
available standing-room, a space doubled 
by the valleys which open into it on the 
.east. The summit of Ras Sufsafeh, nearly 
2,000 feet above the plain, is accessible from 



er-Rahah by a wild ravine, descending 
which between two cliffs Moses might have 
heard the shouts of the calf-worshippers 
before he saw them, Exod. 32:17, 19. By 
the same ravine a winter-torrent finds its 
way down to er-Rahah; and there are sev- 
eral perennial springs and streams in the 
neighborhood, Deut. 9:21. Dr. Robinson, 
who ascended Ras Sufsafeh in 1838, first 
proposed its identification as the sacred 
mount. " The extreme difficulty," he says, 
"and even danger of the ascent, was well 




MOUNT SINAI, FROM THE PLAIN ER-RAHAH. 



rewarded by the prospect that now opened 
before us. The whole plain cr-Rahah lay 
spread out beneath our feet; while wady 
esh-Sheikh on the right and a recess on 
the left, both connected with and opening 
broadly from er-Rahah, presented an area 
which serves nearly to double that of the 
plain. Our conviction was strengthened 
that here, or on some one of the adjacent 
cliffs, was the spot where the Lord de- 
scended in fire and proclaimed the law. 
Here lay the plain where the whole con- 
gregation might be assembled; here was 
the mount which might be approached 
and touched; and here the mountain brow 
where alone the lightnings and the thick 
clould woud be visible, and the thunders 
and the voice of the trump be heard, when 
the Lord came down in the sight of all the 
people upon Mount Sinai. We gave our- 



selves up to the impressions of the awful 
scene, and read with a feeling which will 
never be forgotten the sublime account of 
the trans ction and the commandments 
there promulgated, in the original words 
as recorded by the great Hebrew legisla- 
tor," Exod. 19:1 to 20:21. 

The members of the English Ordnance 
Survey, after a careful survey of the re- 
gion in 1868-9, unanimously agreed in 
identifying Ras Sufsafeh with the sacred 
mountain. 

Separated by ravines from the Sufsafeh- 
Musa ridge are 2 parallel ridges. Mount 
Catharine, 3 miles southwest of Jebel Musa, 
is the southern peak of the western ridge. 
In wady ed-Deir, between Sufsafeh and 
the eastern ridge, is the convent or deir of 
St. Catharine, founded by Justinian, A. D. 
527, where about 50 monks now reside. Its 

571 



SIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SIN 



library contains some 1,500 printed books 
and 700 MSS., among which Tischendorf, 
in 1859, discovered the Codex Sinaiticus, a 
most valuable Greek MS. of the Septua- 
gint and the New Testament, probably of 
the 4th century. North of er-Rahah is a 
mountain called Jebel Seneh, suggesting 
the ancient name of Sinai, but far less im- 
posing than Ras Sufsafeh. 

The Israelite host, travelling from the 
wilderness of Sin eastward from the Red 
Sea, are believed to have reached their 
camping-ground near Mount Sinai by a se- 
ries of wadys winding up among the moun- 
tains, chiefly wady Feiran and wady esh- 
Sheikh, in one of which was Rephidim. 
Wady Feiran commences near. the Red 
Sea, and curving to the northeast opens 
into wady esh-Sheikh, which making a cir- 
cuit north of Jebel Seneh bends southward 
and enters the plain cr-Rahah at its east- 
ern end. A shorter but much more diffi- 
cult way is sometimes taken by travellers 
through the rough and sublime Nu; b Ha- 
wa, pass of the wind, which leaves esh- 
Sheikh west of Jebel Seneh, and enters 
er-Rahah on its northwestern extremity, 
commanding a grand view of the plain, 
the fortified convent of St. Catharine, and 
the majestic height of Mount Sinai. 

SI'NAI, WILDERNESS OF, a region be- 
tween 2 stations of the Israelites, Rephidim 
and Kibroth - hattaavah, Num. 33:15, 16, 
which the Israelites reached on the 3d 
month after they left Egypt, Exod. 19:1, 2; 
comp. Exod. 18:5, and where they remain- 
ed nearly a year, Num. 10:11, 12, 33. Dur- 
ing this time judges were appointed, Exod. 
18:13-26: the law was communicated to 
the people through Mos^ ; the tabernacle 
was constructed and furnished, Exod. 39:42 
to 40:35; Aaron and his sons were conse- 
crated to the priesthood; Nadab and Abi- 
hu perished, Lev. 8-10; Num. 3:4; the 
Levites were consecrated, Num. 3:5-16; 
8:5-22; the first recurring passover feast 
was observed, Num. 9:1-5; and the first 
census taken, Num. 1:1-19. This year's 
camping-ground of the Israelites was in the 
smooth and roomy upland plain north of 
Mount Sinai, now called er-Rahah, togeth- 
er with the adjoining wady esh-Sheikh, 
and other minor wadys adjacent to these. 
This region is well supplied with springs, 
streams, andpasturage. See Sinai, Mount. 

SIN'CERE, 1 Pet. 2 : 2; 2 Pet. 3:1, R. V., 
without guile. SINCERITY, pureness, gen- 
uineness ; opposed to guile or deceit, Phil. 
1 :io. 

572 



SING'ING, in the ancient church, was an 
appointed part of divine worship, 2 Chr. 
29:28; Ezra 3:11; 7:24; Psa. 87:7; 100:2, 
and in all ages a manifestation of joy, Psa. 
126:2; Eccl. 2:8; Isa. 35:2; 44:23; 49:13; 
Jer. 7:34. See Music. A recent traveller 
says that in Egypt and Palestine there is 
an entire absence of cheerful music, es- 
pecially from the children ; " the mirth of 
the land is gone," Isa. 24:11. 

SIN'GLE EYE, Matt. 6:22; Luke 11:34, 
unclouded and clear vision, rather than sin- 
gleness of aim. 

SIN'GL-ENESS, Acts 2:46; Eph.6:s; Col. 
3:22, freedom from duplicity. 

SIN'GULAR, Lev. 27:2, A. V., special or 
particular, not odd. 

SI'NIM, a people remote from the Holy 
Land, whose conversion to the God of Is- 
rael is foretold, Isa. 49:12. They are now 
generally identified with the Chinese, called 
Sinae or Thinse by the Greek geographer 
Ptolemy, A. D. 140, and earlier known to 
the Arabs as Sin, and to the Syrians as 
Tsini. Tsin is also the rabbinical name 
for China. Commercial routes early con- 
nected the east of Asia with the west, and 
brought some of the commodities of China, 
such as raw silk and silken goods. See 
Silk. 

The Nestorians early preached the gos- 
pel in China. In 1625 a Jesuit missionary 
discovered, at Si-gan-foo, the ancient cap- 
ital of China, and now capital of the prov- 
ince of Shin-se in the Northwest, a stone 
tablet of the year 781, recording in Chinese 
and Syriac the establishment in the city, 
by imperial consent, of the "King Kiao" 
or Illustrious Religion, and bearing a long 
list of Nestorian clergymen. In the 12th 
and 13th centuries the conquests of Jen- 
ghis Khan and his successors, covering the 
greater part of Asia and Eastern Europe, 
opened anew the way 1 for communication 
with China, then known as Khitai or Ca- 
thay—from the Khitan, the ruling dynasty 
of the 9th and 10th centuries. Travellers, 
including the famous Venetian Marco Polo, 
traders, and Franciscan missionaries, now 
visited Cathay; converts to Romanism 
were made, and an archbishopric was es- 
tablished at Cambaluc. now Peking. After 
the fall of the Jenghis dynasty, 1368, Cathay 
again became closed to Europeans, and all 
traces of Christianity disappeared. In the 
16th century the Portuguese and Spanish 
naval officers rediscovered it under the 
name of China, and Jesuit and Dominican 
missionaries were sent there from Rome. 



SIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SLU 



Their missions nourished for nearly a cen- 
tury and a half; but, compromising with 
the national idolatry and withholding the 
Bible from the converts, they accomplished 
little for the promotion of true religion, 
morality, or intelligence. At last a jeal- 
ousy of papal influence sprang up among 
the ruling classes of the empire, and in 
1722 an edict for the suppression of Chris- 
tianity was issued: 300 churches were de- 
stroyed or suppressed, and 300,000 con- 
verts were exposed to persecution, many 
submitting to suffering and death with ad- 
mirable constancy. In 1842 the ports of 
Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ning-po, and 
Shanghai were opened to foreign com- 
merce ; in 1845 toleration was granted by 
edict to Christian converts ; and in 1858 
all forms of Christianity were sanctioned 
throughout the empire. The pioneer of 
Protestant missions in China was the Rev. 
Robert Morrison, 1807 to 1834, who made 
the first translation of the Bible into Chi- 
nese, and labored privately to spread the 
gospel, its public proclamation being then 
forbidden. After the opening of the 5 ports 
Protestant missions commenced in earnest, 
and their abundant fruits, especially in 
recent years, attest the faithfulness of the 
divine promise. 

SI'NITES, a Canaanite tribe, Gen. 10:17; 
1 Chr. 1 : 15, probably near Mount Lebanon. 

SIN'-OF'FERING. See SACRIFICE. 

SI'ON, I., one of the names of Mount 
Hermon, Deut. 4:48; comp. Deut. 3:9, and 
see Hermon. 

II. The Greek form of the Hebrew Zion, 
Matt. 21:5, A. V. 

S1PH' MOTH, fricitful fields, 1 Sam. 30:28, 
a resort of David when a refugee from Saul. 
Probably 12 miles southeast of Hebron. 

SIP'PAI, threshold? a Philistine giant, 
1 Chr. 20:4; called Saph in 2 Sam. 21:18. 

SI'RAH, retired, THE WELL OF, 2 Sam. 
3:26, the place which Abner had reached, 
going from Hebron, when he was recalled 
by Joab. There is a spring and reservoir 
called Ain Sara on the western side of the 
road about a mile north of Hebron. 

SIR'ION, breastplate, the Zidonian name 
of Mount Hermon, Deut. 3:9; Psa. 29:6. 
See Hermon. 

SIS'ERA, battle array, I., the general of 
Jabin, king of Hazor, an oppressor of Is- 
rael in the time of the Judges, defeated by 
the Hebrew army under Deborah and Ba- 
rak, and ingloriously slain by Jael, I Sam. 
12:9; Psa. 83:9. See Jael and Kishon. 

II. Ancestor of Nethinim who returned 



with Zerubbabel from captivity, Ezra 2:53; 
Neh. 7 : 5 5. 

SIS'TER, in Scripture usage as broad a 
term as "brother," "father," "son," etc. 
It denotes not only " a full sister " by the 
same father and mother, but also a " step- 
sister " or " half-sister," or any near female 
relative, Gen. 12:13; 20:12; 26:7; Matt. 
13:56. It also denotes one in close affinity 
of thought and inclination, Ezek. 16:46; 
and one of the same spiritual family by 
faith, Rom. 16:1; 1 Cor. 9:5. It is one of 
the terms by which Christ expresses the 
close relation to which he graciously ad- 
mits his disciples, Matt. 12:49, 50. In Col. 
4:10 "sister's son" should be rendered 
"cousin," as in the R. V. 

SITH, Ezek. 35:6, in some copies of the 
Bible, an obsolete word meaning "since." 

SIT'NAH, strife, the 2d well dug by Isaac 
in the valley of Gerar, whose possession 
Abimelech's herdsmen claimed, Gen. 26:21. 

SI'VAN, the 3d Hebrew ecclesiastical 
month and the 9th of the civil year, begin- 
ning with the new moon of our June, Esth. 
8:9. The name is probably of Persian ori- 
gin. See Month. 

SKILL, often used in Scripture as a verb, 
to understand or know how, 1 Kin. 5:6; 
2 Chr. 2:7, 8; 34:12. 

SKINS, Gen. 3:21, perhaps of animals 
offered in sacrifice, by divine appointment, 
immediately after the fall. 

SLAVE, Jer. 2:14; Rev. 18 : 13. See Ser- 
vant. 

SLIME. See Pitch and Sea, III. 

SLING, a favorite weapon of Oriental 
shepherds, 1 Sam. 17:40; comp. the meta- 
phor of Abigail, the wife of the great flock- 
owner Nabal, 1 Sam. 25:29. It was also 
very effective in war, Judg. 20:16; 1 Sam. 
x 7 : 49j 5°; 2 Kin. 3:25; 1 Chr. 12:2; and 
was regularly employed not only by the 
Israelite troops, but also by the Syrians, 
1 Mace. 9:11, the Assyrians, Judith 9:7, the 
Egyptians, and the Persians. Sling-stones 
were chosen for their smoothness, 1 Sam. 
17:40, and Uzziah had stores of them pro- 
vided for his troops, 2 Chr. 26:14, margin. 
The sling supplied Jeremiah with an image 
of violent removal, Jer. 10:18. Travellers 
speak of modern Bedouin shepherds as 
dexterous in the use of this weapon. See 
War. 

SLOW-BELLIES, Tit. 1:12, in the R. V. 
"idle gluttons." 

SLUI'CES, translated " reward " in Prov. 
11:18. In Isa. 19:10, for "all that make 
sluices and ponds for fish," the R. V. reads, 

573 



SMI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SMY 



" all they that work for hire shall be grieved 
in soul." 

SMITH, a worker in metal ; in the Bible 
particularly copper, iron, gold, and silver. 
The art of the smith, as one of the first 
essentials of civilization, was early prac- 
tised, Gen. 4:22. Without it a nation was 
defenceless in time of war, hence Israel 
was deprived of smiths by the Philistines, 



1 Sam. 13:19-22; comp. Judg. 5:8; and by 
Nebuchadnezzar, 2 Kin. 24 : 14, 16 ; Jer. 
24:1; 29:2. In Israel, as among the heath- 
en, the art was often perverted to the ser- 
vice of idolatry, Judg. 17:4; Isa. 40:19; 
41:7; 44:12; Acts 19:24. A smith at his 
work is described in Ecclus. 38:28. 

SMI'TING and "slew" in Exod. 2:11, 12 
are the same verb in Hebrew, to slay. 




PORT AND CASTLK OF SMYRNA. 



SMYR'NA, myrrh, an ancient and im- 
portant city on the west coast of Asia Mi- 
nor, the seat of one of the " 7 churches " 
addressed by Christ in the Revelation of 
John, Rev. 1:11; 2:8-11. It was on the 
borders of yEolis and Ionia, at the head of 
the Hermaean or Smyrnaean Gulf, on the 
northeast side, and was 40 miles north of 
Ephesus. It was captured and destroyed 
by Alyattis, king of Lydia, B. C. 628, and 
its inhabitants were scattered into villages. 
Antigonus, B. C. 320, founded a new Smyr- 
na on the southeast side of the gulf, 2^ 
miles from the former site, partly on the 
slope of a hill, but chiefly on the plain at 
its foot and extending to the gulf. It was 
enlarged and embellished by Lysimachus, 
574 



and soon became the most beautiful city of 
Asia Minor as well as one of the wealthiest 
and most commercial. Among its temples 
was one to the Olympian Zeus, in whose 
honor games were celebrated every 4th 
year. Christianity was early planted here. 
In the general persecution under Marcus 
Aurelius the Christians of Smyrna suffered 
severely, Rev. 2:10; the most distinguished 
of those who were then "faithful unto 
death" was Polycarp, the aged bishop of 
that church, a disciple of the apostle John, 
and possibly the "angel" addressed in 
Rev. 2:8; he died at the stake about A. D. 
166. A contemporary letter from the Smyr- 
naean church to Christians elsewhere de- 
scribes the Jews as joining the heathen in 



SNA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SNO 



accusing Polycarp of enmity to the state 
religion, Rev. 2:9. His traditional grave 
is still pointed out on a hill. The church 
was represented at the Council of Nice, 
A. D. 325. Smyrna was nearly destroyed 
by earthquakes in 178 and 180, and has 
since suffered from the same cause, as well 
as from sieges and fires. It was captured 
by the Turks, A. D. 1313. 

Modern Smyrna has a population of 
about 190,000, a large portion of whom are 
Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and Europeans 
of various nationalities ; hence the Turks 
call it Giaour Izmir, infidel Smyrna. It 
contains^ several Greek, Roman-catholic, 
and Protestant churches. It is still a flour- 
ishing city, visited by many foreign ships 
and by numerous caravans of camels from 
the interior; its old fame for raisins and 
figs continues. Its harbor is deep and ca- 
pacious, well protected except on the west 
by the hills which inclose the city on 3 
sides. 

The ruins of the 2d Smyrna are of much 
interest. At the foot of Mount Pagus, south 
of the city, is the site of the theatre, now 
occupied by a Jewish cemetery, the marble 
seats being turned to tombstones. Ruins 
of the temple of Zeus and of a watch-tower 
are on the hillside, and remains of exten- 
sive fortifications crown the summit. The 
site of the stadium where Polycarp is re- 
ported to have suffered martyrdom is 
pointed out at the foot of a hill west of 
Mount Pagus. 

Traces of the earlier Smyrna have been 
discovered on a steep hill on the northern 
side of the gulf, including some remarkable 
tombs, built of large stones, and an acrop- 
olis on higher ground surrounded by a wall 
of cyclopean workmanship. 




SNAIL, in Psa. 58:8 the common snail 
or slug, both of which in moving deposit a 
thick slime on their path, and thus seem to 
''melt" away; though the allusion in the 



Psalm may be to the destructive effect of 
extreme summer heat upon these crea- 
tures. In Lev. 11:30, A. V., the Hebrew 
word probably denotes some sort of lizard, 
perhaps the sand-lizard, which abounds in 
Mount Sinai and in Palestine, and like other 
species is sometimes eaten by the Arabs. 

SNOW, vapor congealed in the air and 
falling in flakes resembling wool, Psa. 
147:16, is often alluded to in Scripture, es- 
pecially in reference to its whiteness, Exod. 
4:6; Psa. 51:7; Isa. 1:18; Dan. 7:9; Mark 
9:3; Rev. 1:4. Like all other natural phe- 
nomena, it is ascribed to the operation of 
God, Job 37:6; Psa. 147:16, who is glori- 
fied, Psa. 148:8, by its fulfilment of his pur- 
pose, Isa. 55:10, 11. The fall of snow in 
Syria and Palestine, 2 Sam. 23:20; 1 Chr. 
11:22; 1 Mac. 13:22, varies with the differ- 
ing altitudes of the localities. At Jerusalem 
in January and February it sometimes falls 
to the depth of a foot, but seldom lies long. 
In the ravines of the highest ridge of Leb- 
anon it lies till late in the summer and 
never entirely disappears ; and the summit 
of Hermon in the western range always 
glistens with snow, its constancy being 
contrasted in Jer. 18:13-16 with Israel's 
abandonment of Jehovah. Probably in 
ancient times, as now, snow was brought 
from Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon to lower 
localities; its use in preparing cool drinks 
for reapers is mentioned in Prov. 25:13; 
while in Prov. 26:1 a fall of snow in sum- 
mer is compared to honors inappropriately 
lavished on a fool. The contrast of the 
white falling flakes with the dark foliage 
of Lebanon — shady/ comp. Judg. 9:48 — 
symbolizes, according to Dr. J. A. Alexan- 
der, the change from war to peace, Psa. 
68:14. Friends unfaithful in adversity are 
compared to torrents formed by winter 
rains and melted snow in the highlands, 
but soon dried up in the summer heat, 
when most needed, Job 6:15-21. The wa- 
ter obtained by the melting of snow is very 
soft and cleansing, Job 9:30. 

SO, the king of Egypt with whom Hoshea, 
the last king of Israel, allied himself on 
revolting from Assyria ; in consequence of 
this rebellion Hoshea was imprisoned by 
the Assyrian king, Samaria was besieged 
and taken, B. C. 721, and the Israelites were 
deported to Assyria, 2 Kin. 17:4-6. See 
Shalmaneser, IV., and Sargon. By dif- 
ferent writers So is differently identified, 
either with Shabak, the 1st, or less proba- 
bly with Shabak or Shabatuk, the 2d king, 
of the 25th dynasty, an Ethiopian line of 3 

575 



SOA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SOD 



kings. The first Shabak, the Sabacon of 
Manetho, is said to have conquered and 
put to death Bocchoris, the sole king of the 
24th dynasty, and to have reigned 8 or 12 
years ; his name occurs on the ruins at 
Luxor and Carnak. The 2d Shabak, by 
Manetho called Sebichos or Sevechus, was 
the son and successor of the former king, 
and predecessor of Tirhakah, the last of 
the dynasty. A reign of 12 or 14 years is 
assigned to him. Sargon, in an inscription 
found in his exhumed palace at Khorsa- 
bad, states that after his capture of Sama- 
ria, B. C. 721, he defeated " Sebech " — 
probably Shabak I. — sultan of Egypt, and 
Hanon king of Gaza, at Raphia. In a room, 
apparently a hall of records, in the ruins 
of Sennacherib's palace at Koyunjik, was 
found among other seals a piece of fine 
clay bearing the impress of 2 signets, that 
of Shabak — probably Shabak II. — king of 
Egypt, and that of the Assyrian king. The 
seal is supposed to have been attached to 
the record of a treaty between the two 
kings. In a cylinder inscription Sennach- 
erib claims to have defeated, in his 4th 
campaign, B. C. 701, an Egyptian army 
under native princes and an unnamed 
Ethiopian king, at Altaku (Eltekeh, Josh. 
19 : 44), whither the Egyptians had ad- 
vanced to aid the Philistine city Ekron. 
The Ethiopian monarch is identified by 
some scholars with Shabak II. ; and a treaty 
of peace might naturally follow such an 
event. See Sennacherib and Seal. 

SOAP, Mai. 3:2, Heb. borith, the clea?i- 
ser. In Jer. 2:22 it is distinguished from 
neter, A. V. "nitre," R. V. "lye," by 
which probably natron is denoted. See 
Nitre. Certain plants and their juices or 
ashes were anciently, as now, used for 
cleansing purposes. Such as grow near 
salt water contain barilla, or carbonate of 
soda, used in making glass as well as soap, 
and the ashes of poplar and other inland 
plants contain carbonate of potash. The 
ancients combined these alkalies with oil, 
and thus made a soft soap, used for clean- 
sing the person and the clothes. They also 
applied them to the refining of metals; 
comp. Job 9:30, 2d clause, R. V. margin, 
and Isa. 1:25, R. V. margin. The hard 
soap now abundantly manufactured in Pal- 
estine was unknown to the Egyptians, and 
probably to the ancients generally. 

SO'CHO, SO'CHOH, SO'COH, also Sho- 

cho, Shochoh, and Shoco, branches, I., a 

town in the lowland of Judah, Josh. 15:35. 

See Shephelah. Near it the Philistines 

576 



encamped before David's conflict with Go- 
liath, 1 Sam. 17:1. It is mentioned in the 
notice of one of Solomon's commissariat 
districts, 1 Kin. 4:10; was fortified by Re- 
hoboam, but was captured by the Philis- 
tines in the reign of Ahaz, 2 Chr. 11:7; 
28:18. Dr. Robinson, following Eusebius 
and Jerome, found it at the ruins esh-Shu- 
weikeh, on the southern slope of wady 
es-Sumt, the " vale of Elah," 7 miles north- 
east of Beit Jibrin and 16 southwest of Je- 
rusalem. 

II. A town in the mountains of Judah, 
Josh. 15:48, identified with esh-Shuweikeh 
in the wady el-Khalil, 3 miles north of Jat- 
tir and 10 miles southwest of Hebron. 

SOD, SOD'DEN, Gen. 25:29; Exod. 12:9, 
the preterite and past participle of 
"seethe," to boil or stew. 

SOD'OM, burning? one of the "cities of 
the plain," Gen. 13:12, destroyed by God 
with fire from heaven for their excessive 
wickedness. It was in the southern part 
of the region occupied by the Canaanites, 
Gen. 10: 19, was governed by its own king, 
like each of the 4 cities associated with it 
and which it seems to have outranked in 
importance, Gen. 14:2. In the time of 
Abraham these cities were subject to 4 con- 
federate kings of countries bordering on 
the Euphrates and Tigris, against whom 
they at length rebelled. These kings, after 
overrunning the regions east of the Jordan 
and Dead Sea, and south and southwest of 
the latter, descended to the sea by the pass 
of En-gedi, and after defeating the Amor- 
ites settled there, encountered the kings of 
Sodom, etc., in the vale of Siddim, defeat- 
ed them, and plundered their cities, Gen. 
14:4-11. Sodom was situated in the fertile 
plain or " circle " of Jordan in which Lot 
chose to dwell after surveying it with Abra- 
ham from a mountain east of Bethel, Gen. 
13:10, 11. Notwithstanding the bad char- 
acter of its inhabitants Lot encamped by 
Sodom, ver. 12, R. V., and finally settled 
within its walls ; he was one of the captives 
taken by Chedorlaomer and rescued by 
Abraham, Gen. 14:12-16. Lot returned to 
Sodom, Gen. 19:9, though annoyed by its 
immorality, 2 Pet. 2:7, 8, not even ten right- 
eous men being found there, Gen. 18:16-33. 
Urged to escape by two angels, he left the 
city before its destruction, Gen. 19:1-23. 
26. See Lot. So terrible was the ruin of 
Sodom and the other cities and so utter 
and perpetual was the desolation of the. 
once fertile region in which they had stood, 
Gen. 19:24, 25, that the catastrophe is often 



SOD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SOD 



alluded to in Scripture as a warning to 
wicked men and nations of the sure ven- 
geance of God, Deut. 29:23; Psa. 107:34; 
Isa. 1:9; 13:19; Jer. 49:18; 50:40; Lam. 
4:6; Zeph. 2:9; Luke 17:28-30; 2 Pet. 2:6- 
9 ; Jude 4-7. The name of Sodom is used 
as a synonym for outrageous wickedness, 
and is applied to idolatrous and corrupt 
Judah and Jerusalem, Isa. 1:10; 3:9; Jer. 
23:14, and to the chief city of Antichrist, 
Rev. 11:8. Indeed Judah and Jerusalem, 
in despising the repeated gracious inter- 
ventions of Jehovah, are declared to be 
more guilty than Sodom, Ezek. 16:46-52; 
comp. Lam. 4:6, R. V.; and the Saviour 
teaches that those who in the light of his 
.gospel reject him will in the day of judg- 
ment receive a heavier punishment, Matt. 
10:14, 15; 11:23, 24. 

Until recently Sodom and the associated 
cities were universally believed to have 
stood at the southern end of the Dead Sea 
as it then was ; the vale of Siddim, con- 
taining or adjoining them, being supposed 
to have occupied the ground now covered 
by the southern bay of the sea, and to have 
been submerged, wholly or in part, by some 
convulsion attending the destruction of the 
cities. This view was advocated by Dr. 
Robinson, and continues to be held by 
many eminent scholars, who urge in its 
favor tradition running back to Jerome 
and Josephus ; the traces of the names Sod- 
om and Gomorrah found on the southwest 
shore in the salt ridge Jebel Usdum and 
in wady Amrah ; the presence of bitumen 
sources — "slime-pits," Gen. 14:10 — at the 
bottom of the bay, as evidenced by the 
lumps of bitumen floating on it or cast on 
its shores ; and the fact that Abraham from 
the neighborhood of Hebron saw " the 
smoke of the country," Gen. 19:27, 28. 
The northern site has been advocated by 
De Saulcy, Tristram, Merrill, and others, 
on the following grounds: that the "plain 
of Jordan" viewed and chosen by Lot 
must have been at the north end of the Salt 
Sea,, for its south end is not visible from 
any height near Bethel, being shut off by 
the promontory of Ain Feshkah ; that Abra- 
ham, near Hebron, could have seen smoke 
rising from the north end of the lake as 
well as from its south end ; and that the 
northern site is more in accord with the 
details of Chedorlaomer's attack and Abra- 
ham's pursuit. The "plain" or "circle" 
of Jordan may, however, have included 
the whole depression or ghor, at both ends 
and the sides of the Dead Sea, and it is 
37 



not said that Zoar itself was visible from 
the height east of Bethel, Gen. 12:8; 13:3, 
10. As to the submergence of this region, 
it is true that the references to Sodom and 
Gomorrah, etc., in both Testaments appear 
to indicate a condition of the region where 
they had stood answering to that of the 
sun-scorched, salt-encrusted, sulphur-bear- 
ing, and desolate shores of the sea, rather 
than to a region covered with water ; the 
Apocrypha speaks of " Sodom and Gomor- 
rah, whose land lieth in clods of pitch and 
heaps of ashes," 2 Esdr. 2:9; and Jose- 
phus, after describing the Dead Sea, speaks 
of " Sodomites," or the land of Sodom, as 
"bordering upon it," as "all burned up," 
and bearing still the " remainders of the di- 
vine fire " which had destroyed it ; " War," 
IV. 8, 4; though, on the other hand, it is 
evident that he regards the vale of Siddim, 
which he speaks of as close to Sodom, as 
having been submerged at the destruction 
of the city and forming in his time a part 
of the sea; "Ant.," I. 9; comp. Gen. 14:3. 
See Gomorrah, Sea, III., Siddim, Shit- 
tim, Zoar. 

SOD'OM, VINE OF, Deut. 32:32. This 
expression may be used metaphorically 
without denoting any specific plant. Jose- 
phus, however, speaks of certain fruit- 
growing in the region where Sodom for- 
merly stood, which " have a color as though 
they were fit to be eaten, but if plucked 
they dissolve into smoke and ashes." 
Among the plants suggested as meant by 
these " apples of Sodom " is the osher of 
the Arabs, the Calotropis procera of bota- 
nists, resembling a huge milk-weed, 10 or 
12 feet high, exuding from the punctured 
stalk an acrid milky fluid, and bearing a 
yellow fruit as lar<?e as an orange, with a 
slight pod running through it, whose thin 
and flat seeds are winged with fine silky 
filaments. When pressed or struck it ex- 
plodes with a -uff, .eavins - only shreds in 
the hand. This however is not a vine, and 
many regard the "vine of Sodom " as the 
colocynth, a kind of gourd whose leaves 
and tendrils somewhat resemble those of 
the vine; its fruit, of the size of an orange, 
with a hard yellow rind marbled with 
green and white, is nauseous and poison- 
ous ; when ripe it contains only seeds and a 
dry powder, and bursts on being pressed. 
It is found near Gilgal, 2 Kin. 4:38, 39, and 
around the Dead Sea. 

SOD'OMITES, Deut. 23:17, the Biblical 
term for persons who, in accordance with 
a widely-prevalent heathen custom, prac- 

577 



SOL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SOL 



tised as a religious rite, in the worship of 
Ashtoreth, etc., the crime to which the men 
of Sodom were addicted, Gen. 19:4, 5. The 
Hebrew term, kadesh, means " consecra- 
ted," and its feminine equivalent, kade- 
shdh, occurs in Gen. 38:21, 22 ; Deut. 23:17; 
Hos. 4:14. Some of the Israelites adopted 
this dreadful " consecration," though it 
was expressly forbidden, with other idola- 
trous practices, 1 Kin. 14:22-24. Its aboli- 
tion w r as sought among the reforms institu- 
ted by Asa, Jehoshaphat, and Josiah, 1 Kin. 
15:12; 22:46; 2 Kin. 23:7; compare Rom. 
1 : 22-27. 

SOL'OMON, Heb. Shelo'moh, peaceful, 
the successor of David, and one of his 4 
sons by Bath-sheba, 2 Sam. 5:14; 1 Chr. 
3:5; 14:4. Besides this name, chosen be- 
fore his birth, 1 Chr. 22:9, and first given 
to him, 2 Sam. 12:24, God directed the 
prophet Nathan to call him Jedidiah, "be- 
loved of the Lord," ver. 25. It is supposed 
that he was about 10 years old at Absalom's 
rebellion, and fled with his father and the 
household to Mahanaim, 2 Sam. 15:13-18, 
22,, 30; 16:1, 5, 13; 17:22, 24, and returned 
with them to Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 19:15, 18, 
39, 40; 20:3. Solomon was a child of spe- 
cial promise, 2 Sam. 7: 12-15, an d was be- 
fore his birth designated by God to succeed 
David, 1 Chr. 22:9, 10; his succession was 
early promised to Bath-sheba, 1 Kin. 1 : 13, 
17— a purpose perhaps generally suspected 
though not formally announced, ver. 10, 20. 
His kingly prospects and life were endan- 
gered by the attempted usurpation of Ado- 
nijah, 1 Kin. 1:5-10, 24-27, as formerly by 
that of Absalom, ver. 12, 21 ; comp. 2 Sam. 
19 : 5. But David, at the instance of Nathan 
and Bath-sheba, promptly interfered and 
caused Solomon to be anointed and en- 
throned, 1 Kin. 1:32-53. Before David's 
death Solomon was again formally and 
publicly proclaimed and anointed king, and 
received from his father a solemn charge 
as his successor and as the builder of the 
temple for which David had prepared, 
1 Chr. 28:1 to 29:25; comp. 1 Kin. 2:1-9. 
He was not more than 20 when his father's 
death made him th- sole ruler, 1 Kin. 2:12; 
3:7; 2 Chr. 1:1. One of his first acts was 
to offer, in presence of a vast assembly, 
sacrifices at Gibeon, where were the Mo- 
saic tabernacle and brazen altar ; and here, 
upon God's proposal to confer on him what 
he should ask, he made his excellent choice 
of wisdom, to which God added riches and 
honor, 1 Kin. 3:4-15; 2 Chr. 1:1-13; comp. 
Prov. 8:11-16; Matt. 6:33. His unequalled 
578 



sagacity and great learning gradually be- 
came renowned throughout the East, draw- 
ing to his court representatives of other 
nations, among them the queen of Sheba. 

1 Kin. 4:29-34; 10:1-13; 2 Chr. 9:1-12, 23. 
He accomplished David's purpose by erect- 
ing a temple, which, though not large, was 
magnificent in its construction and adorn- 
ment. It was begun in the 4th year of his 
reign and completed in the nth, 1 Kin. 6; 

2 Chr. 3 ; 4, and dedicated with great so- 
lemnity, the dedicatory prayer being offered 
by Solomon himself, 1 Kin. 8; 2 Chr. 5:1 to 
7:10. See Temple. He established the 
regular sacrifices and offerings of the tem- 
ple according to the Mosaic law, and the 
courses of the priests and Levites, as David 
had directed, 1 Kin. 9:25; 2 Chr. 8:12-15. 
He then erected a splendid palace for him- 
self and a palace for Pharaoh's daughter, 
whom he had married, perhaps from po- 
litical motives, 1 Kin. 7:1-12; 9:24; 2 Chr. 
8:1, 11. In the construction of these build- 
ings he was aided by Hiram, king of Tyre, 
who, in exchange for wheat and olive oil, 
supplied him with stones, timber, and 
skilled workmen, 1 Kin. 5:1-12; 2 Chr. 
2:3-16; but the larger part of his workmen 
were his own subjects, both Israelites and 
"strangers," or descendants of native Ca- 
naanites, proselytes to Judaism, but held 
in servitude, 1 Kin. 5:13-18; 9:20, 21; 
2 Chr. 2 : 2, 17, 18 ; 8 : 7, 8. He also construct- 
ed reservoirs and aqueducts, Eccles. 2:4-6, 
and rebuilt and fortified cities, 1 Kin. 9:15- 
19; 2 Chr. 8:1-6, in various parts of his 
kingdom, whose eastern boundary extend- 
ed from Tiphsah on the northern Euphra- 
tes to Elath on the eastern gulf of the Red 
Sea, 1 Kin. 4:21, 24; 2 Chr. 9:26. He es- 
tablished a lucrative commerce with Tyre 
and Egypt, with the Phoenician colony of 
Tarshish in Spain, and with Arabia and 
probably India, 1 Kin. 9:26-28; 10:22, 28, 
29; 2 Chr. 8:17, 18; 9:21, 28; he is also 
supposed to have carried on a caravan 
trade with Babylon and the East by the 
way of Tadmor. By the fruits of this com- 
merce, and by the tributes of vassal peo- 
ples and the 'presents of friendly rulers, 
1 Kin. 10: 14, 15, 23-25, Solomon was greatly 
enriched ; he took great pride in his mag- 
nificent palaces, his gardens and vineyards, 
his body-guard and hosts of attendants, 
his luxurious table, his pomp and Oriental 
seraglio, divinely forbidden. Deut. 17:16, 
17. Yielding to the temptations connect- 
ed with this flood of prosperity, the king, 
though solemnly warned by God in a 2d 



SOL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SOL 



revelation, i Kin. 9:1-9; 2 Chr. 7:11-22, 
became proud, self-indulgent, and forgetful 
of God ; encouraged and finally assisted 
his numerous alien wives in their abom- 
inable idolatries, 1 Kin. 11:1-8; Neh. 13:26; 
and forfeited the favor of God, who an- 
nounced to him the division of his king- 
dom under his son, 1 Kin. 11:9-13. It is 
believed, however, that by divine grace 
Solomon was afterwards brought to repent- 
ance, and that we have proof of this in the 
book of Ecclesiastes ; comp. 2 Sam. 7 : 12-15. 

Solomon's reign, which continued 40 
years, B. C. 1015-975, was generally peace- 
ful, 1 Kin. 4:24, 25, with the exception of 
some disturbances produced by Hadad, 
Rezon, and Jeroboam, 1 Kin. 11 : 14-43. 
While the extensive internal works and 
active foreign commerce conduced largely 
to the prosperity and glory of the nation as 
well as of its monarch, 1 Kin. 4:20, many 
of the people felt themselves oppressed 
by forced service and excessive taxation, 
which they openly resented on the acces- 
sion of Rehoboam, 1 Kin. 12:3-20; comp. 
5:13,14; 1 Sam. 8 : 10-18 ; and they received 
far graver injury from the corrupt example 
and influence of the king. 

The mental capacities and acquirements 
of Solomon covered a wide range : he was a 
student of nature, speaking of ''trees, . . . 
of beasts and of fowl, and of creeping 
things and of fishes ;" a poet, whose "songs 
were 1,005;" a philosopher and moralist, 
producing " 3,000 proverbs," 1 Kin. 4 : 32, ^. 

The writings which bear his name and 
are included among the inspired Scriptures 
are the " Song of Songs," commonly re- 
ferred to the earlier or middle part of his 
reign; comp. Song 3:11; 6:8; the "Prov- 
erbs;" and "Ecclesiastes," which may 
probably be referred to the close of his 
life, summing up the fruits of his experi- 
ence, and showing the weakness of human 
nature, the perils of prosperity, the insuf- 
ficiency of all possible earthly good to sat- 
isfy the needs of man, and the paramount 
importance of fearing and obeying God. 
Besides these, Psalms 72 (except ver. 20) 
and 127 are, in accordance with their titles, 
attributed to Solomon, and in their con- 
tents reflect his reign; while the former 
terminates on Christ, the greater Son of 
David, and the blessings of His universal 
dominion. Psalm 45 is also ascribed to 
the time of Solomon ; in imagery appa- 
rently derived from the incidents of his 
reign, it describes the triumphs of the 
Messiah, his firm and eternal rule, and, 



like the Song of Songs, the conjugal rela- 
tion between him and his people. 

The Scripture narrators of Solomon's 
reign borrowed from several contempora- 
neous records: "the book of the acts of 
Solomon," 1 Kin. 11:41; " the book of Na- 
than the prophet, the prophecy of Ahijah 
the Shilonite, the visions of Iddo the seer," 
etc., 2 Chr. 9:29. 

Solomon's degeneracy in his later years 
does not detract from the value of his in- 
spired teachings, but is itself a valuable 
illustration and warning of the possibility 
of falling into grievous sin from the heights 
of spiritual privilege. 

Solomon was in many respects a type of 
Christ — who was the divine " Son of Da- 
vid," Matt. 1:1, "greater than Solomon, " 
Matt. 12:42; the "Prince of peace," Isa. 
9:6, 7; the " Beloved" of the Father, Matt. 
3:17; the chosen Son; comp. 1 Chr. 28:5; 
Psa. 45:7; Heb. 1:5, 8, 9; the possessor of 
" all the treasures of wisdom and knowl- 
edge," Luke 2:40, 52; Col. 2:3; the ad- 
mired Teacher; comp. 1 Kin. 4:29-31, 34; 
Luke 5:1, 15; 19:48; the Intercessor for his 
people; compare 1 Kin. 8:22-53; John 17; 
the "King of kings," Rev. 17:14; 19:16; 
Phil. 2:10; the Husband of his church; 
comp. Song; Eph.5:23-32; Rev. 19:7; 21:2. 

SOL'OMON'S POOLS, Eccl. 2:6. Among 
these may be included the ancient struc- 
tures called by the Arabs el-Burak, the 
pools, about 3 miles southwest of Bethle- 
hem, on the road to Hebron. These are 3 
large reservoirs lying near together in the 
narrow valley wady Urtas (see Etam, 
whence, according to the Talmud, the tem- 
ple derived water). They are partly hewn 
out of the rock and partly mason-work, 
and are all lined with cement, are formed 
on successive levels, rising from east to 
west, though not in a direct line, with con- 
duits leading from the upper to the lower, 
and flights of steps from the top to the bot- 
tom of each. They are supplied chiefly 
by an underground aqueduct from a sub- 
terranean fountain some distance to the 
nortlrwest — perhaps the " spring shut up " 
of Song 4:12; in the rainy season they also 
receive a large quantity of water from the 
neighboring hills. An aqueduct from the 
lower pool supplies Bethlehem and the 
Urtas gardens, and conveys water to Jeru- 
salem. The upper and westernmost pool 
is 380 feet long, 236 feet broad at the east, 
229 at the west, 29 feet deep at the east, 160 
feet above the middle pool. This pool is 
423 feet long, 250 feet broad at the east, 160 

579 



SOL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SOL 




SOLOMON'S POO 

at the west, 39 feet deep, above the lower 
pool 248 feet. The lower pool is 582 feet 
long, 207 feet broad at the east, 148 at the 
west, 50 feet deep. When first seen by Dr. 
Thomson they contained but a few feet of 
water; but on another occasion he found 
the 2 higher pools full and overflowing into 
the lowest one. North of the western pool 
is an old square fortification called KaPat 
el-Burak, fort of the pools. The aqueduct 
from the pools crosses the Hinnom valley 
below the southwest corner of the city wall, 
winds south around Mount Zion, and turns 
north again into the Tyropceon valley into 
the city and the Haram area. A high-level 
aqueduct, from a spring near Bethlehem 
200 feet above the temple platform, it is 
thought, conveyed water to the upper pool 
of Gihon, and to " Hezekiah's pool " in Je- 
rusalem near the Joppa gate. 

SOL'OMON'S PORCH. I. Two among 
the structures erected by Solomon for his 
own use might thus be designated, viz., 
the " porch of pillars," and the " porch of 
the throne " or " porch of judgment," 1 Kin. 
7:6, 7. See Shushan. 

II. The outer eastern portico or colon- 
nade of the temple as rebuilt by Herod, 
John 10:23; Acts 3:11; 5:12. It adjoined 
exteriorly the Court of the Gentiles on the 
east; its ceiling, finished with cedar, was 
40 feet above the pavement, and rested on 
a double row of white marble Corinthian 
columns. See Temple. 
580 



LS, IN WADY URTAS. 

SOL'OMON'S SER'VANTS, whose de- 
scendants returned with Zerubbabel from 
captivity, Ezra 2:55-58; Neh. 7:57-60, were 
probably the Canaanites reduced to bond- 
service by Solomon, 1 Kin. 9:20, 21; 2 Chr. 
2:17, 18; 8:7, 8 ; comp. 1 Chr. 22:2. 

SOL'OMON'S SONG, or THE SONG OF 
SONGS, ver. 1, i. e., the most excellent of 
songs ; sometimes called " Canticles," from 
its title in the Latin Vulgate, " Canticus 
Canticorum." It has always held a place 
in the canonical Scriptures, appearing in 
the ancient versions from the Septuagint 
onward, and in the catalogues from that of 
Melito, about A. D. 160, onward, and being 
highly esteemed by Jews and Christians. 
There seems to be no sufficient reason for 
doubting that its author was king Solo- 
mon, at some period during the former 
half of his reign. As to its subject and 
plan very different opinions have been 
held— embraced in one or another of the 
following 3 classes : 

1. The allegorical view. Almost all Jew- 
ish writers of the Christian era interpret 
this beautiful poem as an allegory, agree- 
ing usually with the Targum, the Chaldee 
paraphrase, which explains it as an alle- 
goric and prophetic representation of the 
history of Israel from the Exodus to the 
coming of the Messiah and the building of 
the third temple. The allegorical mode of 
interpretation was adopted by the early 
Christian writers, who regarded the Song 



SOL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SON 



as setting forth either (i) the loving com- 
munion between Christ and the soul of 
the individual believer; or (2) the rela- 
tion between Christ and the church, or (3) 
both; or (4) the relation between Jehovah 
and the people of Israel, the Old Testa- 
ment theocracy; or (5) the history of the 
church in both Old Testament and New 
Testament periods. The allegorical view 
in some form has continued to be that of 
the majority of Christian theologians and 
believers to the present day. 

2. Literal view. As early as the 5th 
century Theodore of Mopsuestia in Cilicia 
maintained the literal sense of the Song, 
as celebrating the earthly love and mar- 
riage of Solomon and his bride — Shelomoh 
and Shulamith ("the Shulamite"), sup- 
posed to be Pharaoh's daughter. This lit- 
eral view long met with little acceptance, 
but in the last and present centuries has 
found supporters, chiefly German ration- 
alists, the bride being sometimes regarded 
as an Egyptian princess, sometimes as an 
Israelite shepherdess from Shunem. It is 
obvious that the bare literal view fails to 
account for the place which the Song has 
always had in the inspired Scriptures and 
in the hearts of God's people, and unwar- 
rantably ignores the typical character of 
Solomon as well as many Scripture repre- 
sentations of the relation between God 
and his people drawn from the marriage 
relation. 

3. Typical view. Midway between the 
allegorical and the literal views is that 
which accepts the Song as setting forth in 
its primary signification the loving inter- 
course of king Solomon and his bride, and, 
by virtue of the representative and typical 
character of the king, as the vicegerent of 
Jehovah and a type of the Messiah, shadow- 
ing forth the tender relation between Je- 
hovah and his chosen people, and the still 
more loving communion between Christ 
and his church. Thus understood, the 
Song harmonizes with the divine system 
of actual, historic, and personal types of 
Christ in his various aspects. The Song 
holds an important place in the develop- 
ment of the idea of the marriage relation 
as the figure of that existing between God, 
and particularly Christ, and his people; 
and was thus adapted to nourish the faith, 
love, and fidelity of Old Testament believ- 
ers, as well as of Christians in later times. 
This idea is involved in expressions in the 
writings of Moses, Exod. 34:15, 16; Num. 
15 : 39 ; and of Asaph, Psa. 73 : 27 ; lies in the 



foundation of the 45th Psalm, by a writer 
contemporary with Solomon; is enlarged 
upon by the prophets in words of comfort 
and rebuke, Isa. 54:5; 62:5; Jer. 3; Ezek. 
16; 23; Hos. 1-3; and adopted by John the 
Baptist, John 3:29, and by our Lord and 
his apostles, Matt. 9:15; 2 Cor. 11:2; Eph. 
5:23-32; Rev. 19:7-9; 21:2-9. Comp. also 
Song 8:12 and Isa. 5:1; Song 2:14 and 
Psa. 74:19; Song 5:2 and Rev. 3:20. 

In form the Song is a lyrical drama or 
dialogue, the speakers being Solomon, the 
bride, and her friends the maidens of Jeru- 
salem. See Solomon, Shulamite. 

In the exposition of this beautiful poem 
we must remember that modern conven- 
tional rules and notions are not the stand- 
ard to which its plan, its images, or its 
phraseology should be brought. 

Dr. John Brown of Haddington, in the 
introduction to his admirable paraphrase 
of this book, says, " If understood of the 
marriage and fellowship between Christ 
and his people, it will appear most exalt- 
ed, instructive, and heart-warming. Its 
majestic style, its power on men's con- 
science to promote holiness and purity, 
the harmony of its language with that of 
Christ's parables and the book of Revela- 
tion, the sincerity of the bride in acknowl- 
edging her faults, and its general recep- 
tion by the Jewish and Christian church, 
sufficiently prove it inspired of God. To 
such as read it with a carnal and especially 
with a wanton mind, it is the savor of death 
unto death, as the mind and conscience of 
such are defiled ; but to such as have expe- 
rienced much fellowship with Christ and 
read it with a heavenly and spiritual tem- 
per of mind, it will be the savor of life unto 
life. The speakers in it are Christ, belie- 
vers, and the daughters of Jerusalem," or 
companions and friends of believers. 

SOME'TIME, or SOME'TIMES, in the 
A. V. should read " aforetime," "once," or 
"in times past," Eph. 2:13; 5:8; Col. 1:21; 
3:7; Tit. 3:3; 1 Pet. 3:20. 

SON is used in a variety of senses in the 
Scriptures: sometimes denoting a grand- 
son or more remote descendant, Gen. 29:5; 
Matt. 1:20; one occupying a relation like 
that of a son — by adoption, Gen. 48:5; by 
law, Ruth 4:17; by education, 1 Sam. 3:6; 
i Kin. 20:35; compare Prov. 1:8, etc.; by 
conversion, Tit. 1:4; by resemblance, Isa. 
57:3; Matt. 5:9, 45; Acts 13:10. By a fur- 
ther figure of speech, persons, to express 
their real or apparent origin, their temper, 
or their destiny, are sometimes called 

58i 



SON 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SON 



" sons " of localities, qualities, affections, 
or conditions ; as " sons of the East," Judg. 
6:3, 33\ "of this world," Luke 16:8; "of 
hell," Matt. 23:15, R. V.; "of Belial" or 
worthlessness, Judg. 19:22; " of disobedi- 
ence," Eph. 2:2; "of death," 1 Sam. 20:31, 
margin; "of perdition," John 17:12. Even 
inanimate objects were called "sons" of 
other inanimate objects, as in a sense their 
offspring : thus an arrow is a " son of the 
bow," Job 41:28, R. V., margin, or "of the 
quiver," Lam. 3:13, margin; and threshed 
grain is the "son of the threshing-floor," 
Isa. 21:10, margin. The Hebrew word 
ben, son, occurs in composition in many 
personal, tribal, and local names, as Ben- 
jamin, Gen. 35:18, margin; Bene-berak, 
sons of lightning, Josh. 19:45. Bar, Ara- 
maic and poetic Hebrew for son, is also 
found in the New Testament, as in Bar- 
timaeus, Mark 10:46. 

SON OF DAVID, 1 Chr. 29 : 22 ; Matt. 1 : 20 ; 
Luke 3:31. This title became, by reason 
of the Old Testament prophecies announ- 
cing the firm and glorious dominion of a 
descendant of David, Isa. 9:7; Jer. 23:5; 
Amos 9:11, one of the recognized designa- 
tions of the Messiah, Matt. 12:23; 22:41, 
42; Mark 12:35; John 7:42, and as such is 
repeatedly appropriated to Jesus, Matt. 1:1; 
9:27; 15:22; 20:30, 31; 21:9, 15; compare* 
Luke 1:32. 

SON OF GOD. I. Adam, as deriving his 
origin directly from God and endowed with 
a mental and moral likeness to Him, is so 
called, Luke 3:38; compare Gen. 1:26, 27. 
The expression occurs first in the plural, 
Gen. 6:2, 4, where the best interpretation 
regards it as denoting, not angels, Luke 
20:35, 36, but the descendants of Seth, of 
whose line were the pious patriarchs of 
Gen. 5; comp. Gen. 4:26, and the "daugh- 
ters of men " as denoting women of the 
race of Cain, the accursed one, Gen. 4:9- 
16. The term "sons of God" is also ap- 
plied to angels, Job 1 :6; 2:1; 38:7; and to 
kings and rulers, 2 Sam. 7:14; 1 Chr. 28 : 6 ; 
comp. Psa. 82:6 ; as well as to the worship- 
pers or chosen people of God — as, beside 
the Sethites, Gen. 6:2, 4, Israel, Exod. 4:22, 
23; Deut. 14:1 ; Isa. 45:11 ; Jer. 3:^ ; 31 :2o; 
Hos. 1 : 10; and especially believers in 
Christ— as adopted by his Father, born 
again into the spiritual family of God, and 
having wrought in them a new nature, di- 
vine in origin and by resemblance, John 
1:12,13; Rom. 8:14-17; Phil. 2:13-15; Heb. 
12:5-7; 2 Pet - I: 4- See Regeneration. 
Nebuchadnezzar likens the superhuman 
582 



companion of Shadrach and his friends in 
the fiery furnace to "a son of the gods," 
Dan. 3:25, R. V.; comp. ver. 28; in the 
thought of the heathen king there was prob- 
ably no reference to " the Son of God," A. 
V., the Messiah. 

II. The title " the Son of God " belongs 
in a peculiar and always distinguishable 
sense to the Lord Jesus Christ, expressing 
his unique and eternal relation to the 
Father, as "the only-begotten Son," the 
revealer of the Father, his agent in crea- 
tion and redemption, in providence and in 
judgment, John 1 : 14, 18, 34 ; 3:16; 5 : 22, 23 ; 
Heb. 1 ; comp. Psa. 2. This title is applied 
to Christ more than 40 times in the New 
Testament, Matt. 3:17; 16:16, 17; 17:5; 
Rev. 2:18. The Jews rightly understood 
him to assert equality with God in claim- 
ing it, John 5:18, R. V.; 10:30-36. The 
truth that the Messiah would be essentially 
divine is involved in declarations of the 
Hebrew Scriptures, Psa. 2; Isa. 7:14, R. V., 
margin; 9:6; Mic. 5:2; which were so far 
understood that the title " Son of God " was 
one of the recognized names of the Mes- 
siah, Matt. 26:63; Mark 14:61; John 1:49. 
But the vast majority of the Jews, entan- 
gled in earthly conceptions of the Messiah 
and his office, failed to apprehend the full 
meaning of these Scriptures, stumbled at 
the poverty and unworldliness of Jesus, 
and rejected as false his claim to be the 
Messiah and as blasphemy his announce- 
ment that he was the Son of God in the 
fullest sense of the term, Matt. 26:63-66; 
John 5:18; 8:58, 59; 19:7. See Trinity. 
God's gift of his own Son is at once the 
greatest proof of the enormity of sin, of the 
strict holiness and justice of God, and of 
his gracious love for sinners, John 3:16; 
Rom. 3:25, 26; 8:3,32; Heb. 10:28, 29. 

SON OF MAN. This expression is often 
used in the Old Testament as an equiva- 
lent for "man;" it is coupled with allu- 
sions to human weakness, Num. 23 : 19 ; Job 
25:6; Psa. 144:3 ; 146:3, and is a reminder 
to humility, Ezek. 2 : 1 , 3, 6, 8 ; 3:1, etc. It is 
applied to Ezekiel's contemporary, Daniel, 
Dan. 8:17. In Daniel's vision of the suc- 
cessive world-kingdoms, after the 4 pre- 
figured under bestial forms, Dan. 7:3-8, he 
describes the ruler of the final, universal, 
eternal kingdom as " like unto a son of 
man," ver. 13, 14, R. V. ; of human aspect, 
yet approaching close to "the Ancient of 
Days," a remarkable prediction of the 
union of the human and the divine in the 
Messiah. See also Dan. 10:16. The title 



soo 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SOR 



"the Son of Man," understood by the Jews 
of our Lord's time as a designation of the 
Messiah, John 12:34, is that which Christ 
most frequently applied to himself, some- 
times interchanging it with "the Son of 
God," John 1:49-51; 3:14-18; and appro- 
priating to himself the prophecy of Daniel, 
Matt. 26:63, 64; comp. Rev. 1:13; i4 :I 4> 
R. V. As applied to Christ — more than 80 
times in the New Testament — it implies 
not only his humiliation, Matt. 8:20, that 
he, the Son of God, became a true man, 
Rom. 8:3, but also that he was the one per- 
fect Man, sinless, and complete in every 
human virtue; also the representative 
Man — personally, as elevated above indi- 
vidual, class, and national prejudices, and 
officially, as the representative of the hu- 
man race in his life and death for man. 
As Augustine says, " The Son of God be- 
came the Son of Man, that you who were 
sons of men might be made sons of God." 
The Son of God is still also the Son of 
Man, in his exaltation to the glory of the 
Father, Luke 22:69; Acts 7:55, 56; comp. 
John 17:5; and as such has perfect sympa- 
thy with men, Heb. 4:15, and is to judge 
the world, Matt. 25 : 31 ; John 5 : 26, 27 ; 
Rev. 5:9, 10. 

In Acts 3 : 13, 26 ; 4 : 27, 30, the word " son " 
in the A. V. is "servant" in the R. V. 
Comp. Isa. 42:1; Matt. 12:18. 

SOOTH'SAYER, i. e., truth-teller, one 
claiming to foretell coming events, the Bi- 
ble translation of several Hebrew words : 
in Dan. 2:27, etc.. a divider, one who pre- 
tended to learn secret or future things by 
dissecting the entrails of animals ; comp. 
Ezek. 21 :2i. In Isa. 2:6, where the people 
of Israel are reproached with being " filled 
with customs from the East," R. V., and 
with being "soothsayers like the Philis- 
tines," the word may mean observers of 
the clouds, or practisers of secret arts; so 
also in Mic. 5:12. Many modes of divina- 
tion were practised. See Divination, 
Magic, Sorcerer. 

SOP, John 13 : 26, a small portion of bread 
dipped in sauce, wine, or some other liquid 
at table, Ruth 2:14. Modern table uten- 
sils were unknown or little used by the 
ancients. The food was conveyed to the 
mouth by the thumb and fingers, and a 
choice morsel was often thus bestowed on 
a favored guest. Similar customs still pre- 
vail in Palestine and other Oriental coun- 
tries. Jowett says, " There are set on the 
table 2 or 3 messes of stewed meat, vege- 
tables, and sour milk. To me the privi- 



lege of a knife, spoon, and plate was grant- 
ed ; but the rest helped themselves imme- 
diately from the dish, in which 5 Arab 
fingers might be seen at once. Their bread, 
which is extremely thin, tearing and fold- 
ing up like a sheet of paper, is used for roll- 
ing together a large mouthful, or sopping 
up the fluid and vegetables. When the 
master of the house found in the dish any 
dainty morsel, he took it out with his fin- 
gers and put it to my mouth." 

SOP'ATER, a father's deliverer, a Berce- 
an Christian who accompanied Paul from 
Greece or Macedonia to Asia, on his return 
from his 3d missionary journey, A. D. 58. 
He was a son of Pyrrhus, Acts 20:4, R. V. 
Comp. Acts 17:10-12. Some would iden- 
tify him with Sosipater. 

SOR'CERER, Exod. 7:11; Jer. 27:9; 
Dan. 2:2, and SOR'CERESS, Exod. 22:18, 
R. V., a man or woman who practised sor- 
cery—often by the use of incantations to 
which superhuman power was ascribed. 
Such a person, in the A. V. "witch," was 
denounced by the Mosaic law, Exod. 22: 18, 
R. V.; Deut. 18:10. Yet sorcery and its 
kindred arts, all of which flourished among 
the heathen, were more or less practised 
by the Hebrews ; and the encouragement 
of it was one of the sins of Manasseh, king 
of Judah, 2 Chr. 33:6, R. V. One of the 
latest denunciations of the Old Testament 
is against sorcerers, Mai. 3:5. In New 
Testament times there were many who 
pretended to foretell the destinies of men 
by the aspects of the planets and stars, and 
to cure diseases, expel demons, and per- 
form other wonders by means of certain 
drugs, incantations, etc. Simon of Sama- 
ria, Acts 8:9-11, and the Jew Bar-jesus at 
Paphos, Acts 13:6-11, and the pythoness, 
Acts 16:16, belonged to this class, which 
was also abundantly represented at Ephe- 
sus, Acts 19:13-19. The punishment of 
sorcerers is foretold, 2 Thess. 2:9-12; Rev. 
21:8; 22:15. See Divination, Enchant- 
ments, Magic, Necromancer, Sooth- 
sayer. 

SORE, "severe," 2 Chr. 21:19; Job 2:7; 
Psa. 2:5; Heb. 10:29. As an adverb, 
"greatly" or " grievously," Gen. 49:23; 
Isa. 23:5; Matt. 17:15; Luke 2:9; Acts 
20:37. 

SO'REK, choice vine, the valley in which 
Delilah lived, Judg. 16:4, near Zorah, Sam- 
son's birthplace, Judg. 13:2. Zorah is now 
traced at Surah, 14 miles west of Jerusa- 
lem, on a hill on the north side of wady 
Surar, a part of which was probably called 

583 



SOS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SOU 



the valley of Sorek. It is a wide and fer- 
tile valley, flanked by low hills of white 
limestone well adapted for vine-culture; 
the bed of its winter-torrent, Judg. 16:4, 
margin, white and shingly in the dry sea- 
son, runs through the middle of the valley. 
On its south side, nearly 2 miles from Surah, 
is 'Ain Shems, formerly Beth-shemesh; and 
some 2 miles southwest from 'Ain Shems 
is Tibneh, formerly Timnah, the home of 
the Philistine maiden whom Samson mar- 
ried, Judg. 14:1. Nearly 2 miles east by 
north from Surah is Eshua, supposed to be 
the ancient Eshtaol, Judg. 13:25; 16:31. 
From Surah the valley takes a northwest- 
erly course, along the boundary between 
Judah and Dan, to the Mediterranean, pass- 
ing 3 miles south of Akir, the ancient Ek- 
ron ; and it may have been the route taken 
by the Philistines' kine drawing the ark of 
God from Ekron to Beth-shemesh, 1 Sam. 
5:10 to 6:13. 

Sorek is translated ''choice vine" in 
Gen. 49:11; Isa. 5:2; Jer. 2:21, and the 
valley may have derived its name from the 
cultivation of such vines on its slopes ; the 
vineyards of Timnah are mentioned in 
Judg. 14:5. In modern Arabic the word 
denotes a highly-prized variety of Syrian 
grape, which is small, purple, and sweet, 
with few T and small seeds, and yielding a 
red wine. 

SOSIP'ATER, a father's saviour, a kins- 
man of Paul, with him at Corinth when the 
Epistle to the Romans was written, A. D. 
58, Rom. 16:21. See Sopater. 

SOS'THENES, presei~ver of the nation ? 
the ruler of the synagogue at Corinth after 
the conversion of Crispus, and probably 
leader of the Jews in their attempt to de- 
stroy Paul. When Gallio refused to take 
cognizance of the Jews' complaint against 
Paul, A. D. st„ Sosthenes was publicly beat- 
en by the Grecians ; and possibly Paul's for- 
giving sympathy won him to Christianity, 
so that he may be identical with the " Sos- 
thenes our brother " who was with Paul at 
Ephesus and joined him in writing to the 
Corinthians, A. D. 57, 1 Cor. 1:1 ; 16:8. 

SOUL. In the English Bible— with the 
exception of Job 30:15, where the R. V. 
correctly renders the Heb. nedibah, " hon- 
or," and Isa. 57:16, where the original is 
neshamah, " breath " or " spirit " — soul is 
the rendering of the Heb. nephesh and its 
Gr. equivalent psuche ; both of which pri- 
marily mean " breath," as nephesh is trans- 
lated in Job 41:21 ; hence they denote the 
vital spirit or principle, and both are often 
584 



translated "life," Gen. 9:4; Exod. 4:19; 
1 Sam. 25:29; Matt. 2:20; 6:25, of which 
brutes as well as men, Gen, 1:20, 30; 2:7, 
are possessed, Job 12: 10. This animal life 
is in Scripture, as well as by the discover- 
ies of modern science, closely allied with 
the blood, which is " the life {nephesh) of 
the flesh," Gen. 9:4, 5; Lev. 17: n-14, R. V. ; 
comp. Isa. 53:7-12; John 19:34. Accord- 
ing to the American Revisers " life " is the 
better, because plainer, rendering of the 
Hebrew word in Psa. 49:8, where, as the 
context shows, the reference is to the im- 
possibility of purchasing a continuance of 
bodily existence; comp. Job 33:22-30. 

But together with this principle of life, 
which is common to men and brutes, and 
which in brutes perishes with the body, 
there is in man a spiritual, reasonable, and 
immortal soul, the seat of our thoughts, 
affections, and reasonings, which distin- 
guishes us from the brute creation, and in 
which chiefly consists our resemblance to 
God, Gen. 1:26. This must be spiritual, 
because it thinks; it must be immortal, 
because it is spiritual. Scripture ascribes 
to man alone understanding, conscience, 
the knowledge of God. wisdom, immortal- 
ity, and the hope of future everlasting hap- 
piness. It threatens men only with pun- 
ishment in another life and with the pains 
of hell. 

To the soul of man, created in God's 
image, Gen. 1:26, is ascribed a peculiar 
power, and from it is demanded a peculiar 
activity, viz. y the " seeking of the Lord," 
Deut. 4:29; 11:18; 30:2, 6, 10, including the 
exercise towards him of all these thoughts, 
feelings, affections, and volitions, with their 
appropriate resultant actions, which His 
character and His relations towards man 
should produce, Psa. 41:4; 4 2 ; io 3- In 
correspondence with this need of the hu- 
man soul is its privilege of having Jehovah 
for its portion, Lam. 3:24, 25, and of find- 
ing rest in Christ, Matt. 11:29; comp. Psa. 
107:9. 

In some places the Bible seems to dis- 
tinguish soul from spirit, 1 Thess. 5:23; 
Heb. 4:12: the organ of our sensations, 
appetites, and passions, allied to the body, 
from that nobler portion of our nature 
which most allies man to God. Yet we 
are to conceive of them as one indivisible 
and spiritual being, called also the mind 
and the heart, spoken of variously as liv- 
ing, feeling, understanding, reasoning, 
willing, etc. Its usual designation is "the 
soul." 



sou 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SOU 



The immortality of the human soul is a 
fundamental truth of revealed religion and 
a prominent doctrine of Christianity. It is 
implied in God's styling himself " the God 
of Abraham, Isaac," etc., long after their 
earthly lives were finished, Exod. 3:6; 
Matt. 22:32. In the Old Testament a dis- 
tinction is often made between the respec- 
tive destinies of the body and the soul at 
death : the same individual is spoken of as 
being " gathered to his people," i. <?., trans- 
ferred to some already populous home of 
his still living ancestors, and as being 
" buried," sometimes in an apparently sol- 
itary grave, as Aaron on Mount Hor, Gen. 
25:8-10; 35:29; 49:29; Num. 20:24; 1 Kin. 
2:10. The distinction is further made in 
the use of a specific term for the place of 
departed souls, both of the righteous and 
the wicked. See Sheol. The true sense 
of Sheol is often obscured in the A. V. by 
translating it "the grave," "the pit," or 
"hell;" but it is restored in the R. V., if 
not in the text, at least in the margin, Gen. 
37-33>35l Psa.9:i7; 30:3; 31:17; Isa. 14:9- 
20; comp. 1 Sam. 28:8-19. And though the 
passage into that unseen world is tinged 
with sadness even to the godly man's soul, 
Job 7:9; Psa. 6:5; 89:48; Isa. 38:10, 18, 
there are records of divine assurances to 
the righteous of release from it and of ac- 
cordant joyful anticipations, Psa. 16:10; 
49 :I 5! 73 : 23-26; Hos. 13:14. The faith 
and obedience of God's ancient servants 
attest their hope of another life, Heb. 11 : 10, 
13-40. It was however reserved for Christ 
to reveal most fully the soul's immortality 
and worth and the blessedness of those 
who die "in the Lord," Matt. 10:28; 16:26; 
John 11:25, 26; Heb. 12:22, 23; Rev. 14:13. 
See Immortality. To save the souls of 
men he freely devoted himself to death ; 
and how does it become his redeemed peo- 
ple to spend and be spent to promote the 
great work for which he suffered and died ! 

In the Scriptures the words rendered 
"soul " are used concretely to denote a liv- 
ing being, especially a human being, Gen. 
12:5; Lev. 5; Josh. 10:28, etc.; Acts 2:43; 
Rev. 16:3; as an object of traffic, a slave, 
Rev. 18:13. The same Hebrew word is 
also used to denote that which has had life, 
a corpse, Num. 9:6, 7, 10. With the posses- 
sive pronouns, "soul" is often equivalent 
to "self," Jer. 37:9, margin. A soul is as T 
cribed to God, Lev. 26:11, 30; Judg. 10:16, 
by the same figure of speech which im- 
putes to him an " arm " or " eyes." 

SOUTH. I. "The South," "the South 



country," or "the land of the South," Heb. 
negeb, dry. This is the name of a large 
region on the south of Canaan (applied to 
it even when approaching it from further 
south) frequented by Abraham and Isaac, 
Gen. 12:9; 13:1, 3; 20:1; 24:62. It was 
crossed by the spies sent by Moses from 
Kadesh, and was at that time a seat of the 
Amalekites, Num. 13:17, 22, 29. It is men- 
tioned among the grand divisions con- 
quered by the Israelites, Josh. 10:40; comp. 
Num. 21 :i-3, and formed part of the terri- 
tory allotted to Judah and afterwards to 
Simeon, Josh. 15:21-32; 19:1-8; 1 Chr. 
4:24-33. In this region the family of Ca- 
leb the Kenite, and the Judahite family of 
Jerahmeelites settled, Judg. 1 : 10-16; 1 Sam. 
27:10; in David's time part of it was held 
by the Philistines, who gave Ziklag to him, 

1 Sam. 27:5-7; 30:1, 14-16; comp. 2 Chr. 
28:18. The mountains on the southwest of 
the Dead Sea formed the eastern border 
of the Negeb, which extended westward to 
the neighborhood of Gaza and Gerar. It 
consisted of a high plateau intersected by 
mountain ranges and sloping westward 
into the plain. The towns assigned to it, 
from Rimmon on the north to Kadesh on 
the south, Josh. 15:21-32, indicate a length 
of 60 miles. The northern part of this 
region was tolerably fertile and cultiva- 
ted, but the southern portion partook of 
the character of the wilderness on which 
it bordered. Its wadys, filled with water 
by the winter rains, Psa. 126:4, soon/ dry 
up, and it suffers from the hot winds from 
the desert in their season, Isa. 21:1; com- 
pare Luke 12:55. There are many ruins 
of former towns — wells, aqueducts, reser- 
voirs, terraces, etc.— but none now inhab- 
ited. Ambassadors from Judah to Egypt 
would cross it, Isa. 30:1-6; comp. 36:6. 
Jeremiah predicts a Jewish reoccupation 
of its cities which shared in the desolation 
of Judah by the Babylonians, Jer. 32:44; 
33:13; comp. Obad. 19, 20; Zech. y.y; and 
the fulfilment of this prediction is record- 
ed, Neh. 11 : 25-30. 

By Jeremiah, in Jehoiachin's reign, the 
term negeb seems to be applied to the en- 
tire land of Judah approached from the 
north, Jer. 13:19; comp. ver. 18, R. V., 20; 

2 Kin. 24- 12, and a few years later by Eze- 
kiel prophesying in Babylon, Ezek. 20:46, 
47; 21:1, 2 ; comp. Ezek. 1: 1-3 ; 20:1. Dan- 
iel, ch. 11, applies the term to Egypt. It 
sometimes denotes merely relative direc- 
tion, as in Exod. 26:18. "the south side." 

As a distinct geographical term the R. V. 
585 



sou 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SPA 



distinguishes the South by a capital ini- 
tial. 

II. Darom, a word applied to part of the 
territory of Naphtali, Deut. 33:23, and also 
used as a simple relative term, Eccles. 1:6; 
Ezek. 20:46, R. V.; 40:24, etc,; and poeti- 
cally for the south wind, Job 37:17. 

III. A frequent term for the south is te- 
MAN, the right hand, i. e., of one facing the 
east, Exod. 26 : 18, " southward," Josh. 15:1; 
Isa. 43 : 6. It is also used for the south wind, 
Song 4: 16. In Zech. 6:6 " the south coun- 
try " denotes Egypt. 

IV. Another term denoting " the right 
hand," yamin, is used for the south, 1 Sam. 
23:19, 24; in Psa. 89:12 evidently in the 
widest sense. 

V. In Psa. 107:3 the original term, liter- 
ally " sea," A. V., margin, is the word 
translated "west" in Deut. 33:23; Isa. 
49:12, and "sea" in Amos 8:12. 

VI. The south is designated in Psa. 75:6 
by the word midbar, wilderness, in allu- 
sion to the character of Arabia south of 
Palestine. 

SOUTH, QUEEN OF THE, Matt. 12:42. 
See Sabeans, II. 

SOUTH RA'MOTH, 1 Sam. 30:27. See 
Ramath Negeb. 

SOWING, Psa. 126:6; Prov. 11:18; Amos 
9:13; Matt. 13:19-28; 2 Cor. 9:6. Many 
Scriptures present the analogy between 
agricultural and spiritual sowing, and 
show that the sure resultant harvests from 
sowing good seed or evil seed are not arbi- 
trary judgments from God, but the natural 
and necessary results of our conduct, Gal. 
6:7,8. 

SPAIN, Rom. 15:24, 28, the peninsula in 
the southwest of Europe, about 480 miles 
wide and 600 long. The Phcenicians had 
commercial settlements on the coast, one 
of which, called by the Greeks Tartessus, 
was probably the Tarshish of Hiram and 
Solomon. See Tarshish. Gades, now 
Cadiz, was another Phoenician settlement. 
The earliest inhabitants known to the 
Greeks and Romans were the Iberians, 
around the river Iberus, now Ebro. These 
were afterwards mingled in some places 
with invading Celts. The name Iberia 
was extended by the Greeks from the west 
coast, where they had settlements, to the 
whole country. In B. C. 238 the Cartha- 
ginians invaded Iberia and conquered the 
southeast portion, but were expelled by the 
Romans in the 2d Punic war, about B. C. 
206. After the Roman conquest the coun- 
try was named Hispania— a name traced 
586 



by some to the Shemitic word shaphan »' 
see Coney ; by others to the Basque word 
Ezpana, the edge-land of Europe. Spain 
was famed for its mineral wealth of gold, 
silver, etc. The Roman conquest was not 
completed until the time of Augustus, B. C. 
19, who divided the country into 3 provin- 
ces, the one named Lusitania nearly cor- 
responding to Portugal. Many Romans 
settled in Spain, and their language and 
civilization gradually spread through the 
country ; the elder Seneca was a native of 
Spain. Probably many Hellenistic Jews 
resided there, and perhaps there were 
Christians there at the date of the Epistle 
to the Romans, A. D. 58, when Paul, at 
Corinth intended to visit the country, Rom. 
15:24, 28 — a design perhaps accomplished 
between his 1st and 2d imprisonments at 
Rome, A. D. 64-66. See Paul. On the 
decay of the Roman Empire Spain suffered 
as a battle-ground of the Teutonic tribes. 
The Goths established their supremacy in 
427, and exchanged their Arian Christianity 
for the Roman-catholic faith in 587. About 
713 the Mauritanian Arabs, or Moors, con- 
quered Spain, driving the Christians into 
the north, and retained a Mohammedan 
empire there until deprived of their last 
remaining kingdom, that of Granada, in 
1482 by Ferdinand and Isabella, who also 
expelled the Jews from Spain. The king- 
dom reached its height of prosperity under 
the emperor Charles V. (I. of Spain), Isa- 
bella's grandson; and commenced a de- 
cline under Philip III., grandson of Charles. 
Previous to 1868 the teaching of Protestant 
doctrines was forbidden by law. 

SPAN, Exod. 28:16; 1 Sam. 17:4; Isa. 
40:12; Ezek. 43:13, the distance from the 
extremity of the thumb to that of the little 
finger when spread apart— 9 or 10 inches. 
The Hebrew word rendered "spanned " in 
Isa. 48:13 means "spread out," as in the 
R. V. From the same verb is derived the 
term used in Lam. 2 : 20, where the R. V. has 
children that are "dandled in the hands," 
instead of "a span long;" comp. ver. 22, 
where the same verb is rendered "dan- 
dled," instead of "swaddled," A. V. 

SPAR'ROW, Psa. 84 : 3 ; 102 : 7 ; Prov. 
26:2., Heb. tsippor, a term resembling in 
sound the chirp of many small birds, and 
one of wide application. It occurs more 
than 40 times in the Old Testament, but is 
usually rendered "bird," as in Gen. 7:14; 
15:10;' Job 41:5; Eccles. 12:4, or "fowl." 
Deut. 4:17. Like the still oftener occur- 
ring oph, wing, also rendered "bird," Gen. 



SPA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SPE 



40:17, 19, and "fowl," Gen. 1:20; 7:14, 
tsippor is sometimes used in the most com- 
prehensive sense, Deut. 4:17; Psa. 148:10, 
including carrion-eaters, Ezek. 39:17, 
though a special term is also used for 
these, viz., avit, rendered in the R. V. 
"birds of prey" and "ravenous birds," 
Gen. 15:11; Job 28:7; Isa. 18:6; Jer. 12:9. 
In Ezek. 39:4 ayit is used with tsippor, and 
rendered "ravenous." But the chief ap- 
plication of tsippor was to the insectivo- 
rous and frugivorous small birds, account- 
ed "clean," permitted as food, Deut. 14:11, 
and directed to be used in the ceremony 
for the cleansing of a leper, Lev. 14:4, 




etc. Beside sparrows, there were inclu- 
ded finches, thrushes, larks, and many oth- 
ers; comp. also Gen. 15:10 with ver. 9. 
Wanton destruction of such birds was 
guarded against, Deut. 22:6, 7. Over 100 
species of passerine or sparrow-like birds 
have been observed in Palestine, inclu- 
ding the common English sparrow, Passer 
domesticus, and 3 other sparrows. The 
English tree - sparrow, Passer montanus, 
abounds in the Mount of Olives and around 
the mosque on the site of the temple, whence 
they acquire a sort of sacredness in the 
view of Mohammedans, as under the divine 
protection; comp. Psa. 84:3 — where how- 
ever " altars " cannot be understood liter- 
ally, and man}- claim that birds were not 
allowed within the sacred precincts at all, 
and that the Psalmist only asserts that as 
the birds find anywhere a safe nest, so his 
soul found rest and a home in Jehovah. 
In Psa. 102:7 the reference is not to the 
lively and gregarious sparrow, but to the 
blue thrush, Petrocincla cyanea, often seen 
perched singly, or with a single compan- 
ion, on houses in the villages of Palestine, 
uttering from time to time its plaintive and 
monotonous note. Among the birds to 



whose notes reference is made in Psa. 
104:12 we may doubtless number the Pal- 
estine bulbul, Ixus xanthopygius, a thrush- 
like bird, closely allied to the nightingale 
of Persia and India; it frequents wooded 
districts, especially the banks of the Jor- 
dan, where in the early morning it pours 
forth its exquisite song. Small birds were 
no doubt anciently used as a common food, 
Neh. 5:18, and were so abundant in mar- 
ket and cheap in our Lord's time as to fur- 
nish a striking illustration of God's care 
over his people, Matt. 10:29-31 ; Luke 12:6, 
7 ; long strings of sparrows, wagtails, and 
larks are to-day offered in the streets of 
Jerusalem. The Old Testament contains 
many allusions to the capture of birds, 
effected by snares and nets of various sorts, 
Psa. 124:7; Prov. 7:23; Eccles. 9:12; Amos 
3:5, sometimes with the help of a decoy 
bird, Jer. 5:27. See Partridge. Mussul- 
mans cut the throat of game and spill the 
blood on the ground, as Moses bade the 
Hebrews to do, Lev. 17:13. In Isa. 31:5 
God's tender care over his people is illus- 
trated by that of a mother-bird flying around 
or near her young in time of danger. The 
fugitive habit of the sparrows illustrates 
the failure of an undeserved curse to cling 
to the person against whom it is aimed, 
Prov. 26:2; comp. Num. 23:8; Deut. 23:5. 
The Hebrew term occurs as the name of 
the father of Balak, Num. 22:2, and of the 
Midianite wife of Moses, Exod. 2:21. 

SPEAR. Several different kinds seem 
to be intended by as many different Heb. 
words. I. The chanith seems to have been 
the chief weapon of this sort, 1 Sam. 13:19, 
22; one of great size and weight was borne 
by Goliath, 1 Sam. 17:7, 45, and by other 
giants, 2 Sam. 21:19; 23 : 21 ; 1 Chr. 1 1 : 23 ; 
it was the habitual companion of Saul, 
1 Sam. 22:6: 26:7-12, 16, 22; 2 Sam. 1:6, 
and other warriors, 2 Sam. 2:23; 23:18; 
1 Chr. 11: 11, 20. It was this, and not a 
"javelin," that Saul hurled at David, 1 Sam. 
18:10, 11; 19:9, 10, and at Jonathan, 1 Sam. 
20:33, R- V. Its wooden staff, 5 or 6 feet 
long, bore a metal head, sharp-edged and 
pointed, 1 Sam. 17:7; its butt also was 
sometimes shod with metal to facilitate 
sticking it in the earth, 1 Sam. 26:7, etc., 
and with this end a fatal blow might be 
struck, 2 Sam. 2:23. Like this was the 
Roman spear with which a large wound 
was inflicted in the side of Jesus, John 
19:34; 20:27. 

II. The kidon or "javelin" was appar- 
ently a lighter weapon. It was this that 

587 



SPE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SPI 



Joshua stretched out as a signal to his host 
in ambush to assault Ai, Josh. 8 : 18-26, R. V. 
One of brass or bronze was borne by Goli- 
ath on his shoulders when not in use, 1 Sam. 
17:6, 45, R. V., called in the A. V. "target" 
and " shield." It is associated with the 
spear in Job 39:23; in the A. V. ''shield." 

III. Another frequent term for shield is 
romach, Num. 25 : 7, R. V. ; Judg. 5:8; 1 Kin. 
18:28, in the R. V. "lances;" 1 Chr. 12:8, 
in the A. V. " buckler;" 2 Chr. 11:12; 14:8; 
25:5; Neh. 4:13, 16, 21; Ezek. 39:9. 

SPEAR'MEN, Acts 23:23, probably light- 
armed lancers, in distinction from the 
heavy-armed legionaries, " soldiers," and 
the cavalry. The words rendered "the 
company of spearmen " in Psa. 68:30, A. V., 
are translated in the R. V. " wild beast of 
the reeds," meaning probably the croco- 
dile, as the symbol of Egypt; comp. ver. 
31; Psa. 74:14; Ezek. 29:3. 

SPEED, success, Gen. 24 : 12. " God 
speed," 2 John 10, 11, good health and 
success ; in R. V. " give him no greet- 
ing." Sped, Judg. 5:30, succeeded; R. V., 
" found." 

SPI'CERY, Heb. nekoth, Gen. 37:25; 
43: 11, R. V. ; either the slorax, an odorous 
gum valued as an incense and for its med- 
ical properties — exuded from incisions in 
the Storax officinalis, a low tree found in 
Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, and Greece ; 
or as some think, tragacanth, a gum from 
the Astragalus tragacantha, which still 
grows in Palestine. The shrub is low and 
wide -spreading, with small leaves and 
many long and strong thorns. The gum 
is odorless and sweetish in taste, and has 
always been prized in the East, being mixed 
with honey for medicinal use. Dissolved 
in water it forms a fine mucilage. 

SPI'CES is the rendering of 4 Heb. words, 
one of which, basam, found only in Song 
5:1, may perhaps denote the precious bal- 
sam obtained from the gum and berries of 
the Amyris opobalsamum, Arabic basham. 
See Balm, also Song 5:13; 6:2, R. V., mar- 
gin. In the other passages where " spi- 
ces " are mentioned the reference is prob- 
ably to aromatic substances in general, 
including not only odorous gums, roots, 
woods, and barks, but also fragrant seeds 
and the perfumes of flowers, Song 4:14, 16. 
Some of these substances were used in 
compounding the sacred incense and an- 
ointing oil, Exod. 25:6; 30:23-25, 34, 35; 
35:8, 28; 37:29. Some were products of 
Palestine, others were obtained from Ara- 
bia, or through Arabia from India, Persia, 
588 



East Africa, etc.; comp. 1 Kin. 10:2, 10; 
Ezek. 27:22, R. V. The Greek word aro- 
mata, rendered "spices" in Mark 16:1; 
Luke 23:56; 24:1, also denotes aromatic 
substances in general, the two specified in 
John 19:39, 40 being a gum and a fragrant 
wood. Josephus mentions the attendance 
of 500 spice-bearers at the funeral of Herod 
the Great. 




SPI'DER, a well-known little creature 
belonging to a family of the order Arach- 
nida, of which many kinds are found in 
Palestine. Most of them spin some sort of 
a web or "house," sufficiently strong to 
catch and hold their prey, but yet exceed- 
ingly frail. To this slender structure Bil- 
dad compares " the hope of the godless 
man," Job. 8 : 14, R. V. The spider's thread 
is formed by the union of thousands of mi- 
nute silky threads, invisible to the naked 
eye, issuing from its spinneret and quickly 
hardening in the air. It shows marvellous 
ingenuity in forming its web, great cun- 
ning in securing its prey, and ferocity in 
seizing, poisoning, and devouring it. Isa- 
iah shows the men of Judah that their sim- 
ilar traits and works can as little cover or 
protect them from the judgments of God, 
Isa. 59:5, 6. In Prov. 30:28 a different He- 
brew word is used, denoting, according to 
the Septuagint, the Vulgate, and the R. V., 
the lizard ; perhaps the gecko, several spe- 
cies of which are common among ruins in 
Palestine and Egypt ; with its fan-like toes 
it is able to mount perpendicular walls, and 
even to cling to ceilings. Some scholars, 
however, with the A. V., still regard the 
house spider, Aranea domestica, as re- 
ferred to. 

SPIKE'NARD (Heb. nerd, derived from 
the Sanscrit and denoting " giving an 
odor "), a highly-valued scented oil or oint- 
ment, mentioned as perfuming the bride in 
Song 1:12; comp. 4:10, and sending forth 
its fragrance "while the king sat at his ta- 
ble." In Song 4:13, 14, the king, likening 



SPI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SPI 



her to a garden, includes spikenard among 
its precious plants; and she desires that 
its ''spices" or odors ma)' all exhale to 




THE NARDOSTACHYS JATAMANSI, A SINGLE SPIKE. 

please him, ver. 16. In harmony with Ori- 
ental custom, the bride's ointment may be 
regarded as the gift of the king ; compare 
Esth. 2:12; and these pleasant odors may 
symbolize the spiritual graces of the church, 
derived from God and exercised under the 
influences of his Spirit. It is interesting to 
trace the correspondence between these, 
the only Old Testament references to spike- 
nard, and the only New Testament notices 
of it. A few days before the crucifixion 
of our Lord, Mary the sister of Lazarus 
brought a flask of ointment of spikenard, 
"very costly," broke its seal or its slender 
neck, and anointed him with the ointment, 
whose fragrance filled the house ; and for 
this manifestation of her adoring love she 
received the high commendation of the 
King of the church, Mark 14:3-9; John 
12:1-8; compare Matt. 26:6-13; Phil. 4:18. 
The quantity thus expended was worth 
more than 300 denarii, nearly $50. See 
Alabaster, Penny, Spices. Nard is 
mentioned by many Greek and Latin wri- 
ters. It is an East-Indian plant, having 
many shaggy spikes — Gr. stachus, Lat. 
spica — from one root ; whence it was called 



nardostachus or spica nardi, Eng. spike- 
nard. By the Hindoo natives it is called 
jatamansi and balchur; it belongs to the 
Valerian family. 

SPIN, SPIN'DLE. Hebrew women oc- 
cupied much of their time in spinning, 
Exod. 35:25, 26; Prov. 31:19; Matt. 6:28. 
Wool and flax were spun for woollen and 
linen cloth, and goats' and camels' hair for 
sackcloth — which was used for mourning 
garments and girdles, and for tent-cover- 
ings; comp. Zech. 13:4; Matt. 3:4. The 
different fibres were drawn out and twist- 
ed into thread by means of a distaff or 
spindle, Prov. 31 : 19. The process of spin- 
ning, with the spindle suspended from one 
hand while the other draws out the thread, 
is exhibited in Egyptian pictures and may 
still be seen in Palestine. 

SPIR'IT, a word answering to the Heb. 
ruach and the Gr. pneimia, primarily de- 
noting "wind," Gen. 8:1; Eccles. 11:4; 
John 3:8; used in various senses in Scrip- 
ture. 

I. For the Deity, especially the Holy 
Spirit, the 3d person of the Holy Trinity, 
who inspired the prophets, animates good 
men, pours his unction into our hearts, im- 
parts to us life and comfort, and in whose 
name we are baptized and blessed, as well 
as in that of the Father and the Son. When 
the adjective Holy is applied to the term 
Spirit we should always understand it as 
here explained ; but there are many places 
where it must be taken in this sense, al- 
though the term Holy is omitted. See 
Holy Spirit. 

II. Breath, respiration; or the princi- 
ple of animal life, common to men and ani- 
mals; this God has given, and this he re- 
calls when he takes away life, Eccles. 3:21. 
See Soul. 

III. The rational soul which animates 
us and preserves its being after the death 
of the body. That spiritual, reasoning, 
and choosing substance which is capable 
of eternal happiness or misery, Luke 23 : 46 ; 
Acts 7:59; 1 Cor. 5:5; Heb. 12:9, 23. See 
Soul. Sometimes an apparition of a dis- 
embodied soul, Luke 24:37, 39. In Matt. 
14:26; Mark 6:49 another Gr. word, phan- 
tasma, is used to express a similar idea. 
See R. V. 

The spirits in prison," 1 Pet. 3:19, seem, 
according to ver. 20, to denote the souls of 
antediluvian sinners now reserved in con- 
finement unto the judgment-day ; compare 
2 Pet. 2:4, 9, R. V. The "preaching" or 
proclamation to them by Christ " in the 

589 



SPI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SPO 



spirit" (R. V.), is generally understood 
as performed in the days of their earthly 
life through Noah, influenced by the Holy 
Spirit, sometimes called "the Spirit of 
Christ." Comp. 2 Pet. 2:5. Thus Christ 
preached to Gentiles and Jews through his 
inspired apostles and ministers, Eph. 2:17; 
comp. Luke 24:46, 47. Others understand 
in 1 Pet. 3:19 some proclamation made by 
Christ personally when his human spirit, 
at death, entered Hades; comp. Acts 2:31; 
such a proclamation, however, cannot be 
understood as implying any change in the 
condition of souls dying impenitent; comp. 
Luke 16:23-31. 

IV. A non-human created intelligence, 
an angel ; either holy, Heb. 1 : 14, or fallen 
and sinful, Matt. 10:1. The existence of 
angels and of disembodied human spirits 
was denied by the Sadducees, Acts 23:8. 

V. The disposition of the mind. Thus 
we read of a spirit of jealousy, a spirit of 
fornication, a spirit of prayer, a spirit of 
wisdom and understanding, a spirit of fear 
of the Lord, Hos. 4:12; Zech. 12:10; Isa. 
11:2. In Luke 13:11 "a spirit of infirm- 
ity " refers to some ill condition of the 
body, perhaps as in some way produced by 
the permitted agency of a spiritual being, 
Satan, ver. 16. 

VI. The renewed nature of true be- 
lievers, which is produced by the Holy 
Spirit and conforms the soul to his like- 
ness. Spirit is thus the opposite of flesh, 
John 3:6. This spirit is vitally united with, 
and in some passages can hardly be dis- 
tinguished from, the " Spirit of Christ," 
which animates true Christians, the chil- 
dren of God, and distinguishes them from 
the children of darkness, who are animated 
by the spirit of the world, Rom. 8:1-16. 
This indwelling Spirit is the gift of grace, 
of adoption — the Holy Spirit poured into 
our hearts — which emboldens us to call 
God "Abba," i. e. "Father." Those who are 
influenced by this Spirit "have crucified 
the flesh, with its affections and lusts," Gal. 
5:16-23. 

"Distinguishing or discerning of spir- 
its " consisted in discerning whether a man 
was really inspired by the Spirit of God, 
or was a false prophet, an impostor, who 
only followed the impulse of his own spirit 
or of Satan. Paul speaks, 1 Cor. 12:10, of 
the discerning of spirits as being among 
the miraculous gifts granted by God to the 
faithful at the first establishment of Christi- 
anity. 

To "quench the Spirit," 1 Thess. 5:19, 
590 



is a metaphorical expression easily under- 
stood. The Spirit may be quenched by 
forcing, as it were, that divine Agent to 
withdraw from us by irregularity of life, 
frivolity, avarice, negligence, or other sins 
contrary to charity, truth, peace, and his 
other gifts and influences. 

We "grieve" the Spirit of God, Eph. 
4:30, by withstanding his holy inspirations, 
the impulses of his grace, or by living in a 
lukewarm and incautious manner, by des- 
pising his gifts or neglecting them, by 
abusing his favors, either out of vanity, 
curiosity, or indifference. In a contrary 
sense, 2 Tim. 1:6. we "stir up" or "stir 
into flame" the gift of the Spirit of God 
which is in us by the practice of virtue, by 
compliance with his inspirations, by fervor 
in his service, by renewing our gratitude, 
and by diligently serving Christ and doing 
the works of the Spirit. 

SPIR'IT, FAMIL'IAR. See DIVINATION, 

Witchcraft. 

SPIRITUAL, belonging to the Holy Spir- 
it, Rom. 1 : 11 ; Eph. 1:3; communicated by 
him, 1 Cor. 10:3, 4; determined and influ- 
enced by him, 1 Cor. 3:1; Gal. 6:1; Eph. 
5:19; 1 Pet. 2:5. See Spirit, I., VI. 

SPIRITUAL BODY, 1 Cor. 15:44, tlie 
body of saints after resurrection, immor- 
tal, incorruptible, and glorious, a fit organ 
for the perfectly sanctified spirit ; comp. 
ver. 51-53; Phil. 3:21. 

SPIRITUAL GIFTS, 1 Cor. 12: i, the mi- 
raculous endowments conferred by the 
Holy Spirit on the primitive believers in 
Christ; comp. ver. 3-1 1. 

SPIRITUAL WICK'EDNESS, Eph. 6:12, 
rather, " the spiritual hosts of wickedness," 
as in the R. V. ; wicked spirits. See Spir- 
it, IV. 

SPOIL, booty taken in war. A tenth of 
all thus gained was devoted to God for the 
use of his priest as early as the time of 
Abraham, Gen. 14:20; Heb. 754. After 
Israel's victory over the Midianites, Moses, 
by God's command, ordered the spoil of 
captives and cattle to be halved between 
the 12,000 warriors engaged and the mass of 
the Israelitish non-combatants ; the former 
being commanded to devote one five-hun- 
dredth part of their share to God for the 
priests, and the latter one fiftieth of their 
part for the Levites, Num. 31:26-47. A 
voluntary thank-offering to the Lord, of 
gold, was also given, ver. 48-54. All this 
was probably intended as a precedent for 
future occasions; comp. 2 Sam. 8:6-12; 
1 Chr. 26:26, 27. David provided that the 



SPO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



STA 



baggage-guard should share equally with 
the fighters, i Sam. 30:21-25. As a verb 
"spoil" often means "to plunder," Gen. 
34:27, 29; 1 Sam. 14:36 ; 2 Kin. 7: 16; 2 Chr. 
14:14. In Exod. 3:22; 12:36 the word ren- 
dered "spoil" and "spoiled" means to 
recover property taken away by violence ; 
comp. i Sam. 30:18, 22. Christ "spoiled " 
principalities and powers when by his ato- 
ning work he deprived Satan and his hosts 
of their power to injure his people, Col. 
2:15. The verb means "stripped," as of 
clothing or armor ; and some interpret it as 
meaning that " having put off his body," he 
made a show of principalities, etc. Paul 
warns Christians not to permit the votaries 
of human philosophy, tradition, etc., to 
" spoil " them, i. <?., to carry them captive, 
Col. 2:8. See Philosophy. 

SPONGE, a submarine substance abun- 
dant in the eastern parts of the Mediterra- 
nean, adhering to rocks, and obtained by 
divers. Homer, about B. C. 850, mentions 
sponges as in use among the Greeks for 
washing the person and for cleansing ta- 
bles after meals. The familiar sponge of 
commerce consists of a network of minute 
fibres inclosed by their membranes, making 
a highly porous and elastic mass, fitted to 
convey drink where a cup could not be 
used, Matt. 27:48; Mark 15:36; John 19:29. 
The sponge in its native state belongs to 
the lowest order of animals, called Pori- 
fera, from the pores with which the sub- 
stance abounds ; this being clothed and 
built up by a jelly-like aggregation of sep- 
arate bodies, some of which are furnished 
with long cilia or filaments. These by 
constant vibrations keep up a current of 
water, which enters the pores of the sponge 
and is expelled through the larger open- 
ings, after parting with such of the solid 
particles in the water as can be digested 
by the gelatinous mass. 

SPRINK'LING, BLOOD OF, Heb. 12:24. 
Once every year, on the great day of atone- 
ment, the high-priest went into the holy of 
holies, carrying blood, which he sprinkled 
on the mercy-seat, to make atonement be- 
cause of all the sins of the children of Isra- 
el, Lev. 16:15, 16. So Christ, after his sac- 
rifice of himself, entered into the presence 
of God in heaven, Heb. 9:12, 24, present- 
ing, as the great High-priest, his own blood 
as an atonement for sin. By virtue of this 
" blood of sprinkling " the penitent sinner, 
believing on Christ, may draw near to God 
and find a gracious welcome — the blood of 
Christ not calling for vengeance, like that 



of Abel, Gen. 4:10, 11, but speaking of par- 
don, peace with God, and eternal life ; 
comp. Heb. 9:13-22; 10:19-22, 29; Exod. 
24:6-8; Lev. 8:30; 14:6,7; Num. 19:17-19; 
Isa. 52:15; Rev. 1:5, 6. 

STA'CHYS, ear of grain, a Christian 
friend of Paul at Rome, Rom. 16:9. The 
name is Greek. 

STAC'TE, one of the 4 ingredients of the 
sacred perfume or incense, Exod. 30:34, 35. 
The Heb. word nataph and the Gr. stacte 
(Sept.), both denote a drop, e. g., of the 
gum of some plant. Greek writers de- 
scribe two kinds of stacte. One is the gum 
of the myrrh-tree, found in Arabia, the 
Balsamodendron opobalsamum. Myrrh, 
however, is mentioned in Scripture by a 
distinct name — mor deror, "pure" or 
"flowing" myrrh — as an ingredient of the 
sacred ointment, Exod. 30:23. The other 
substance called stacte was a species of 
storax-gum, transparent like a tear and re- 
sembling myrrh. The storax-tree abounds 
in the lower hills of Galilee, attains a height 
of 15 or 20 feet, has dark green oval leaves, 
whitish underneath, and flowers resembling 
orange-blossoms, in clusters at the end of 
the twigs. A resinous and highl}- fragrant 
gum exudes from the bark. The gum from 
a kindred plant in Borneo, the Styrax ben- 
zoin, is burned as incense in Hindoo tem- 
ples. 

STAFF, Heb. 11:21. The statement here 
found concerning Jacob is quoted from the 
Septuagint translation of Gen. 47 :$i, where 
the Greek translator mistook the Hebrew 
word denoting a bed, mittah, which occurs 
also in Gen. 48:2; 49:33, for the similar 
word denoting a staff, matteh. The mean- 
ing is simply that Jacob assumed a rever- 
ential posture; comp. 1 Kin. 1:47. See 
Quotations. In Hos. 4:12 allusion is 
made to some use of a staff in divination. 
In Isa. 30:32, first clause, read, "Every 
stroke or passing of the destined staff." 

STAIRS, Song 2:14, in the R. V. "steep 
place," as in Ezek. 38:20; apparently a 
natural rocky ascent. By the leaders of 
the Israelitish army at Ramoth-gilead Jehu 
was informally proclaimed king " on the 
top of the stairs " — or " on the bare steps," 
R. V., margin — seated on the garments of 
his fellow-officers, 2 Kin. 9:13. This was 
probably where the stairs from the main 
court of the house joined the flat roof, a 
conspicuous place for thus recognizing the 
prophetic anointing of Jehu, ver. 1-12. See 
House. 

STAND'ARD, Num. 1 :52. In the wilder- 
591 



STA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



STA 



ness journeyings the 12 tribes were grouped 
in 4 camps of 3 tribes each, each camp hav- 
ing its own standard, Num. 2:2, 3, 10, 17, 
!8> 25, 34. Besides these grand-division 
standards, other " ensigns " marked the 
smaller divisions into tribes, and perhaps 
sections of tribes, ver. 2. Ancient stand- 
ards usually consisted of long spears or 
poles surmounted by figures of symbols of 
various sorts, sometimes of animals, men, 
or deities ; an eagle surmounted the stand- 
ard of a Roman legion. See Abomination. 
One of the Heb. words rendered "stand- 
ard," as in Jer. 4:6, 21, is often translated 
"ensign," and denotes a rallying sign or 
signal ; such were planted on some con- 
spicuous spot, as a bare hill, Isa. 13:2, R. 
V.; 30:17. The attractive power of the 
preaching of the gospel is signified in Isa- 
iah's prediction that to "the Root of Jes- 
se," raised " for an ensign of the peoples," 
" the nations shall seek," Isa. 11 : 10, R. V. ; 
comp. 5:16; 11:12; 49:22; Rev. 5:9. In 
Isa. 59: 19, last clause, the R. V. reads, " for 
he shall come like a rushing stream, which 
the breath of the Lord driveth." In Isa. 
10:18, "a standard-bearer fainteth," some 
read, " a sick man pineth away." 

STAR. Under the term stars the He- 
brews included all the heavenly luminaries 
except the sun and moon — planets, mete- 
ors, comets, and stars, Gen. 1 : 16. They use 
the stars " and the seashore " sands " to 
express uncounted multitudes, Gen. 15:5; 
22:17; 26:4; Deut. 1 : 10, etc. To exalt the 
power and omniscience of God, the Psalm- 
ist says, " He telleth the number of ^ the 
stars," etc., Psa. 147:4, like a king review- 
ing his army and knowing every soldier's 
name; comp. Isa. 40:26. Similarly the 
stars are called " the host " or army " of 
heaven," and God is "the Lord of hosts," 
Deut. 4:19; 2 Kin. 17:16; Psa. 24:10; 33:6; 
148:2, 3. No part of the visible creation 
exhibits the Creator's glory more illustri- 
ously than the starry heavens, Psa. 8:3; 
19: 1. The stars were anciently, as at pres- 
ent in the East, believed to influence the 
destiny of men, Judg. 5:20. Their value 
as guides to the mariner is alluded to in 
Acts 27:20. 

In astronomical knowledge the Hebrews 
were surpassed by the Egyptians, Phoeni- 
cians, and Chald&eans ; but the science of 
these nations was mingled with supersti- 
tion and idolatry; comp. Isa. 47:1, 13. The 
beauty and splendor of the stars — which 
are especially brilliant in the pure dry at- 
mosphere of Egypt, Arabia, and Pales- 
592 



tine — and the benefits ascribed to them, 
early led to the conception of them as pos- 
sessing life, intelligence, and power. The 
religions of the East consisted more or less 
of star-worship ; and omens, favorable or 
hostile, were drawn from the aspects of the 
heavenly bodies. Against such idolatry and 
superstition the Israelites were warned, 
Deut. 4:19; 17:3; Jer. 10:2; but they often 
disregarded the prohibition, 2 Kin. 17:16; 
21:3.5; 23:4,5; Jer. 8:2; 19:13; Amos 
5:26; Zeph. 1:5; Acts 7:42,43; comp. Rom. 
1:18-21, 25. 

The number of stars visible to the un- 
aided eye, and even the countless myriads 
revealed by the telescope, are probably but 
a fraction of the entire number called into 
being by God; comp. Job 25:3; 26:13, 14. 
So distant are the fixed stars that the 
strongest telescope shows them only as 
glittering points. It is calculated that the 
nearest of them is at least 19 trillions of 
miles from the earth, and that its light 
takes nearly 4 years to reach us, while for 
others thousands of years are required. 
Human fancy early grouped them in con- 
stellations, and the Scriptures allude to sev- 
eral of these under their Shemitic names, 
which in English are exchanged for the 
names given by the Greeks, Job 9:9; 38:31, 
32; Amos 5:8; see R. V. 

Under the term stars are sometimes met- 
aphorically designated earthly rulers and 
illustrious men, Isa. 14:4, 12, 13, R. V. ; 
Dan. 8:10; also pastors, Rev. 1:16, 20; 
probably angels, Job 38:7; David and his 
antitype the Messiah, Num. 24:17. Times 
of public calamity involving the governing 
powers of nations, may in part be typified 
in Matt. 24:29; Rev. 6:13. False teachers 
are termed "wandering stars" or mete- 
ors, Jude 13. Christ is called " the bright, 
the Morning Star," as outshining in his 
revelations his servants the prophets, and 
ushering in the gospel day, Rev. 22:16; 
comp. 2 Pet. 1:19. 

The famous Jewish false Messiah, Bar- 
cocheba, son of a star, who in Hadrian's 
reign headed an insurrection which lasted 
3 years, A. D. 132-135, and who was de- 
stroyed with many of his followers, assumed 
his title in allusion to Num. 24:17. 

STAR OF THE WISE MEN, Matt. 2: 1-I2, 
apparently a supernatural star or meteor, 
which attracted the attention of the magi 
in their country east of Palestine, probably 
Chaldaea or Persia, and miraculously gui- 
ded them first to Jerusalem the capital of 
Judaea and thence to Bethlehem and the 



STE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



STE 



spot where Jesus was born. This view, 
most readily deducible from the gospel 
narrative, harmonizes with the occurrence 
of other miracles at this momentous epoch, 
the incarnation and birth of the Son of 
God. 

Another view, first suggested by Kepler 
on observing a conjunction of Jupiter, Sat- 
urn, and Mars in 1604, and adopted by 
many interpreters, especially by those who 
seek to eliminate from the Gospels all that 
is supernatural, explains the "star" by a 
like conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn in 
May, B. C. 7, and again in December of the 
same year with the addition of Mars. The 
wise men may very probably have observed 
with deep interest these conjunctions, and 
may, as astrologers, have associated them 
with the Messianic hopes of the Hebrews, 
with the prediction from the mouth of Ba- 
laam, an Eastern soothsayer, Num. 24:17, 
and that of Daniel, well known in the East 
as prince of the Magi, Dan. 4:9; 5:11; 
•9:24,25. But these conjunctions occurred 
several years before the accepted date of 
Christ's birth ; the two planets were at no 
time nearer each other than twice the sun's 
diameter, and could not be described by 
the evangelist as " His star;" nor does it 
appear how they could guide the magi 
west, to Jerusalem, then reappearing, south 
and southeast up to Bethlehem, and be- 
come stationary over the spot where Jesus 
was born. Whatever note, therefore, they 
took of the conjunctions, they were proba- 
bly impelled to their journey by a divine 
influence and guided by a heavenly sign. 

STEEL. Where "steel" appears in the 
A. V., 2 Sam. 22:35; Job 20:24; Psa. 18:34, 
and Jer. 15:12, the true rendering of the 
Hebrew is copper, or " brass," as in the 
R. V. and in all other passages in the A. V. 
That the ancient Egyptians were acquaint- 
ed with steel is inferred from representa- 
tions of weapons in ancient tombs, some 
being painted blue like steel, others red 
like bronze. See Iron. In Nahum 2:3 
the R. V. has " flash with steel " instead of 
"flaming torches," referring apparently to 
steel ornaments, or possibly scythes, flash- 
ing in the chariots arrayed against Nine- 
veh. See Nineveh. 

STEM, the stock or trunk of a tree ; the 
stump remaining in the earth after the tree 
is cut down, Isa. 11 :i ; comp. Job 14:8, 9. 

STEPH'ANAS, a Christian at Corinth, 
whose family, afterwards mentioned, Rom. 
16:5, as "the first-fruits" or earliest con- 
verts "of Achaia," in the R. V. "Asia," 
38 



and as distinguished for their services to 
Christian brethren, Paul baptized, A. D. 
52. Stephanas visited Paul at Ephesus in 
the spring of 59, 1 Cor. 1 : 16 ; 16: 15-18. 

STE'PHEN, crown, one of the 7 men ap- 
pointed by the church at Jerusalem to aid 
the apostles by ministering to the poor, 
Acts 6. 1-6; whence the title " deacons," Gr. 
diakonoi, ministers or servants, has been 
given to them, though not directly applied 
to them in the Bible. Stephen was distin- 
guished among the seven as " full of faith 
and of the Holy Spirit." Like his associ- 
ates, except the proselyte Nicolas, he seems 
from his Greek name to have been a Hel- 
lenistic Jew. See Greece. His mighty 
works excited the jealousy and hostility of 
the Jews, especially those of the Hellenistic 
synagogues, with whom he probably came 
most in contact ; and his unanswerable ar- 
guments still further embittered them, ver. 
8-10. He was arrested on a charge of blas- 
phemy and heresy, and brought before the 
Sanhedrin for trial, ver. 11 to 7: 1. His de- 
fence, including a summary of the history 
of Israel, proves, against the charges of the 
false witnesses, Acts 6: 11, 13, his reverence 
towards God and his respect for the great 
lawgiver of Israel ; but at the same time he 
shows that the divine presence and favor 
had not been rigidly confined to a particu- 
lar land or sanctuary ; that Moses himself 
had taught that he was to have an illustri- 
ous successor ; that a rebellious spirit had 
always been characteristic of Israel; and 
that they who had lately slain Christ and 
were now opposing his gospel, were the 
true children and imitators of their fathers 
who in all ages had opposed true religion. 
Stephen seems to have spoken calmly till 
near the close of his address, when, noting 
the gathering malice of his judges, he be- 
came their just and vehement accuser, Acts 
7 : 5 I_ 53- Then, turning from the threaten- 
ing storm of human passion, he raised his 
eyes upward and spoke of what he saw: 
the heavens parted, the glory of God, and 
Jesus at His right hand, as if just risen from 
his throne to receive his servant, ver. 54-56. 
His description of this vision of the exalta- 
tion of "the Son of man," the prediction 
of which by Christ himself had before so 
enraged a similar assembly, Matt. 26:64- 
68; Luke 22:69-71, excited his judges be- 
yond all pretence of obedience to the law 
of their Roman masters, John 18:31, and 
they at once hurried Stephen out of the city 
and stoned him, Acts 7:57-60. According 
to the Mosaic law, Deut. 17:7, the witnesses 

593 



STE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



STO 



took the lead, Acts 6:13; their outer gar- 
ments, laid off for convenience, were put 
in charge of Saul, probably one of the chief 
accusers of Stephen. The faithful Chris- 
tian manifested his Christlike spirit by 
praying for the pardon of his murderers. 
He was the first of the " witnesses," Gr. 
mar hires, of Jesus, Luke 24:48 ; Acts 22:20, 
R. V., actually put to death ; hence — when 
the ecclesiastical sense of "martur," which 
primarily denoted any witness, comp. Acts 
6:13; 7 : 58, had become restricted to denote 
especially those who witnessed for Jesus 
by submitting to death for his sake — the 
application to Stephen of the title of "first 
martyr." See Martyr. His death was 
the prelude to a general persecution in Je- 
rusalem. This, however, by scattering the 
Christians and the gospel Matt. 10 : 23, 
greatly increased the number of believers, 
Acts 8:1-4; 11:19-21, "the blood of the 
martyrs " thus becoming, as Tertullian 
(A. D. 160-220) remarks, "the seed of the 
church." The custodian of the witnesses' 
clothes, who may have been one of Ste- 
phen's Cilician opponents, Acts 6:9; 22:3, 
seems to have been at first stirred to a 
fiercer bigotry, Acts 8:3; 9:1, 2; but though 
he had doubtless felt the force of Stephen's 
arguments and testimony, nothing availed 
for his conversion till he saw the Saviour 
himself, Acts 9:4-6. Yet there is doubtless 
a degree of truth in the saying of Augus- 
tine (A. D. 354-430), that the church owes 
the conversion and ministry of Paul to 
Stephen's prayer. Years afterward, when 
Paul was himself in similar circumstances, 
he bewailed his presence and consent at 
the martyr's death, Acts 22:20 — that tri- 
umph of Christian faith and love which has 
taught so many martyrs and Christians 
how to die. Comp. Psa. 109:31. A strong- 
argument for the divinity of Christ is found 
in the prayers addressed to him by Ste- 
phen, Acts 7:59, 60; comp. Luke 23:34, 46. 

Stephen's death occurred probably about 
A. D. 37. Early tradition located the event 
on the north of Jerusalem, near the Damas- 
cus gate, which in the 12th century bore the 
name of St. Stephen's gate, from a neigh- 
boring church built in memory of the mar- 
tyr. A later tradition placed the martyr- 
dom near the present St. Stephen's gate, 
on the east of Jerusalem, just north of the 
Haram area. 

The slight variations of Stephen's de- 
fence from the Hebrew Scriptures may be 
accounted for partly by the influence of the 
Septuagint version, and partly perhaps by 
594 



his use of traditionary additions, or possi- 
bly of particulars taught him by the Holy 
Spirit. The spirit of the Old Testament 
history, if not always the exact letter, is- 
faithfully represented. 

STEWARD, the chief overseer and man- 
ager of a household in behalf of the mas- 
ter, Gen. 43:16 (R. V.), 19; 44:1, 4. Jo- 
seph filled this position in Potiphar's house, 
Gen. 39:5. In Gen. 15:2 a different He- 
brew expression is used, denoting " the 
son of acquisition," i. e., according to the 
R. V. "he that shall be possessor," etc., 
the presumptive heir, ver. 3. Eliezer, who 
is thus designated, probably was Abra- 
ham's steward, and is commonly identified 
with the " servant, the elder of his house," 
mentioned in Gen. 24:2, R. V. To this 
important officer, whose responsibilities 
were so great and in whom faithfulness 
was so essential, there are several allusions 
in the parables of our Lord, Matt. 20:8; 
Luke 12:42-48. In the parable of the un- 
righteous steward, Luke 16:1-9, not the 
dishonesty, but the prudent policy of his 
course is commended to the " children of 
light;" comp. Luke 12:33. Ministers, Luke 
12:42; 1 Cor. 4:1, 2; Tit. 1:7, and all Chris- 
tians, 1 Pet. 4:10, are called stewards, as 
being entrusted by God with all they have, 
1 Cor. 4:7, and responsible to him for the 
use of all. Every human being is thus a 
steward of God. 

STOCK, the trunk of a tree, Job 14:8, a. 
contemptuous term for an idol carved out 
of wood, Isa. 44:19; Jer. 2:27; 10:8; Hos.. 
4:12. 

STOCKS, Job 13:27; 33: 11, an instrument 
for confining the feet. In Jer. 20:2, 3, 
" stocks," in which Jeremiah was kept all 
night, is the rendering of a different He- 
brew word, which some suppose to mean 
the common stocks, a frame with holes for 
confining the ankles ; others, a pillory, or 
frame with holes for the neck and wrists ; 
and others, a frame with 5 holes, in which 
the neck, wrists, and ankles were placed, 
the body being bent. Whatever its precise 
form, it seems to have been in frequent 
use; it is mentioned again in Jer. 29:26 
R. V. (A. V. "prison"); and in 2 Chr. 
16:10; see R. V., margin, "the house of 
the stocks." The stocks which made fast 
Paul and Silas, Acts 16:24, seem to have 
confined their ankles only, and probably 
resembled the instrument in use until re- 
cent times in Europe and America, the 
upper beam being movable. Stocks and 
pillories were frequently placed in public. 



STO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



STO 



places, that the insults of the populace 
might be added to the pain of confinement, 




Jer. 20:2. Still another word is translated 
"stocks" in the A. V. of Jer. 29:26, repre- 
sented in R. V. by the more general term 
" shackles." The word rendered " stocks " 
in Prov. 7:22, A. V., is better translated 
" fetters " in the R. V., the same word be- 
ing represented by "anklets" in Isa. 3:18, 
R. V. ; in the A. V. "tinkling ornaments." 
STO'ICS, a sect of fatalistic heathen phi- 
losophers, so named because its founder, 
Zeno, a native of Citium in Cyprus, held 
his school at Athens, in the 3d century 
B. C, in a public portico or colonnade 
called the Stoa Pcecile, Painted Portico. 
The Stoics were pantheists, believing that 
the deity was not the creator of the uni- 
verse, but its reason and soul, pervading 
and organizing all matter; that not only 
man, but the deity himself, was subject to 
inevitable destiny; and that the present 
universe, having developed out of God, 
would in time be resumed into him, and be 
succeeded by a fresh development. While 
the Stoics taught the unity of God, they 
allowed polytheism, regarding the many 
gods of heathen mythology as minor de- 
velopments of the great World-god. The 
soul of man they considered a material 
emanation from the deity, to be burned at 
death of reabsorbed into him. They ex- 
pressed a disregard of pleasure and pain, 
placed man's supreme good and happiness 
in living virtuously, agreeably to nature 
and reason, and held that a man thus liv- 
ing was perfect and self-sufficient. In their 
affected austerity and apathy and professed 



indifference to outward circumstances they 
resembled the Pharisees. They maintained 
the natural equality of all men. Suicide 
they esteemed a proper escape from the 
evils of life when they became too great. 
Thus many of the leading doctrines of Sto- 
icism were in direct antagonism to Christi- 
anity, and especially to the truths which 
Paul preached concerning the personal 
God and Saviour, the resurrection, and the 
necessity for. humble faith in Jesus, Acts 
17:18-20; comp. ver. 22-33. 

At the time of Paul's visit to Athens, 
A. D. 51, and for about two centuries after- 
wards, the Stoic philosophy was popular 
and influential not only in Greece, but 
throughout the Roman Empire. Among 
the most celebrated of the school were 
Cleanthes, Zeno's immediate successor, au- 
thor of a hymn to "Jove of many names;'* 
Caesar's contemporaries Cato and Brutus ; 
Seneca ; the freedman Epictetus, who died 
about A. D. 115; and Marcus Aurelius, Ro- 
man emperor, A. D. 161-180. 

STOM'ACHER, Isa. 3 : 24, perhaps a broad 
plaited girdle. According to the Septua- 
gint, a tunic with purple stripes. 

STONE is mentioned in Scripture as 
used for a great variety of purposes. For 
most public buildings hewn stones were 
used, as for the temple erected by Solo- 
mon, 1 Kin. 5:17, and for city walls. The 
size of the stones thus used was remarka- 
ble. See Heliopolis, II., and Walls. 
The Phoenicians were very skilful in stone- 
cutting, 2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Kin. 5:18. Houses 
of the rich were also built of hewn stone,. 
Amos 5:11. Altars, according to the Mo- 
saic law, were to be built of unhewn stone, 
Exod. 20:25; Josh. 8:31. Different kinds 
of stone used in building and decorating 
are mentioned in 1 Chr. 29:2, where in- 
stead of " glistering stones " the R. V* 
reads "stones for inlaid work;" compare 
2 Chr. 3:6. Stones were used for pave- 
ments, 2 Kin. 16:17; compare Esth. 1:6. 
Large stones were employed for closing 
the entrance of caves, Josh. 10:18; Dan. 
6:17; sepulchres, Matt. 27:60; John 11:38; 
and wells, Gen. 29:2. Flint-stone knives 
were anciently used, Exod. 4:25; Josh. 5:2, 
3, R. V., and were employed by the Egyp- 
tian embalmers. Stones were used as 
weapons for individual defence and in reg- 
ular warfare, being discharged from slings, 
1 Sam. 17:40, 49, and catapults, 2 Chr. 
26: 14, 15, R. V. They served as boundary 
marks, Deut. 19:14; comp. Josh. 15:6, and 
as millstones, 2 Sam. 11:21; and the He- 

595 



STO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



STO 



brew " weights " were called " stones," Lev. 
19:36, margin. Large stones were set up 
to commemorate remarkable events, Gen. 
28:18; 31:45; 35:14; Josh. 4:9; 1 Sam. 7:12; 
and were sometimes consecrated by an- 
ointing, as by Jacob at Bethel, Gen. 28:18; 
35 : 14. Worship of idols and pillars of stone 
was practised by the Canaanite nations and 
expressly forbidden to Israel, Lev. 26:1, 
R. V. ; Num. 33:52, R. V. ; comp. Isa. 57:6; 
Hab. 2 : 19. Stones were heaped up in com- 
memoration of a treaty, Gen. 31:46, or on 
the graves of notorious offenders, Josh. 
7:26; 8:29; 2 Sam. 19:17. This custom 
still exists among the Arabs, each passer- 
by adding a stone to such a heap. Stones 
were used as tablets for inscriptions, Exod. 
24:12; Josh. 8:32; Job 19:24. As hurtful 
to husbandry, stones were cast on an ene- 
my's ground, 2 Kin. 3:19, 25, and were re- 
moved from land previous to cultivation, 
Isa. 5:2; comp. Ecclus. 3:5. 

Metaphorically, stones denote hardness 
or insensibility, 1 Sam. 25:37; Ezek. 11:19; 
also firmness or strength: in Gen. 49:24 
"the stone of Israel " seems to be equiva- 
lent to " the Rock of Israel," a title often 
applied to God, 2 Sam. 23:3; Isa. 30:29, 
R. V. In accordance with the conception 
of the church of God as a temple, Chris- 
tians are called "living stones," Christ 
himself being "the chief corner-stone," 
the great "living stone" and source of life 
to those built upon him, Eph. 2:20-22; 
1 Pet. 2:4-8. See Corner-stone. 

STONES, PRE'CIOUS. Mention is made 
in the Bible of about 20 different names of 
precious stones, many of which it is im- 
possible to identify certainly with modern 
gems. Ancient mineralogy was far from 
exact, the same term being often applied 
to different substances having in common 
some property indicated by the term. Thus 
in Greek usage the term adamant, uncon- 
querable, was applied to steel and to sev- 
eral extremely hard stones; and the He- 
brew " kerach " denotes either " ice," Job 
6 : 16, or rock-crystal, Ezek. 1 : 22. See Sap- 
phire. Precious stones, however, were 
early known and valued, Gen. 2:12. The 
art of cutting and engraving them was prac- 
tised ; engraved signets of several kinds 
of precious stones were in common use 
among the ancient Babylonians and Egyp- 
tians, and also, it is probable, among the 
neighboring nations ; one was carried by 
Judah, Gen. 38:18, 25. See Seal.. The 
Hebrew high-priest's shoulder-stones and 
the 12 stones of his breastplate were en- 
50 



graved with fhe names of the tribes of 
Israel, Exod. 28:9-12, 17-21. The identifi- 
cation of some of these stones is still a mat- 
ter of controversy, as appears from alter- 
native renderings of the R. V. Some crit- 
ics would exclude from the breastplate the 
diamond, sapphire, ruby, emerald, and to- 
paz, on the assumed ground that the art of 
cutting the harder gems was unknown at 
the time of Moses. Precious stones were 
collected by David for the temple, 1 Chr. 
29:2. Tyre traded in them and used them 
extensively, Ezek. 27:16, 22; 28:11-13, ob- 
taining them from Syria -and Arabia, and 
more remotely from India. In figurative 
language precious stones denote peculiar 
brilliancy, beauty, value, durability, etc., 
Song 5:14; Isa. 54:11, 12; Lam. 4:7; Ezek. 
1:22; Rev. 4:3; 21:10-20. 

STONE-SQUAR'ERS, 1 Kin. 5:18, in the 
R. V. " Gebalites," the men of Gebal. See 
Gebal, II. Their skill is attested by the 
great stones in the ruins of the ancient 
citadel, which in size and workmanship 
resemble those in the temple wall at Jeru- 
salem. 

STONE, WHITE, Rev. 2:17. The Greek 
word psephos, rendered "stone," denotes 
a round pebble or a polished gem ; and 
the qualifying adjective may mean white 
or brilliant. The allusion in our Saviour's 
promise " to him that overcometh " may be 
to an ancient Greek mode of voting with 
black and white pebbles for the condem- 
nation or acquittal of an accused person ; 
or to the Greek mode of election to office 
by lot, the candidates' names being in- 
scribed on tokens, and the person whose 
name was first drawn being elected ; or to 
a Greek practice of giving the victor at 
public games a token bearing his name 
and conferring some privilege ; or to a cus- 
tom of Roman emperors at games, throw- 
ing among the populace tokens inscribed 
" bread," " clothing," etc., the person se- 
curing a token being entitled to receive 
what was written on it. Trench rejects 
these explanations from heathen customs, 
and suggests that the "stone" may refer 
to the Urim and Thummim within the high- 
priest's breastplate, inscribed with the sa- 
cred name yhvh, Jehovah or Yahveh, and 
the " new name " being that of Christ. More 
frequently, however, the " new name " is 
regarded as that of the recipient himself, 
as a testimonial of his adoption into the 
family of God, and signifying his new 
blessings and privileges, known in their 
personal adaptation and fulness only to 



STO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



STO 



the individual soul. Whatever the partic- 
ular allusion may be, the " white stone " is 
emblematic of favor and prosperity, and 
symbolizes the Redeemer's assurance of 
his unchanging approbation and love and 
of eternal blessedness. Comp. Isa. 62:2; 
1 Cor. 2:12 ; 1 John 5:20. 

STO'NING was prescribed by the Mosaic 
law as the mode of punishment for most 
offences accounted worthy of death, and 
was probably intended when no particular 
mode of execution was specified, as in Lev. 
20:10; comp. John 8:5. The crimes pun- 
ishable by stoning were idolatry, Lev. 20 : 2 ; 
Deut. 17:2-5; blasphemy, Lev. 24:10-16; 
in one case Sabbath-breaking, Num. 15:32- 
36; witchcraft, Lev. 20:27; false claim to 
the prophetic office and enticement to idol- 
atry, Deut. 13:1-11; appropriation of a 
"devoted" thing, Josh. 6:17-19; 7:1, 11-25, 
R. V.; comp. Lev. 27:28; stubborn diso- 
bedience to parents, Deut. 21:18-21; and 
impurity of various kinds. The place of 
execution was outside of the camp or city, 
Lev. 24:14; 1 Kin. 21:9-13; Acts 7:58; the 
criminal, according to the Rabbinical wri- 
ters, was exhorted to confess his crime; 
comp. Josh. 7:19; then one of the witnesses 
cast a large stone upon his chest, and if 
this did not prove fatal, the other witnesses, 
and if necessary the bystanders, completed 
the execution, Deut. 17:7, laying off their 
outer garments for freer action, Acts 7:58. 
Sometimes the offender was first precipita- 
ted from a height by one of t^e witnesses. 
Stoning was a frequent resort of an angry 
mob of any nationality, Exod. 8:26; 17:4; 
1 Sam. 30:6; 2 Chr. 24:21; Luke 20:6; John 
8:59; 10:31; Acts 5:26; 14:5, 19; 2 Cor. 
11:25. Christ would have been put to 
death by stoning, on the false charge of 
blasphemy, Matt. 26:57-66, if the Jewish 
Sanhedrin had not been deprived by the 
Romans of the death-power; see Sanhe- 
drin; but as blasphemy against Jehovah 
was a charge which the Roman governor 
would not entertain, comp. Acts 18:14-16, 
it was necessary before the Roman tribunal 
to substitute the equally false charge of 
insurrection and treason, Matt. 27:11-24; 
Luke 23:1-5, 13-15, R. V., 20-22; John 
18:28-32, thus, by the cowardice of Pilate 
under the compulsion of the Jewish mob, 
securing for the Righteous One the pre- 
dicted death by crucifixion, Matt. 20:19; 
John 12:32, 33. 

STOOL, 2 Kin. 4:10, the seat provided 
by the rich and pious woman of Shunem 
for the prophet Elisha's room. The Heb. 



word kisse is the same usually rendered 
"throne," as in Gen. 41:40; 1 Kin. 10:18; 
2 Chr. 9 : 17, 18 ; Isa. 6 : 1, and " seat " in sev- 
eral passages where persons of high rank 
are mentioned, as king Eglon, Judg. 3:20; 
the high-priest Eli, 1 Sam. 1:9; 4:13, 18; 
king Solomon's mother, 1 Kin. 2:19 (R. V. 
"throne"); and Haman, Esth. 3:1. In 
the East, anciently as now, a separate ele- 
vated seat was an honor reserved for but 
few, most persons sitting on the ground or 
on carpets, Judg. 5: 10, R. V. ; comp. Judith 
12:15, where "soft skins" are spoken of 
for this use, or upon divans. From these 
facts, and from Elisha's recognition of the 
reverential care bestowed upon him, 2 Kin. 
4: 13, R. V., margin, it appears that the seat 
is not fairly represented by our word 
"stool," even as the "candlestick" of ver. 
10 conveys a wrong idea of the Oriental 
lamp-stand, on which oil was burned ; com- 
pare Exod. 39:37. See Seat. 

STOOLS, Exod. 1 : 16, in the R. V. " birth- 
stools;" perhaps, as Gesenius suggests, a 
seat resembling a potter's wheel, 2 disks 
connected by an upright stem, the same 
Hebrew word being so rendered in Jer. 
18:3. 

STORE, Deut. 28 : 5, 17, " kneading- 
trough," as in the R. V. and in Exod. 
8:3; 12:34. The passages in Deuteronomy 
teach that no detail of daily life is too triv- 
ial to be noticed with approval or condem- 
nation by Him who watches over individ- 
uals as well as over nations ; comp. Matt. 
10:29. 

STORE-CIT'IES, I Kin. 9:19; 2 Chr. 8:4, 
6; 16:4; 17:12, places of deposit for mer- 
chandise. Such entrepots were built by 
the enslaved Israelites in Egypt, Exod. 
1:11, R. V. 

STORE-HOU'SES. See next page. 




STORK, a well-known bird of passage, 
belonging to the order of Waders, and 

597 



STO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



STR 



classed as " unclean " in the Mosaic law. 
Lev. 11:19; Deut*. 14:18, as it feeds not 
only on snakes, toads, lizards, field-mice, 
etc., but also on offal and garbage, whence 
its flesh is coarse and uninviting. Its He- 
brew name, chasiddh, is from the same root 
as a noun often translated " mercy " and 
" lovingkindness." In all ages it has been 
regarded as a type of parental and filial 
love ; the Romans called it 
avis pius, and its English 
name is by some traced 
to the Greek word slorge, 
meaning " natural affec- 
tion." In the great fire in 
Delft, Holland, a stork, 
unsuccessful in its efforts 
to save its young from the 
burning nest, itself per- 
ished with them. The old 
popular belief that parent 
birds are cared for in 
their decrepitude by their 
3 T oung is probably without 
foundation. 

The common white 
stork, Ciconiaalba, stands 
nearly 4 feet high. Its plumage is white, 
except the feathers of the lower half of 
the wings, which are black. Its long bill 
and legs are scarlet ; its toes are partially 
webbed. It is found all over Europe from 
March to October, when it migrates in 
vast flocks to Africa. It is exceedingly 
regular in the time of its migration, and its 
flight is performed at a great height in the 
air, Jer. 8:7. Its wings measure when ex- 
panded nearly 7 feet, and are very strong, 
enabling it to fly with surprising rapidity, 
Zech. 5:9. The stork has no vocal organs, 
but makes a castanet-like noise by clapping 
its bill. The white stork seeks the society 
of man ; in cities it makes its nest on the 
roofs or chimneys of houses ; amid ruins, 
on the top of columns, towers, or arches ; 
and elsewhere, on the top of some tall 
tree, as the fir, Psa. 104: 17, binding the up- 
per branches together with twigs, etc., and 
covering the surface with straw, moss, and 
feathers ; it usually lays 4 eggs. Year after 
year the same pair of storks repair and 
reoccupy the same nest. In Palestine both 
the white stork and the smaller black stork, 
Ciconia nigra, abound; the black being 
found in secluded marshy districts, in large 
flocks, shunning men and building on lofty 
trees. Around the Sea of Galilee the white 
stork also is gregarious and builds on trees. 

The white stork was protected by the 
598 



ancients for its usefulness and out of re- 
spect for family attachments with which it 
was credited. It stalks unharmed in the 
streets of Holland and Denmark and in the 
bazaars of Syria and Northern Africa. In 
Job 39:13, margin, the R. V. brings out a 
possible contrast of the apparently unnat- 
ural conduct of the ostrich with the paren- 
tal devotion of the stork. 




STORE-HOU'SES, Deut. 28:8, in the R. V. 
"barns," as in Prov. 3:10. At present, as 
doubtless in ancient times, in Palestine the 
fruits of the earth are often stored in deep 
pits dug in the ground, sealed with plas- 
ter, and covered with earth ; comp. Jer. 
41:8. The form of an ancient Egyptian 
granary, Gen. 41:48, 49, is exhibited in a 
painting in a nobleman's tomb at Beni- 
Hassan. It consists of a double range of 
brick structures resembling ovens, each 
having an opening at the top and a shutter 
in the side. A ladder leads to the top, 
where the grain, after being measured and 
noted by a scribe, was poured in, to be 
drawn out when needed by opening the 
shutter below. 

STO'RY, 2 Chr. 13:22; 24:27, an histori- 
cal statement or " commentary," as in the 
R. V. " Stories," Amos 9:6, in the R. V. 
"chambers." 

STRAIGHT'WAY, Gr. eutheos, also trans- 
lated "immediately," "anon," and " forth- 
with," Mark 1:30; 5:13; 10:52. The word 
occurs 40 times in the Gospel by Mark. It 
affords a cheering suggestion of the will- 
ing instantaneousness of our Lord's acts in 
healing the bodies and saving the souls of 
men, Mark 5 : 29, 42 ; comp. John 9 : 4. 

STRAIN AT, Matt. 23:24, should be 
"strain out," i. e., from wines, etc., as in 
the R. V. 



STR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



STR 



STRAIT, Matt. 7:13, 14, "narrow," as in 
the R. V. So in 2 Kin. 6:1; Job 36 : 16 ; Isa. 
49:20. The word must not be confounded 
with "straight." To be " in a strait " is to 
have one's way beset with doubts or diffi- 
culties, to be at a loss, 1 Sam. 13:6; 2 Sam. 
24:14; Phil. 1:23. 

STRAIT'LY, Gen. 43:7; Josh. 6:1; Mark 
1:43, strictly, closely. Strait'est, Acts 
26:5, strictest. Strait'ness, Deut. 28:53, 
55. 57 5 J or -> 36:16; Jer. 19:9, scarcity and 
distress. 

STRANGE, Exod. 21:8; Psa. 114:1; Acts 
7:6, foreign. Joseph acted like a foreigner 
to his brethren, Gen. 42:7. "Strange wo- 
men" denotes foreigners, Ezra 10; Neh. 
13:27, and in many passages harlots, Prov. 
2:16; 5:3, 20. 

STRAN'GER, a foreigner, in many cases 
better rendered " sojourner," as in Exod. 
2:22; 18:3, R. V., where in naming his son 
Gershom Moses recognizes that he is a 
sojourner, Heb. ger, in a foreign land, 
Coptic shorn. So in 1 Pet. 1:1, R. V., the 
apostle addresses " the sojourners of the 
Dispersion," i. e., Christian Jews residing 
■out of Palestine. The word " stranger " 
denotes not only one residing out of his 
native land, Gen. 23:4, or in a land where 
he has no permanent claim, Gen. 15: 13, but 
one of non-Israelite origin, Exod. 20:10; 
Isa. 14:1; Luke 17:18; comp. ver. 16; one 
of another family or household from that 
mentioned, Exod. 29:33; comp. ver. 32; 
Num. 3:10; 16:40; 1 Kin. 3:18; Matt. 17:25, 
26; and one unknown or disregarded, Job 

I9 : i5- 

Among the Israelites, "strangers" or 
"sojourners," i. e., resident foreigners, 
permanently more or less identified with 
Israel, formed a large class, for which spe- 
cial regulations were prescribed. It was 
composed of the "mixed multitude" that 
accompanied Israel out of Egypt, Exod. 
12:38, and their descendants, also of the 
subdued remnants of the Canaanite peo- 
ples, 1 Kin. 9:20, 21; 1 Chr. 22:2; 2 Chr. 
2:17; and of war-captives, refugees, hired 
servants, merchants, etc. They are distin- 
guished both from home-born Israelites, 
Exod. 12:49, and from visiting aliens, ver. 
43. R - V., foreigners not identified with 
Israel. The Mosaic law dealt liberally 
with such " sojourners " in its enactments 
relative to their religious, political, and 
social standing. They were subject to the 
laws of Israel, Exod. 12:19; 20:10; Lev. 
17:10, 15; 18:26; 20:2; 22:18: 24:16, 22; 
2 Sam. 1:13, 14. If bondmen, circumcision 



was obligatory, Exod. 12:44; comp. Gen. 
17:12, 27; if independent, it was optional, 
but without it they could not partake of 
the passover or become full citizens, Exod. 
12:48, while with it they were admitted to 
all religious privileges, and if free, to most 
of the civil rights of native Israelites, ver. 
49; Num. 9:14; 15:14, 16, 26, 29, 30; 19: 10; 
35:15; 2 Chr. 30:25. They were not eligi- 
ble to the throne, Deut. 17: 15, and perhaps 
could not hold land in perpetuity, as may 
be inferred from the contrary privilege 
granted in the prophetic vision in Ezek. 
47:22, 23. Uncircumcised "strangers" 
were less restricted in food than Israel- 
ites, Lev. 17:12, 15, R. V.; Deut. 14:21. 
Judges were warned against partiality 
where " strangers " were concerned, Deut. 
1:16; 24:17, 18. Israelites were admon- 
ished to treat them as brothers, remember- 
ing their own condition when in Egypt, 
Lev. 19:34; Deut. 10:19; and many special 
injunctions in their favor were given, Lev. 
19:10; 23:22; Deut. 16:10-14; 14:20, etc.; 
comp. Jer. 22:3; Zech. 7:10. In the New 
Testament the "proselyte" represents the 
Old Testament " stranger " in this respect. 

There are also in the Old Testament 
many references to " strangers " in the dif- 
ferent sense of unnaturalized foreigners, 
1 Kin. 8:41, 43, unreconciled "aliens," 
Exod. 12:43, R. V.; Lev. 22:25, R. V. ; Deut. 
23:20, R. V.; 29: 22, R. V. ; 1 Kin. 11 : 1, 8; 
Ezra 10:2; Ezek. 44 : 7, 9 ; often avowed 
enemies to the Israelites, as in 2 Sam. 
22:45; Isa. 1:7; Jer. 2:25; 5:19; Lam. 5:2; 
Joel 3:17; Obad. 11. The Hebrew word 
here used means unknown, foreigner, or 
alien. In many cases the R. V. makes the 
distinction visible. Yet even to such the 
offer of acceptance by Israel's God is made, 
Isa. 56:3, 6; and their gathering into his 
church is predicted, Isa. 60 : 10. Such 
"strangers" are represented in the New 
Testament by the " Gentiles " or "heath- 
en," Eph. 2:11, 12. The Moabite Ruth was 
such a "stranger" admitted to the privi- 
leges of ancient Israel, Ruth 2:10; comp. 
1:16. 

Hospitality towards needy foreigners or 
travellers, Job 31:32, is commended and 
enjoined in the New Testament, Matt. 
2 5 : 35-43; Heb. 13:2. In Eph. 2:12, 19 the 
word denotes an alien foreigner as opposed 
to native citizens. 

In an important sense not only Abra- 
ham, Isaac, and Jacob in Canaan, Gen. 
23:4; Heb. 11:9, 13, and the Israelites in 
Egypt, Exod. 22:21, but the tribes in the 

599 



STR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



STR 



Promised Land, were "strangers" or "so- 
journers," as life-residents in a land of 
which Jehovah was the absolute and per- 
manent owner, Lev. 25:23; Psa. 39:12; 
119:19; and Christians are to regard them- 
selves in like manner, 1 Pet. 2:11. 

STRAN'GLED animals, as not properly 
drained of blood — a forbidden article of 
food under the universal Noachic cove- 
nant, Gen. 9:16, as well as in the Mosaic 
law for Israel, Lev. 3:17 — were prohibited 
to Gentile converts by the apostles and 
brethren in council at Jerusalem, Acts 
15:20. It is alleged that in the great 
slaughter-houses in New York city animals 
are now slaughtered by the Jewish meth- 
od, so that the carcasses are thoroughly 
drained; the blood, after being dried into 
a powder, is used as a fertilizer— its ulti- 
mate destination thus being, singularly 
enough, to be " poured out on the earth," 
Lev. 17:13. 

STRAW. Wheat and barley straw, called 
also "stubble" in Job 21:18, and "chaff" 
in Jer. 23 : 28, was used as fodder for horses, 
cattle, and camels, Gen. 24:25, 32; 1 Kin. 
4 : 28 ; Isa. 11:7; 65 : 25. Chopped straw 
was often mixed with barley, beans, etc., 
as provender. Its use in making brick is 
mentioned in Exod. 5:7-18. The "stub- 
ble" spoken of in Exod. 5:12; 15:7; Isa. 
5:24; 47:14; Joel 2:5; Obad. 18; Nah. 1:10, 
was the refuse left in the fields after the 
best part of the straw had been gathered. 

STREAM, Num. 21:15; Job 6:15, etc. 
The word represents 9 different Hebrew 
words and 1 Greek. See River and Val- 
ley. 

STREETS and LANES, Luke 14:21. One 
Heb. and one Gr. word translated street 
denote a wide public way, Gen. 19:2 ; Judg. 
19:15; 2 Sam. 21:12; Luke 13:26, and often 
a broad open space near a city gate or be- 
fore a public building, Deut. 13:16; Ezra 
10:9; Neh. 8:1, 3, 16; Esth. 4:6. Here, 
and especially at the prominent points and 
corners, men loved, as the Turks do now, 
to spread their rugs or pieces of carpet and 
sit, 1 Sam. 4:13; Job 29:7; and here, at the 
hour of prayer, they performed their devo- 
tions, Matt. 6 : 5. But most of the streets in 
the best Oriental cities are now, as in an- 
cient times, narrow, to give shade from the 
hot sun; ill-graded, on account of the un- 
evenness of their sites and the little use of 
wheel carriages; and gloomy, being un- 
lighted at night, and the walls of the houses 
being almost windowless on the street side, 
Jer. 5:1 ; Lam. 2:19; Mic. 7:10; Acts 12:10. 
600 



Josephus says that the streets of Jerusalem 
were paved, as are those of the prophetic 
Jerusalem, Rev. 21:21. Streets were often 




A STREET IN CAIRO. 

named, like ours, and some of them resem- 
bled the bazaars of modern Eastern cities, 
the shops of the same kind being in the 
same street and giving it its name, Neh. 
3:31, 32, as "the bakers' street," Jer. 37:21, 
and the " valley of the cheesemongers ;" 
and streets were "made" for merchants, 
1 Kin. 20:34. In modern cities the streets 
have gates, which are locked and guarded 
at night as in former times, Song 3:3. The 
street in Damascus called "Straight," Acts 
9 mi, appears to have been narrow in an- 
cient times, as it is now, but in the Roman 
age it was wide, and was divided by colon- 
nades into 3 avenues, a mile long, running 
through the city. See House. 

STRENGTH, in Isa. 63:6, is •'life-blood" 
in the R. V. 

STRINGED IN'STRUMENTS. See MU- 
SIC. 

STRIPES, Deut. 25:1-3; 2 Cor. 11:24. 
See Punishments and Scourge. 

STRONG DRINK. See WlNE. 




VIA DOLOROSA: JERUSALEM. 



STU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SUP 



STUBBLE. See Straw. 

STUFF, Gen. 31:37; 45:20; 1 Sam. 10:22; 
Luke 17:31, household vessels and furni- 
ture, or "baggage," as in 1 Sam. 17:22; 
Isa. 10:28, called " carriage " in the A. V. 

STUM'BLING- BLOCK, anything over 
which one is liable to trip, Lev. 19:14; 
1 John 2:10; used of an idol as a tempta- 
tion to idolatry, Zeph. 1 .-3-5. Obstructions 
were sometimes placed in narrow roads 
by robbers to confuse and delay travellers 
and facilitate plundering them. Compare 
Jer. 6:21; Ezek. 3 : 20 ; Rev. 2 : 14. The doc- 
trine of the cross — that we are sinners, 
justly perishing, and to be saved only by 
the atoning grace of Christ— is offensive to 
the unrenewed heart, Rom. 9:32, 33; 1 Cor. 
1:23; 1 Pet. 2:6-8. See Offence. 

SUB'STANCE sometimes means prop- 
erty or possessions, as in Gen. 13:6; Job 
1:3, 10; Heb. 10:34. In Psa. 139:15 an 
embryo ; in Isa. 6: 13 the stock of a tree. 

SUC'COTH, booths. I. A spot in the val- 
ley of the Jordan and near the Jabbok, 
between Penuel east of the Jordan and 
Shechem on the west, where Jacob erected 
a house for himself and booths for his cat- 
tle, in preparation for a considerable stay, 
on his return from Mesopotamia, Gen. 
33:17. Joshua assigned the city subse- 
quently built here to the tribe of Gad, 
Josh. 13:27. Gideon tore the flesh of jy 
principal men of Succoth with thorns and 
briars because they haughtily refused to 
aid him when pursuing the Midianites, 
Judg. 8:5-16. It seems to have lain on the 
east side of the Jordan, 3 miles from the 
river, in the latitude of Shechem, but may 
possibly have been on the west side, at the 
place now called 'Ain es-Sakut, 10 miles 
south by east of Beth-shean. Comp. 1 Kin. 
7:46; Psa. 60:6. 

II. The first encampment of the Israel- 
ites on their way out of Egypt, Exod. 12 :$y ; 
13 : 20 ; Num. ^ : 5, 6. Their starting-place, 
Rameses, lay at the west end of wady et- 
Tumeilat, and Succoth has recently been 
confidently identified with ruins 20 miles 
east in the same wady, also called Pithom, 
which see. 

SUC'COTH-BE'NOTH, tents of the daugh- 
ters, 2 Kin. 17:30, an object of idolatrous 
worship among the Babylonians; appa- 
rently the name of an idol, like Nergal and 
Ashima in the same verse, or perhaps with 
reference to booths, in which the Babylo- 
nian females prostituted themselves in 
honor of Mylitta, the Assyrian Venus. 

SUD'DENLY, 1 Tim. 5:22, hastily, rashly. 



SUF'FER often means to permit, as in 
Psa. 105:14; Eccl. 5:12; Matt. 8:21. 

SUK'KIIM, booth-dwellers, allies of Shi- 
shak in his invasion of Judah, 2 Chr. 12:3; 
probably from regions southeast 6f Egypt. 

SUM'MER. See CANAAN. 

SUN, the " greater light " of Gen. 1 : 14-16, 
the great luminary of day, which furnishes 
so many similitudes to the Hebrew poets, 
as well as those of all nations, Judg. 5:31 ; 
Psa. 84 : 1 1 ; Prov. 4:18; Luke 1 : 78, 79 ; John 
8:12. It was set not only " for seasons and 
for days and for years," but for "signs," 
such as eclipses — which were tokens of di- 
vine power and wisdom, and symbols of 
wonderful providences, Joel 2:31; Matt. 
24:29; Rev. 6:12; 8:12, and were regarded 
by the heathen with superstitious dread, 
Jer. 10:2. The sun "ruled the day" by 
furnishing light, heat, and vivifying influ- 
ences, also the means of measuring its 
parts — there being between sunrise and 
sunset 3 chief points: 9 a. m., when the sun 
became hot, 1 Sam. 11:9; Neh. j-.t,; noon, 
or "the double light," Gen. 43:16; 2 Sam. 
4:5; and the "cool of the day," just before 
sunset, Gen. 3:8. The rising sun marked 
the east, and the setting sun the west, 
which were also intended by the words 
"before" and "behind," and the north 
and south points by the "left hand" and 
"the right." Comp. Job 23:8, 9. Scrip- 
ture speaks of the apparent motion of the 
sun, as all people do in common speech, 
as if it were a reality, Josh. 10:13, 2 7', 
2 Kin. 20:11; Psa. 19:5, 6; 50:1; Eccl. 1:5; 
Hab. 3:11. The "wings" of the sun beto- 
ken the darting swiftness of its rays, Psa. 
139:9; Mai. 4:2. Spots on the sun are said 
to be mentioned in Assyrian tablets, which 
implies the use of telescopes ; and Layard 
found a crystal lens in the Nineveh ruins. 

The Assyrians seem to have worshipped 
the sun directly, without an intervening 
idol, Job 31:26, 27. The Egyptians, Phoe- 
nicians, Persians, Ammonites, Assyrians, 
and other ancient nations had sun-idols, 
and the Hebrews often followed their ex- 
ample, 2 Kin. 21:3, 5; 23:5, 11, 12; Jer. 
19:13; Ezek. 8:16, 17; Zeph. 1:5. See 
Baal, Molech, and Heliopolis, L God's 
law is like the sun, Psa. 19:4-7 ; and Christ 
is "the Sun of righteousness," Mai. 4:2; 
Rev. 1 : 16. 

SUPERSTI'TION and SUPERSTITIOUS, 
Acts 17:22 and 19:25, are not to be under- 
stood offensively. Paul found the Athe- 
nians " much addicted to devotion," such 
as it was ; perhaps " religion " and " reli- 

601 



SUP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SWI 



giously inclined" may better express the 
sense of the original. The Hebrews were 
preserved by their knowledge of the true 
God, the Maker and Ruler of all things, 
from many of the superstitions then prev- 
alent among their neighbors, as they are 
among the heathen now. 

SUPH, sea-weed. In Deut. 1:1, for "the 
plain over against the Red Sea," the R. V. 
reads, "the Arabah over against Suph." 
See Arabah and Zephath. Usually, how- 
ever, Suph, with the addition of Yam, sea, 
is the Hebrew word clearly denoting the 
Red Sea, Exod. 10:19; 13:18, etc. In Num. 
21:14, for "What he did in the Red Sea," 
A. V., the R. V. reads, " Vaheb in Suphah." 
Yet no place named Suph or Suphah has 
as yet been found. 

SUP'PER. See Eating, Cup, and Lord's 
Supper. It is worthy of note that in 
Paul's account of the institution of the 
Lord's Supper, 1 Cor. 11:23-29, the bread 
is thrice called " bread," ver. 26-28, and 
the wine is still called by our Saviour the 
"fruit of the vine," Matt. 26:29, after both 
had been blessed and given to the disci- 
ples. Consecration had made no change 
in either of the elements. For the suppers 
or love-feasts which used to accompany 
the celebration of the Lord's Supper, see 
Feasts. 

SURE'TY, one who makes himself per- 
sonally responsible for the safe appear- 
ing of another, Gen. 43:9 and 44:32,33, 
or for the full payment of his debts, etc., 
Prov. 22:26. This was often sealed by 
hand-shaking, Job 17:3, and was apt to 
prove an ill-advised act, Prov. 6:1 ; 11:15 ; 
17:18; 20:16; 22:26. God is the perfect 
surety, or "undertakes," for his people, 
Psa. 119:122; Isa. 38:14; and Christ is the 
" surety of a better testament ;" that is, in 
the glorious and complete covenant of 
grace he engages to meet all the claims of 
the divine law against his people, that they 
may be absolved and enriched with all 
covenant blessings, Heb. 7:22; 9:11-15. 
Hence his obedience unto death, Isa. 53:5, 
12. 

SUSAN'NA, a lily, Luke 8:3, one of the 
women who ministered to Christ with their 
means. 

SWAD'DLE, to swathe an infant's ten- 
der body with protecting cloths, as is still 
customary in the East, Ezek. 16:4; Luke 
2:7. In Lam. 2: 22 read, bear on the palm. 

SWAL'LOW, in the A. V. put for two 
Hebrew words: 1, deror, swiftness, Psa. 
84:3, believed to mean the swift, Cypselus 
602 



apus, a bird resembling the swallow, very 
common in Palestine and swarming in the 
streets and around the sacred buildings of 







Jerusalem— a bird of passage noted for its 
rapid flight and its harsh, incessant cry; 
and 2, agur, twitterer, the crane, Isa. 
38:14; Jer. 8:7. See Crane. In Prov. 
26:2 the R. V. reads, "As the sparrow in 
her wandering, as the swallow in her fly- 
ing, so the curse that is causeless lighteth 
not." Balaam and Shimei might curse, but 
God blessed, Deut. 23:5; 2 Sam. 16:5-12; 
Psa. 109:28. 

SWAN, Heb. tinshemeth mentioned as 
unclean in Lev. 11:18; Deut. 14:16. The 
true swan is not found in Palestine, and the 
sacred Egyptian ibis may be intended, or 
more probably the purple hen or gallinule, 
with dark blue plumage, red beak and 
legs, and long claws. 

SWEAR'ING. See Oath. To "hear the 
voice of swearing," Lev. 5:1, is to be put 
under oath to testify the truth, or " bear the 
iniquity " of perjury as a sin against both 
God and man. 

SWEAT, Gen. 3:19; Ezek. 44:18, a token 
of a life of toil. The blood suffusing the 
perspiration of Christ in Gethsemane, Luke 
22:44, was an evidence of the dreadful 
agony he endured. The phenomenon is 
exceedingly rare, but is known to have 
occurred in several instances. 

SWIM'MING. The mode depicted on 
Assyrian sculptures is hand over hand, 
bringing down each forcibly, Isa. 25:11. 

SWINE, Prov. 11:22, a well-known ani- 
mal, forbidden as food to the Hebrews, 
who held its flesh in such detestation that 
they would not so much as pronounce its 
name, Lev. 11:7; Deut. 14:8. It divides the 
hoof, but does not chew the cud ; and as it 
was also useless while living, the raising 



swo 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SYE 



of swine was not practised by the He- 
brews, nor is it by modern Jews or Moham- 
medans. The eating of swine's flesh was 
among the most odious of the idolatrous 
abominations charged upon some of the 
Jews, Isa. 65:4; 66:3, 17. The herd of 
swine destroyed by evil spirits in the Sea 
of Gennesaret, Matt. 8:32; Mark 5:13, are 
supposed to have been kept by Jews for 
sale to the Gentiles around them, in defi- 
ance of the law. The beautiful and affect- 
ing parable of the prodigal son shows that 
the tending of swine was considered an em- 
ployment of the most despicable character, 
Luke 15:14-16. The irreclaimably filthy 
habits of this animal illustrate the insuffi- 
ciency of reformation without regeneration, 
2 Pet. 2:22; as its treading in the mire any 
precious thing which it cannot eat illus- 
trates the treatment which some profligates 
give to the gospel, Matt. 7:6. See Boar. 

SWORD. The Hebrew words translated 
sword have a wide latitude of meaning; in 
Josh. 5:2; Ezek. 5:1, 2, "sharp knives." 
Some swords had 2 edges, Psa. 149:6 ; they 
often had richly-decorated hilts, were car- 
ried in sheaths, 1 Sam. 17:51 ; 2 Sam. 20:8, 
slung by the girdle, 1 Sam. 25:13, resting 
on the thigh, Judg. 3:16; Psa. 45:3. Gird- 
ing them on was a prelude to hostilities 
and a symbol of war, Isa. 34:5; Rev. 19:17, 
21, of power, Rom. 13:4, and of divine judg- 
ments, Deut. 32:41 ; Psa. 17:13. The Greek 
and Roman sword was usually a broad, 
straight, two-edged blade, rather short. 

SYCAMINE, Luke 17:6, the Morus nigra 
or black mulberry-tree, still called syca- 
minea in Greece, a lofty deep-rooted tree, 
furnishing a highly - prized berry and a 
grateful shade. Both the black and white 
mulberry are now common in Palestine. 
The sycamore is a different tree. 




SYCAMORE, fig -mulberry, the Ficus 
sycomorus, a tree which seerris to partake 
of the nature of both the mulberry and the 



fig, the former in its leaf and the latter in 
its fruit. It was a tree of this sort that 
Zacchaeus climbed to see our Saviour pass- 
ing through Jericho, Luke 19:4. Tristram 
found aged specimens near the outlet of 
wady Kelt and the site of ancient Jericho. 
The sycamore is of the height of a beech 
or walnut, with a large trunk breaking 
into stout branches not many feet above 
the ground. Its leaves are heart-shaped, 
downy underneath, and fragrant. The 
fruit is borne on short sprigs growing di- 
rectly from the trunk and branches, and is 
produced through a long season. It has 
the figure and smell of real figs, but is in- 
ferior to them in taste, Amos 7:14; it is 
yellowish on the outside, and darker, with 
yellow spots, within. It is much used in 
Egypt as food. From 1 Kin. 10:27; l Chr. 
27:28; 2 Chr. 1:15; 9:27; Psa. 78:47, it is 
evident that the tree was common in Pal- 
estine, and was as much valued in ancient 
times as now. Its timber, though porous, 
was extremely durable, being used in build- 
ings, Isa. 9:10, and the sycamore mummy- 
chests and boxes in Egyptian tombs re- 
main uncorrupted after 3,000 years. 

SY'CHAR, falsehood, or drtmken, John 
4:5, 6, or SY'CHEM, Acts 7:16. See She- 
chem. The village of Sychar may have 
been nearer to Jacob's well than the an- 
cient Shechem and the modern Nablus; 
and Lieut. Conder and others favor the 
present village 'Aschar as occupying its 
site, on the side of Mount Ebal, more than 
a mile from Nablus. In Sychem, Stephen 
seems to affirm, other patriarchs as w y ell as 
Jacob were buried, Acts 7:15, 16. 

SYE'NE, Heb. Seveneh, opening or key, 
a city on the southern frontier of Egypt, 
towards Ethiopia, between Thebes and the 
cataracts of the Nile, and now called Es- 
suan or Aswan. Pliny says it stood in a 
peninsula on the eastern shore of the Nile, 
that it was a mile in circumference, and 
had a Roman garrison. " From Migdol," 
the tower, " unto Syene," denotes the whole 
length of Egypt from north to south, Ezek. 
29:10; 30:6. Few remains of the ancient 
city are now extant. Its Hebrew name is 
very appropriate for its position, just be- 
low the first cataract, where the Nile breaks 
through the mountains into the open plain 
of Egypt. Its Egyptian name was Sun. 
The modern town lies north of the ancient 
site. In its vicinity are quarries of the 
Egyptian granite called Syenite, which fur- 
nished the material for numerous obelisks 
and colossal statues. 

603 



SYN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SYN 



SYN'AGOGUE, an assembly, like the word 
church, applied to the buildings in which 
the ordinary Jewish assemblies for the 
worship of God were convened. From the 
silence of the Old Testament with refer- 
ence to these places of worship, many are of 
opinion that they were not in use till after 
the Babylonish captivity, and that before 
that time the Jews held their social meet- 
ings for religious worship, Isa. i : 13, either 
in the open air or in the houses of the 
prophets. See 2 Kin. 4:23; Psa. 107:32; 
Ezek. 33:31. In Psa. 74:8 it is very doubt- 
ful whether the Hebrew word rendered 
synagogues refers to synagogue-buildings 
such as existed after the Captivity. In the 
later Hebrew books allusions to stated 
meetings for worship are more frequent, 
Ezra 8:15, 21; 10:1-9; Neh. 8:1-3; 9:1-3; 
13:1-3; Zech. 7:5; and in our Saviour's 
time they abounded, Acts 15:21. Benjamin 
of Tudela, a traveller in the Middle Ages, 
claims to have seen the synagogues built 
by Moses, David, Obadiah, Nahum, and 
Ezra. Synagogues could only be erected 
in those places where ten men of age, learn- 
ing, piety, and easy circumstances could 
be found to attend them. Large towns had 
several synagogues, and they became the 
parish churches of the Jewish nation. Their 
number appears to have been very consid- 
erable ; and when the erection of a syna- 
gogue was considered a mark of piety, 
Luke 7:5, or a passport to heaven, we need 
not be surprised to hear that they were 
multiplied beyond all necessity, so that in 
Jerusalem alone there were said to be not 
fewer than 460 or 480. They were gener- 
ally built on the most elevated ground, and 
consisted of 2 parts. The westerly part 
contained the ark or chest in which the 
book of the law and the sections of the 
prophets were deposited, with the syna- 
gogical robes of the officials, and was called 
the temple by way of eminence. The other, 
in which the congregation assembled, was 
termed the body of the synagogue. The 
people sat with their faces towards the tem- 
ple, comp. 1 Kin. 8:^9; Psa. 28:2, and the 
elders on a platform opposite and facing 
the people, with the pulpit or reading-desk 
on its front. Their seats are often referred 
to as "the chief seats in the synagogues," 
Matt. 23:6; Mark 12:39; Luke 11:43; Jas. 
2:2, 3. The women sat by themselves, at 
first shut off by a partition 5 or 6 feet high, 
and afterwards in a gallery secluded by 
lattice-work. The apartment was lighted 
by an ever-burning lamp. 
604 



The stated office-bearers in every syna- 
gogue formed 6 distinct classes : first the 
Archisynagogos, or " chief ruler of the syn- 
agogue," who regulated all its concerns 
and granted permission to address the as- 
sembly, Acts 18:8. Of these there were 3 
in each synagogue. Dr. Lightfoot believes 
them to have possessed a civil power and 
to have constituted the lowest civil tribu- 
nal, commonly known as " the council of 
three," whose office it was to judge minor 
offences against religion, and also to de- 
cide the differences that arose between any 
members of the synagogue as to money 
matters, thefts, losses, etc. To these offi- 
cers there is perhaps an allusion in 1 Cor. 
6:5. See also Judgment. The 2d office- 
bearer was "the angel of the synagogue,"" 
or minister of the congregation, Luke 4:20, 
who prayed and preached. In allusion to 
these, the pastors of the Asiatic churches 
are called " angels," Rev. 2; 3. Other offi- 
cers were the almoners, a legate or leader, 
an interpreter, to translate the Hebrew 
Scriptures into the vernacular, and the ten 
"men of leisure," including perhaps these 
just named, who were relied upon to war- 
rant the forming of a synagogue and secure 
a regular congregation. 

The service of the synagogue was as fol- 
lows : The people being seated, the " angel 
of the synagogue " ascended the pulpit and 
offered up the public prayers, the people 
rising from their seats and standing in a 
posture of deep devotion, Matt. 6:5; Mark 
11:25; Luke 18:11, 13. The prayers were 
19 in number, and were closed by reading 
the execration. The next thing was the 
repetition of their phylacteries ; after which 
came the reading of the law and the proph- 
ets. The former was divided into 54 sec- 
tions, with which were united correspond- 
ing portions from the prophets; see Acts 
13:15, 27; 15:21; and these were read 
through once in the course of the year. 
After the return from the Captivity an in- 
terpreter was employed in reading the law 
and the prophets, Neh. 8:2-8, who inter- 
preted them into the Syro-Chaldaic dialect, 
which was then spoken by the people. The 
last part of the service was the expounding 
of the Scriptures and preaching from them 
to the people. This was done either by 
one of the officers or by some distinguished 
person who happened to be present. The 
Saviour often availed himself of the oppor- 
tunity thus afforded to address his coun- 
trymen, Luke 4:16-20; and there are sev- 
eral instances recorded of himself and his 



SYN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SYR 



disciples teaching in the synagogues. See 
Matt. 13:54; Mark 6:2; John 18:20; Acts 
i3 : 5, 15, 44; H:i; 17:2-4, 10, 17; 18:4, 26; 
19:8. The whole service was concluded 
with a short prayer or benediction. 

The Jewish synagogues were used not 
only for the purposes of divine worship, 
but also for courts of judicature in such 
matters as fell under the cognizance of the 
Council of Three of which we have already 
spoken. On such occasions the sentence 
given against the offender was sometimes, 
after the manner of prompt punishment 
still prevalent in the East, carried into 
effect in the place where the council was 
assembled. Hence we read of persons be- 
ing beaten in the synagogue and scourged 
in the synagogue, Matt. 10:17; 23:34; Mark 
13:9; Luke 21: 12; Acts 22: 19; 26:11; 2 Cor. 
11 :24. To be " put out of the synagogue," 
or excommunicated from the Jewish Church 
and deprived of the national privileges, 
was a punishment much dreaded, John 
9:22; 12:42; 16:2. The name of synagogue 
was long retained as that of a place of 
worship, Jas. 2:2; Rev. 2:9. In our own 
day the Jews erect synagogues wherever 
they are sufficiently numerous, and assem- 
ble on their Sabbath for worship, the read- 
ing or chanting of the Old Testament and 
of prayers being conducted in the original 
Hebrew, though it is a dead language spo- 
ken by few among them. Among the syn- 
agogues of Jerusalem, now 8 or 10 in num- 
ber, are some for Jews of Spanish origin, 
and others for German Jews, etc., as in the 
time of Paul there were separate syna- 
gogues for the Libertines, Cyrenians, Alex- 
andrians, etc., Acts 6:9. 

SYN'TYCHE, with fortune, and EUOD'IA, 
good journey, Phil. 4:2, 3, women eminent 
for virtue and good works, perhaps dea- 
conesses in the church at Philippi. Paul 
exhorts them to act harmoniously together 
in their Christian labors, as all should do 
who are "in the Lord." 

SYR'ACUSE, now Siracusa, a large and 
celebrated city, occupying a peninsula and 
the adjacent shore, on the eastern coast of 
Sicily, with a capacious and excellent har- 
bor. It was founded by Corinthians 734 
B. C, was opulent and powerful, and was 
divided into 4 or 5 quarters or districts, 
which were of themselves separate cities. 
The whole circumference is stated by Stra- 
bo to have been about 22 miles. Syracuse 
is celebrated as having been the birthplace 
and residence of Archimedes, whose inge- 
nious mechanical contrivances during its 



siege by the Romans, 215 B. C, long de- 
layed its capture. After its destruction by 
Marcellus, B. C. 212, Augustus rebuilt the 
city in part, and it recovered much of its 
former greatness and power; it was taken 
by the Saracens A. D. 675, and retaken by 
Roger, Duke of Apulia, A. D. 1090. The 
peninsula is now an island, called Ortygia. 
Paul passed 3 days here, on his way from 
Melita to Rome, in the spring of A. D. 63, 
waiting for a favorable wind, Acts 28 : 12-14. 
Population anciently 200,000; now 11,000. 

SYR'IA, a Greek name possibly derived 
from the Heb. Tsur, or Tyre; in Heb. 
A'RAM ; Num. 23:7; Judg. 10:6, translated 
Mesopotamia in Judg. 3: 10; a large district 
of Asia, lying, in the widest acceptation 
of the name, between the Mediterranean, 
Mount Taurus, and the Tigris, and thus 
including Mesopotamia, or Syria of the 2 
rivers. It was about 240 miles long and 
from 120 to 150 miles wide, and contained 
5 or 6 principalities : 1. Aram-Dammesek, 
or Syria of Damascus ; 2. Aram-Maachah ; 
3. Aram-Beth-rehob, 1 Kin. 10:29; 2 Kin. 
7:6; 4. Aram-Zobah; 5. Aram-naharaim, 
Syria of the 2 rivers, or Padan-aram, usu- 
ally Mesopotamia in the A. V. See Aram, 
II. Of these portions of Syria the bounds 
often varied. Syria of Damascus was the 
most noted in Hebrew history. See the 
cities above named; also Antioch, Baal- 
bek, Gebal, Hamath, Tadmor. In the 
New Testament Syria may be considered 
as bounded west and northwest by the 
Mediterranean and by Mount Taurus, 
which separates it from Cilicia and Catao- 
nia in Asia Minor, east by the Euphrates, 
and south by Arabia Deserta and Judaea, 
including the northern part of Palestine, 
Matt. 4:24; Luke 2:2; comp. 2 Kin. 5:20; 
Acts 15:41; comp. Gal. 1:21; Acts 18:18; 
20:3. 

The physical geography of Syria is 
marked by, 1. a narrow belt of low land 
along the Mediterranean, with occasional 
heights projecting into the sea ; 2. the moun- 
tain range of Lebanon on the south, the 
Bargylus range midway, 4,000 feet high, 
terminating in Mount Casius near the 
mouth of the Orontes, 5,700 feet high, and 
Mount Amanus on the north, 6,000 feet 
high ; 3. the valley of Ccele-Syria, between 
the Lebanon and Anti- Lebanon ranges, 
and the valley of the Orontes on the north — 
230 miles long; 4. the Anti-Lebanon range, 
and its prolongation northwards; 5. the 
high desert plateau extending to the Eu- 
phrates, in which lies the remarkable oasis 

605 



SYR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TAB 



of Palmyra. See Tadmor. The Ccele- 
Syria valley is about ioo miles long and 
from 6 to 20 wide, and nearly as level as 
the sea. 

Syria was in early ages the seat of a 
powerful Hittite kingdom, the Khatti of 
Assyrian monuments. Joshua disputed 
their sway in Northern Palestine, Josh. 
1 1 : 2-18. David claimed the country to the 
Euphrates, Gen. 15:18, defeated the king 
of Zobah in a great battle, 2 Sam. 8:3, 4, 
12; 10:6-19, and the Syrians of Damas- 
cus, 2 Sam. 8:5, 6; and Solomon ruled al- 
most all Syria to the end of his days, 1 Kin. 
4:21; 11:23. ^ was m frequent conflict 
with Judah and Israel, 1 Kin. 15:18-20; 
20; 2 Kin. 10:33; I 3 :22 J I 4 :2 5> 28, and was 
at length subjugated by Tiglath-pileser, 
and ruled by the Babylonians and the Per- 
sians. Alexander the Great conquered it 
B. C. 333, and after his death Seleucus Ni- 
cator formed of Mesopotamia and Syria a 
powerful kingdom, with a line of 16 princes 
named Seleucidae. Subsequently it fell 
into the hands of the Parthians under Ti- 
granes, and B. C. 64 of the Romans under 
Pompey. Christianity was early planted 
in Syria both by Paul, Gal. 1:21, and by 
the refugees from Jewish persecution, Acts 
11:19, and the Syrian churches became 
large and prosperous, Acts 13:1; i5 :2 3> 35> 
41. In A. D. 634 the Mohammedans con- 
quered the country, and have since held it, 
except for 2 centuries of the Crusades. It 
was subdued by the Turks under Selim I. 
in A. D. 1517, and in modern times was 
held for a short period by the Egyptians 
under Ibrahim. It now falls under 3 Turk- 
ish Pashalics— Aleppo, Damascus and Si- 
don. Its better portions have been thickly 
populated from a very early period, and 
travellers find traces of numerous cities 
wholly unknown to history. Its present 
population is less than 2,000,000, more than 
y A of whom are Mohammedans, the rest 
Greek, Latin, and Maronite Christians, 
Druses, Yezidees, and Jews. Notwith- 
standing the nominal protection of Great 
Britain, the non-Mohammedan population 
is ruinously oppressed. The prevailing 
language is the Arabic. There are 70 or 
80 Christian mission stations in Syria, Bei- 
rut being a chief missionary centre; the 
communicants in Protestant churches num- 
ber 700, and there are 175 schools. 

SYR'IAC LAN'GUAGE, Dan. 2:4, prop- 
erly the Aramaic, the western dialect of 
that branch of the Shemitic languages 
called the Aramaean, very nearly the same, 
606 



when spoken, as the eastern dialect, the 
Chaldee, and closely allied to the Hebrew. 
It is now a dead language, but is rich in 2 
ancient versions of the Old Testament 
Scriptures, which greatly aid in the right 
interpretation of the Hebrew: one made 
from the Hebrew, and called the Peshito, 
simple, and the other from the Greek Hex- 
apla, in the 6th century. The book of 
Daniel, from ch. 2:4 to the end of ch. 7, is 
in Aramaic. 

SY'RO-PHCENI'CIA, the name of Phoe- 
nicia proper during the period of its sub- 
jection to Syria; hence the name given in 
Mark 7:26 to the woman who is also called 
a " Greek," i. e., a Gentile, and a " Ca- 
naanite," Matt. 15:22 — that country having 
been settled by Zidon, the eldest son of 
Canaan, Gen. 10:15. See Phoenicia. 

SYR'TIS, in the R. V. Acts 27:17; in the 
A. V. '" quicksands," which see. 

T. 

TA'ANACH, sandy or fortified, a Canaan- 
ite royal city, one of 31 conquered by Josh- 
ua, Josh. 12:21, in the territory of Issachar, 
but assigned to Manasseh, Josh. 17:11; 
21:25; 1 Chr. 7:29. In the war between 
the Canaanites under Sisera and Israel it 
was a strong post of the Canaanites, Judg. 
5 : 19, many of whom remained there as 
tributaries, Josh. 17:11-18; Judg. 1:27. It 
was one of Solomon's supply districts, 
1 Kin. 4:12. The modern village Tannuk 
lies among ruins on a hill on the south- 
west border of the plain of Esdraelon, 6 
miles southeast of Megiddo. 

TA'ANATH-SHI'LOH, the coming of or 
to Shiloh, Josh. 16:6, now T'ana, a place 7 
miles southeast of Nablus, where are large 
cisterns. 

TABBA'OTH, rings or spots, Ezra 2:43; 
Neh. 7:46. 

TAB'BATH, celebrated, a place to which 
Gideon drove the Midianite host, Judg. 
7:22; found at Tubukhat-Fahil, terrace of 
Fahil, a mound 600 feet high, overlooking 
the Jordan from the east, in the latitude of 
Beth-shean. 

TA'BEAL, or TA'BEEL, God is good, 
I., a Syrian whose son— unnamed— Rezin 
king of Syria and Pekah king of Israel 
proposed, with the aid of a party in Jerusa- 
lem, to substitute for Ahaz as king of Ju- 
dah, Isa. 7:6; 8:6,9, 12. 

II. A Persian officer in Samaria under 
king Artaxerxes, Ezra 4:7, B. C. 519. 

TA'BER, to beat the tabret, a small 



TAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TAB 



drum or tambourine, Psa. 68:25. The 
word is used in Nah. 2:7 of women beat- 
ing their breasts in sign of grief. 

TABE'RAH, burning, so named on ac- 
count of the fire which fell upon the Israel- 



ites for their murmurings while encamped 
here, Num. 11:1-3; Deut. 9:22. Conjec- 
turally located in Wady es-Saal, 25 or ^o 
miles northeast of Sinai, near Erweis el- 
Ebeirig. 




TAB'ERNACLE, a tent, booth, pavilion, 
or temporary dwelling, Exod. 33 : 7-1 1. 
For its general meaning and uses, see 
Tent. In the Scriptures it is chiefly em- 
ployed to denote the place of religious 
worship of the Hebrews before the build- 
ing of the temple. Several other names 
are also applied to it in English, answer- 
ing to several Hebrew names, mishkan, 
meaning the inner dwelling, Exod. 25:9; 
26; 38; 40; Num. 1; 3; 9; ohel, the outer 
tent, Exod. ^ ; kodesh or mikdash, sanc- 
tuary, Exod. 25:8; Lev. 4:6; Num. 4:12; 
and hevkal, temple or palace, 1 Sam. 1:9; 
3:^. The tabernacle par excellence was 
that erected by Moses, Bezaleel, and Aho- 
liab in the wilderness by divine direction, 
on the 1st day of the 2d year out of Egypt. 

This tabernacle was of an oblong rec- 
tangular form, 30 cubits long, 10 broad, 
and 10 in height, Exod. 26:15-30; 36:20-30; 
that is, about 55 feet long, 18 broad, and 18 
high. The two sides and the western end 
were formed of planks of shittim wood, 
overlaid with thin plates of gold, and fixed, 
each by 2 tenons, in solid sockets, made 
of pure silver. Above, they were secured 
by bars of the same wood overlaid with 
gold, passing through rings of gold which 



were fixed to the boards. On the east end, 
which was the entrance, there were no 
boards, but only 5 pillars of shittim wood, 
whose chapiters and fillets were overlaid 
with gold, and their hooks of gold, stand- 
ing is 5 sockets of brass. It was closed 
with a richly embroidered curtain suspend- 
ed from these pillars, Exod. 27:16. The 
tabernacle thus erected seems to have been 
inclosed by a large tent with sloping sides, 
covered with 4 different kinds of hangings 
or curtains. The first and inner curtain 
was composed of fine linen, magnificently 
embroidered with figures of cherubim, in 
shades of blue, purple, and scarlet ; this 
formed the beautiful ceiling. The next 
covering was made of fine goats' hair; the 
third of rams' skins or morocco dyed red, 
and tachash skins. See Badger. Exod. 
26 : 1-30. 

Such was the external appearance of the 
sacred tent, which was divided into 2 apart- 
ments by means of 4 pillars of shittim wood 
overlaid with gold, like the pillars before 
described, 2^ cubits distant from each 
other, only they stood in sockets of silver 
instead of brass, Exod. 26:32; 36:36; and 
on these pillars was hung a veil formed of 
the same materials as the one placed at the 

607 



TAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TAB 



east end, Exod. 26:31-33; 36:35; Heb. 9:3. 
The interior of the tabernacle was thus di- 
vided, it is generally supposed, in the same 
proportions as the temple afterwards built 
according to its model, two-thirds of the 
whole length being allotted to the first 
room, or the Holy Place, and one-third to 
the second, or Most Holy Place. Thus the 
former would be 20 cubits long, 10 wide, 
and 10 high, and the latter 10 cubits every 
way. It is observable that neither the 
Holy nor the Most Holy Place had any win- 
dow. Hence the need of the candlestick 
in the one for the service that was per- 
formed therein, the Most Holy Place being 
illuminated by the Shechinah only. 



\ 

















AM 


FTHE- [ -CWE 


•AHT 


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HOLY 
OFHOLIFS 




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, - — — - 








AUAR 

OFINCENSE 




II 


aoLoe 


\o □ 


TABLEOF 
•MWaftEAD 


! 

1 








1 






Q) LAVER 






I 


□ 

ALTAR OF 
BURNT-OFFERINGS 






1 




1 




—J 



The tabernacle thus described stood in 
an oblong court, 100 cubits in length and 
50 in breadth, situated due east and west, 
Exod. 27:18. This court, open to the sky, 
was surrounded with 60 pillars of brass, 
with silver capitals, and placed at the dis- 
tance of 5 cubits from each other, 20 on 
each side and 10 on each end. Their sock- 
ets were of brass, and were fastened to the 
earth with pins of the same metal, Exod. 
38: 10, 17, 20. Their height was probably 5 
608 



cubits, that being the length of the curtains 
that were suspended on them, Exod. 38:18. 
These curtains, which formed an inclosure 
round the court, were of fine twined white 
linen yarn, Exod. 27:9; 38:9, 16, except 
that at the entrance on the east end, which 
was of blue and purple and scarlet and fine 
white twined linen, with cords to draw it 
either up or aside when the priests entered 
the court, Exod. 27:16; 38:18. Within this 
area stood the altar of burnt-offering and 
the laver with its foot or base. This altar 
was placed in a line between the door of 
the court and the door of the tabernacle, 
but nearer the former, Exod. 40:6, 29; the 
laver stood between the altar of burnt- 
offering and the door of the tabernacle, 
Exod. 38:8. In this court all the Israel- 
ites presented their offerings, vows, and 
prayers. 

But although the tabernacle was sur- 
rounded by the court, there is no reason to 
think that it stood in the centre of it. It 
is more probable that the area at the east 
end was 50 cubits square ; and indeed a 
less space than that could hardly suffice 
for the work that was to be done there and 
for the persons who were immediately to 
attend the service. We now proceed to 
notice the furniture which the tabernacle 
contained. 

In the Holy Place, to which none but 
priests were admitted, Heb. 9:6, were 3 
objects worthy of notice : namely, the altar 
of incense, the table for the show-bread, 
and the candlestick for the lights, all of 
which have been described in their re- 
spective places. The altar of incense was 
placed in the middle of the sanctuary, be- 
fore the veil, Exod. 30:6-10; 40:26, 27; and 
on it the incense was burned morning and 
evening, Exod. 30:7, 8. On the north side 
of the altar of incense, that is, on the right 
hand of the priest as he entered, stood the 
table for the show-bread, Exod. 26 : 35 ; 
40:22, 23; and on the south side of the 
Holy Place the golden candlestick, Exod. 
25:31-39. In the Most Holy Place, into 
which only the high-priest entered once a 
year, Heb. 9:7, was the ark, covered by 
the mercy-seat and the cherubim. 

The gold and silver employed in deco- 
rating the tabernacle are estimated at 
not less than $1,000,000. The remarkable 
and costly structure thus described was 
erected in the wilderness of Sinai on the 
1st day of the 1st month of the 2d year 
after the Israelites left Egypt, Exod. 40:17; 
' and when erected was anointed, together 



TAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TAB 



with its furniture, with holy oil, ver. 9-1 1, 
and sanctified by blood, Exod. 24 : 6-8 ; Heb. 
9:21. The altar of burnt -offering espe- 
cially was sanctified by sacrifices during 7 
days, Exod. 29:37; while rich donations 
were given by the princes of the tribes for 
the service of the sanctuary, Num. 7. 

We should not omit to observe that the 
tabernacle was so constructed as to be 
taken to pieces and put together again, as 
occasion required. This was indispensa- 
ble, it being designed to accompany the 
Israelites during their travels in the wil- 
derness. Over it moved and rested the 
symbolic pillar of fire and cloud. As often 
as Israel removed the tabernacle was ta- 
ken to pieces by the priests, closely cov- 
ered, and borne in regular order by the 
Levites, Num. 2; 4. Wherever they en- 
camped it was pitched in the midst of their 
tents, which were set up in a quadrangular 
form, under their respective standards, at 
a distance from the tabernacle of 2,000 
cubits; while Moses and Aaron, with the 
priests and Levites, occupied a place be- 
tween them. 

The tabernacle conveyed the great truth 
of a living, ever-present God, dwelling 
among his people to protect, rule, judge, 
guide, and bless them. It was God's house, 
Exod. 25:8; 29:45. From it he revealed 
his will to his people, Num. 11:24, 2 5," 
12:4-10; 16:19, 42; 20:6; 27:2-5; Deut. 
31 : 14, 15. The separation of the outer and 
inner courts denoted the separation of the 
unconverted world from God and his peo- 
ple. The altar of burnt - offering, in the 
court without the sanctuary, indicated the 
necessity for an atonement in approach- 
ing him. The altar of incense stood in the 
Holy Place, and its incense of grateful ado- 
ration perfumed the atoning blood which 
the high-priest bore into the Holy of holies, 
where the mercy-seat over the ark of the 
covenant witnessed an atonement perfect- 
ed and accepted there — as the one great 
sacrifice of the Redeemer is presented by 
him in heaven, Heb. 9: 10, 11, 24. How long 
the tabernacle existed we do not know. 
During the conquest it remained at Gilgal, 
Josh. 4:19; 10:43. After the conquest it 
was stationed for many years at Shiloh, 
Josh. 18:1; 19:51; 22:I2; j Sam I:9 . 24; 
3 : 3> 1 5- It was somewhat shorn of its 
-glory when the ark, captured by the Philis- 
tines and miraculously restored, rested at 
Kirjath-jearim and in the house of Obed- 
edom, 1 Chr. 13:6, 14; 2 Sam. 6:11, 12. 
Meanwhile the tabernacle, with the altar of 
39 



burnt - offering, was stationed at Gibeon, 
1 Chr. 16:39,40; 21:29, an d remained there 
till the time of Solomon, who sacrificed be- 
fore it, 2 Chr. 1:3, 13. 

Another tabernacle was prepared for the 
ark by David at Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 6:17; 
1 Chr. 15:1, and this appears to have been 
brought from Zion, 2 Chr. 1:4; 5:2, into 
the temple, 1 Kin. 8:1-4; 2 Chr. 5:5. See 
Ark, Cherub, Mercy-seat. 

Many commentators regard the " taber- 
nacle of the congregation," translated in 
the R. V. "tent of meeting," Exod. 33:7-11 ; 
Num. 1:1, etc., as a large secular tent for 
the special purposes indicated, distinct 
from the sacred tent apparently afterwards 
constructed, Exod. 35-40. In Amos 5:26 
booths for idols are intended. 

Feast of Tabernacles. This festival 
derives its name from the booths in which 
the people dwelt during its continuance, 
which were constructed of the branches 
and leaves of trees, on the roofs of their 
houses, in the courts, the temple court, and 
also in the streets. Nehemiah describes 
the gathering of palm -branches, olive- 
branches, myrtle-branches, etc., for this 
occasion from the Mount of Olives. It 
was one of the 3 great festivals of the year, 
at which all the men of Israel were re- 
quired to be present at Jerusalem, Deut. 
16 : 13-16. It was celebrated during 8 days, 
commencing on the 15th day of the month 
Tishri, that is, 15 days after the new moon 
in October ; and the first and last days were 
particularly distinguished, Lev. 23:34-43; 
Neh. 8: 14-18. This festival was instituted 
in memory of the 40 years' wanderings of 
the Israelites in the desert, Lev. 23:42, 43, 
and also as a season of gratitude and 
thanksgiving for the gathering in of the 
harvest ; whence it is also called the Feast 
of Ingathering, Exod. 23:16; 34:22. The 
season was an occasion of rejoicing and 
feasting. The public sacrifices consisted 
of 2 rams and 14 lambs on each of the 
first 7 days, together with 13 bullocks on 
the first day, 12 on the second, 11 on the 
third, 10 on the fourth, 9 on the fifth, 8 on 
the 6th, and 7 on the seventh ; while on the 
eighth day 1 bullock, 1 ram, and 7 lambs 
were offered, with the appropriate meat 
and drink-offerings, Num. 15:2-11; 28:12- 
14; 29:12-39. On every 7th year the law 
of Moses was also read in public, in the 
presence of all the people, Deut. 31:10-13; 
Neh. 8:18. To these ceremonies the later 
Jews added a libation of water mingled 
with wine, which was poured upon the 

609 



TAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TAB 



morning sacrifice of each day. The priests, 
having filled a vessel of water from the 
fountain of Siloam, bore it through the wa- 
ter-gate to the temple, and there, while the 
trumpets and horns were sounding, poured 
it upon the sacrifice arranged upon the 
altar. This was probably done as a me- 
morial of the abundant supply of water 
which God afforded to the Israelites dur- 
ing their wanderings in the desert, and 
perhaps with reference to purification from 
sin, i Sam. 7:6. This was accompanied 
with the singing of Isa. 12:3, "With joy 
shall ye draw water from the wells of sal- 



vation," and may naturally have suggested 
our Saviour's announcement while attend- 
ing this - festival, "If any man thirst, let 
him come unto me and drink," John 7:2, 
31, 38. The 1st and 8th days of the festival 
were sabbaths to the Lord, in which there 
was a holy convocation and all unnecessary 
labor was prohibited, Lev. 23:39; Num. 
29:12, 35: and as the 8th was the last festi- 
val day celebrated in the course of each 
year, it appears to have been esteemed as 
peculiarly important and sacred. 

TAB'ITHA. See Dorcas. Comp. Job 
31 : 19, 20 ; Prov. 31 : 19, 20. 




TA'BLE. The people of the East an- 
ciently often sat at their meals on mats 
upon the ground, around a circular leather 
on which a few dishes were placed; at 
times this was replaced by a very low and 
small table. The triclinium shown on p. 
143 with the couches around it was bor- 
rowed from Persia and Rome. See Bread 
and Eating. 

In Mark 7:4, A. V., the " tables," omitted 
in the R. V., mean "couches." 

In Prov. y.3; Isa. 30:8; Hab. 2:2; Luke 
1:63; 2 Cor. 3:3, A. V., "table" means a 
tablet for writing — in some cases a frame 
coated with wax, and often a fiat stone, as 
those on which the Law was inscribed by 
the divine hand, Exod. 24:12; 31:18; 34:1, 
4; Deut. 9:9, 15-17. 

TAB'LET, Isa. 3:20, A. V., a perfume- 
box; in Exod. 35: 22 read armlet or locket. 
610 



TA'BOR, height or mound, I., an isolated 
mountain of Galilee, on the northeastern 
side of the plain of Esdraelon, an arm of 
which extends beyond the mountain in the 
same direction. It is of limestone forma- 
tion, conical in form and well wooded, 
especially on the north side, with fine oaks 
and other trees and odoriferous plants. 
The soil is fertile, the pasturage fine, and 
small game of various kinds abounds. It 
rises 1,353 feet above the plain at its base, 
which is 400 feet above the Mediterranean, 
and by a winding path on the northwest 
side one may ride to its summit in an hour. 
There is a small oblong plain on the sum- 
mit, surrounded by a larger but less regu- 
lar tract, a mile or more in circumference. 
The prospect from Mount Tabor is exten- 
sive and beautiful. Dr. Robinson and 
many others speak of it as one of the finest 



TAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TAB 




in Palestine; and Lord Nugent declared it 
the most splendid he could recollect hav- 
ing ever seen from any natural height. 
See Jer. 46:18. Its general features are 
the same as those of the view from the 
heights of Nazareth, 5 miles to the west. 
See Nazareth. Glimpses of the Mediter- 
ranean appear over the high grounds which 



intervene. In the plain at the southern 
base of the mountain are the sources of the 
brook Kishon, and the villages En-dor and 
Nain, famous in Bible history. Besides the 
fertile expanse of Esdraelon and Mounts 
Carmel, Gilboa, etc., on its borders, the 
view embraces a portion of the Sea of Gal- 
ilee, 11 miles north of east, and towards 

611 



TAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TAD 



the north the mountains of Galilee, with 
the town of Safed crowning the highest of 
them all, recalling the proverb which it is 
said to have first suggested, " A city that 
is set on a hill cannot be hid." Still far- 
ther to the north and east the snow-crowned 
head of Hermon overlooks the 50 miles 
which intervene, Psa. 89:12. 

On the summit of Tabor a fortified town 
anciently stood, probably of the same name, 
1 Chr. 6:77; perhaps at the time of Joshua, 
when it fell in the bounds of Issachar, Josh. 
19:22. It was strengthened by Josephus 
and garrisoned by the Romans in the time 
of Christ, which conflicts with the tradition 
that makes Tabor the scene of the trans- 
figuration. See Transfiguration. Ruins 
of ancient walls inclose the area on the 
summit; and at various points there are 
remains of fortifications and dwellings, 
some of which are of the age of the Cru- 
sades, and others of more ancient date. 
Tabor lay on the borders of Issachar and 
Zebulun, Josh. 19:12, 22. The host of Ba- 
rak encamped upon it before the battle 
with Sisera, Judg. 4:6, 12, 14, 15. Here 
Gideon's brothers were slain by Zebah 
and Zalmunna, Judg. 8:18, 19. At a later 
day it appears to have been desecrated by 
idolatry, Hos. 5:1. The Latin Christians 
perform a yearly mass at an altar on the 
summit, and the Greeks have a chapel for 
various services. A convent stands on the 
northeast part of the summit. 

II. A town, 1 Chr. 6:77, possibly Chis- 
loth-tabor, Josh. 19:12, or Aznoth-tabor, on 
the mountain. See Tabor, I. 

III. "Plain of Tabor," A. V., 1 Sam. 10:3, 
rather the " oak of Tabor," a point visited 
by Saul after his anointing, between Ra- 
chel's sepulchre and Zelzah, apparently 
between Bethlehem and Bethel. 

TAB'RET, Heb. toph or topheth, Gen. 
31:27; 1 Sam. i8:6- Job 17:6; Isa. 5:12; 
Ezek. 28:13, z small drum or tambourine, 
played on as an accompaniment to sing- 
ing. See Ti..:3REL. 

TAB'RIMON, good is Rimmon, 1 Ilin. 
15.18, the father of Ben-hadad I., king of 
Syria. 

TACH'ES, golden and brazen hooks or 
clasps, uniting the ceparate curtains of the 
tabernacle, 50 for each set, Exod. 26:6, 11, 

33\ 36:18; 39:33- 

TACH'MONITE, 2 Sam. 23:8, or Hach- 
monite,Jashobeam,sonofHachmoni, 1 Chr. 
11:11. See Hachmonite. 

TACK'LING, in Isa. 33:23, A. V., the 
mast-ropes of a vessel; in Acts 27:19 the 
612 



loose spars, ropes, chains, etc., of a ship's 
equipment. 




TAD'MOR, or Ta'mar, a palm-tree, 1 Kin. 
9:1s,' a city founded by Solomon in the 
desert of Syria, on the borders of Arabia 
Deserta, towards the Euphrates, 2 Chr. 
8:4. It was remote from human habita- 
tions, on an oasis in the midst of a dreary 
wilderness; and it is probable that Solo- 
mon built it as a frontier town to facilitate 
and protect his caravan traffic with the 
East, as it afforded a supply of water, a 
thing of the utmost importance in an Ara- 
bian desert. It was about 120 miles north- 
east of Damascus, more than half the dis- 
tance to the Euphrates. The original name 
was preserved till the time of Alexander, 
who extended his conquests to this city, 
which then exchanged its name Tadmor 
for that of Palmyra, palm-city. The com- 
merce of India and Persia with Syria, Ara- 
bia, and Egypt, passing through Palmyra, 
made it famous for wealth and luxury. It 
submitted to the Romans about the year 
130, and continued in alliance with them 
during a period of 150 years, and was beau- 
tified by the emperor Hadrian. In the 3d 
century the famous queen Zenobia reigned 
here over all the adjacent countries, Egypt, 
Syria, Asia Minor, and Mesopotamia, till 
A. D. 272, when she was conquered and 
carried captive to Rome by Aurelian. 
When the Saracens triumphed in the East 
they early acquired possession of this city 
and restored its ancient name. It is still 
called Thadmor. Of the time of its ruin 
there is no authentic record ; but it is 



TAH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TAL 



thought, with some probability, that its 
destruction occurred during the period in 
which it was occupied by the Saracens. 

The present village of Thadmor is only 
a group of Arab peasants' huts amid the 
remains of the great Temple of the Sun, of 
which some 20 columns are standing, in a 
court inclosed by a double row of columns, 
390 in number, of which some 60 are stand- 
ing. The whole was surrounded by a high 
outer wall. The ruins cover a vast area, 
above the level of the desert, and are very 
imposing; on the lower heights are con- 
spicuous numerous solitary square towers, 
and the plain is crossed from the temple 
by an avenue lined by hundreds of Corin- 
thian columns of white marble, some of 
which are still erect. The necropolis, in a 
valley northwest of the temple, is rich in 
monumental towers several stories high. 
Volney observes, " On which side soever 
we look the earth is strowed with vast 
stones half buried, with broken entabla- 
tures, mutilated friezes, disfigured reliefs, 
effaced sculptures, violated tombs, and al- 
tars defiled by the dust." Most of the edifi- 
ces the ruins of which are above described 
date from the first 3 centuries of the Chris- 
tian era, while shapeless mounds of rub- 
bish, covered with soil and herbage, con- 
tain the only memorials of the Tadmor of 
Solomon. The city was situated under 
and east of a ridge of barren hills, and its 
other sides were separated only by a wall 
from the open desert. It was originally 
about 10 miles in circumference ; but such 
have been the destructions effected by time 
that the boundaries are with difficulty tra- 
ced and determined. 

TAHAP'ANES, Jer. 2 : 16, or Tahpan'hes, 
Jer. 43 : 7, 9, or Tehaph'nehes, Ezek. 30 : 18, 
A. V., the name of an Egyptian city, for 
which the Seventy put Taphne, and the 
Greek historians Daphne. It lay southwest 
of Pelusium, on the western bank of the 
Pelusiac arm of the Nile. It was a head- 
city of Egypt, Ezek. 30:18, and is men- 
tioned with Memphis, Jer. 2:16; 46:14. To 
this city Johanan and many of the Jews 
retired after the destruction of Jerusalem, 
taking with them Jeremiah and king Zed- 
ekiah's daughters, Jer. 43. It is identified 
with Tell Defenneh, a mound 30 miles 
south-southwest of Port Said, in which the 
ruins of "Pharaoh's house" — still called 
Kasr el Bint el Yahudi, castle of the king's 
daughter— have recently been unearthed, 
and the paved area before it on which Neb- 
uchadnezzar spread his pavilion. Accord- 



ing to some, Hanes, in Isa. 30:4, is an ab- 
breviated name of the same city. 

TA'HATH, beneath, I., the 25th station of 
the Israelites after leaving Egypt, Num. 
33:26, 27. 

II. A Kohathite Levite, 1 Chr. 6:24, 37. 

III. and IV. An Ephraimite and his 
grandson, 1 Chr. 7:20. 

TAH'PENES, the wife of the Pharaoh 
who hospitably received Hadad the Edom- 
ite, and gave him her sister in marriage, 
1 Kin. 11:18-20, probably of the Tanitic 
line, the more powerful of several then 
ruling Egypt. 

TAH'TIM-HOD'SHI, 2 Sam. 24:6, appa- 
rently a section of the upper Jordan val- 
ley, the Ard el-Huleh, visited by Joab in 
taking the census. The Assyrian monu- 
ments seem to identify it with a northern 
Kadesh, a chief city of the ancient Hittite 
kingdom. 

TALE sometimes means a tally, a num- 
ber verified by counting, Exod. 5:8, 18 •, 
1 Sam. 18:27; 1 Chr. 9:28. 

TAL'ENT, Heb. kikkar, a circle, the 
largest weight among Jews, Greeks, Ro- 
mans, and Babylonians ; used in Scripture 
to indicate the weight of gold, 1 Kin. 9: 14; 
10:10; silver, 2 Kin. 5:22; lead, Zech. 
5:7; bronze, Exod. 38:29; and iron, 1 Chr. 
29:7. A king's crown is mentioned weigh- 
ing a talent of gold, 2 Sam. 12:30. For 2 
talents of silver the site of a town was 
bought, 1 Kin. 16:24. Many talents of gold 
and silver furnished utensils for the house 
of God, Exod. 25:39; 38:24, 25, 27; 1 Kin. 
9:14; and vast amounts were given for 
foreign favor, 2 Kin. 15:19; 18:14; 23:33. 
The common Attic talent was equal, on the 
usual estimate, to about 82 lbs. avoirdu- 
pois. In the New Testament a talent is a 
value which was anciently reckoned by 
weight, and the amount of which varied 
in different countries in proportion to the 
different weights of the talent. The Jew- 
ish talent appears from Exod. 38:25, 26 to 
have been equal to 3,000 shekels; and as 
the shekel is estimated at about 50 cents, 
the value of the talent would be about 
$1,500. The Attic talent is usually reck- 
oned at about ^"225 sterling, or $1,000, 
though others make it only about $860. 
The talent spoken of in the New Testa- 
ment is probably the Jewish, and is used 
only of an indefinitely large sum, Matt. 
18:24. In the parable Matt. 25:14-30 the 
talent is put for any gift of God — of time, 
ability, position, influence, means, or op- 
portunity — to be used for his glory and to 

613 



TAL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TAR 



the best purpose. The right use of one's 
talents tends to promote their growth and 
to increase his facility and happiness in 
their exercise. See Measure. The Bible 
states that Hezekiah paid Sennacherib 30 
talents of gold and 300 of silver, while the 
Assyrian records say there were 800 of sil- 
ver ; but the accounts agree, for 3 western 
talents were equal to 8 eastern. 

TALI'THA CU'MI, damsel, arise, two Ara- 
maic words spoken by our Lord to Jairus' 
daughter, Mark 5:41. 

TAL/MAI, bold or furrowed, I., One of 
the 3 huge " sons of Anak " in Hebron, 
Num. 13 : 22, expelled by Caleb, Josh. 15 : 14, 
and slain by men of Judah, Judg. 1:10. 
The image of a powerful man on an Egyp- 
tian monument bears a similar name. 

II. King of Geshur, on the borders of 
Palestine and Syria. David married Maa- 
chah his daughter, the mother of Tamar 
and Absalom. The latter avenged the 
wrongs of his sister Tamar by the murder 
of Amnon, and then took refuge at the 
court of his grandfather, where he remain- 
ed 3 years, 2 Sam. y.y, 13 and 14; 1 Chr. 
3:2. 

TAL'MON, oppressed^ a parent of temple 
gate-keepers, 1 Chr. 9: 17 ; Neh. 11 : 19, some 
of whom returned from the Captivity, Ezra 
2:42 ; Neh. 7:45; 12:25. 

TA'MAH, or THA'MAH, laughter, Ezra 
2:53; Neh. 7:55. 

TA'MAR, a palm-tree, I., a place in South- 
eastern Judaic Ezek. 47:19; 48:28, proba- 
bly at the southwestern extremity of the 
Dead Sea. 

II. The wife of Er and then of Onan, 
Judah's sons, whose death by the judgment 
of God deterred Judah from marrying her 
to his 3d son Shelah, as the custom re- 
quired, Deut. 25:5; Matt. 22:24. She felt 
justified in enticing Judah to incest, and 
became the mother of twin sons, Pharez 
and Zarah, Gen. 38, saving from extinction 
the royal family from which David sprang, 
Ruth 4: 12, 22. 

III. The beautiful but unhappy daughter 
of David and Maachah. See Talmai. 

IV. A daughter of Absalom, 2 Sam. 14:27; 
mother of Maachah and grandmother of 
king Abijah, 2 Chr. 11:20-22. 

TAM'MUZ, melting or sprouting, I., a 
Syrian idol, mentioned as seen in vision as 
at Jerusalem by Ezekiel in captivity, Ezek. 
8:14; the women are represented as weep- 
ing for it instead of exercising their fine 
sensibilities in the service of God, comp. 
John 20:11-16. Jerome identified it with 
614 



Adonis or the Phoenician sun-god. The 
fabled death and restoration of Adonis, 
supposed to symbolize the departure and 
return of the sun, were celebrated 7 days 
at the summer solstice, first with lamenta- 
tion, and then with rejoicings and obscene 
revels. 

II. The month Tammuz or Thammuz 
was the 4th sacred and the 10th civil month, 
a majority of its days sometimes coming 
before, but usually after, our 1st of July. 
It was on the 14th day of Tammuz, and 
during the riotous revels above mentioned, 
that the city of Babylon was captured 
" without fighting," as the account by Cy- 
rus recently exhumed states ; thus remark- 
ably confirming the Scripture narrative, 
Dan. 5:1-3, 23, 30, 31. 

TANHU'METH, consolation, 2 Kin. 25:23; 
Jer. 40:8, a Netophathite in the time of 
Gedaliah, B. C. 588. 

TAN'NER, Acts 9:43; 10:6, 32, the trade 
of Simon at Joppa, where there are still 
tanneries on the shore south of the city. 

TAP'ESTRY, cloth for hangings and bed- 
covers, covered with ornamental needle- 
work, Prov. 7:16; 31:22. 

TA'PHATH, a drop, a daughter of Solo- 
mon, 1 Kin. 4:11. 

TAPPU'AH, an apple, I., a city of Judah 
on the slope to the lowland, between En- 
gannim and Enam, Josh. 15:34. Conjec- 
tured to be at Kh. Bir el-Leimun, 17 miles 
west by south from Jerusalem. 

II. En-Tappuah, a town in Ephraim, with 
an adjacent region in Manasseh called " the 
land of Tappuah," Josh. 16:8; 17:8; per- 
haps 'Atuf, 11 miles northeast by east from 
Nablus. 

III. A son of Hebron, of the family of 
Caleb, 1 Chr. 2:43. 

TA'RAH, delay, 26th station of the Isra- 
elites, Num. 33:27; perhaps in wady el- 
Jerafeh, west of the Arabah, where the 
Tawarah Arabs now live. 

TAR'ALAH, reeling, Josh. 18:27, a town 
in Western Benjamin. 

TARES, a noxious plant of the grass fam- 
ily, supposed to mean the darnel, the "in- 
felix lolium " of Virgil, Gr. zizanion, now 
called Siwan or Zowan by the Arabs. It 
grows among the wheat everywhere in Pal- 
estine, and bears a great resemblance to it 
while growing, so much so that before they 
head out the 2 plants can hardly be distin- 
guished. The grains are found 2 or 3 to- 
gether in a dozen small husks scattered on 
a rather long head. The Arabs do not 
separate the darnel from the wheat, unless 



TAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TAR 



by means of a fan or sieve after threshing, 
Matt. 13:25-30. If left to mingle with the 




bread it occasions dizziness, and often acts 
as an emetic. 

TAR'GET, a buckler or shield, 1 Kin. 
10:16; 2 Chr. 9:15; 14:8. In 1 Sam. 17:6, 
A. V., read, rather, spear, as in Josh. 8:18; 
Job 41:29. See Arms. 

TAR'PELITES, colonists from Assyria 
planted in Samaria, Ezra 4:9. 

TAR'SHISH, or THAR'SHISH, subdued, 
I., a son of Javan, Gen. 10:4; 1 Chr. 1:7; 
perhaps the founder of Tartessus. 

II. Gr.-grandson of Benjamin, 1 Chr. 7:10. 

III. A prince of Ahasuerus, Esth. 1:14. 
As a Persian name it is akin to Teresh and 
Tirshatha, strict, Neh.8:9; Esth. 2:21; 6:2. 

IV. Psa. 48:7, probably Tartessus, an 
ancient city between 2 mouths of the Gua- 
dalquiver, in the south of Spain and the 
adjacent region. It was a Phoenician colo- 
ny, and was the most celebrated emporium 
in the West at which the Hebrews and the 
Phoenicians traded. That Tarshish was 
situated in the west is evident from Gen. 
10:4, where it is joined with Elisha, Kittim, 
and Dodanim; see also Psa. 72:10. Ac- 
cording to Ezek. 38:13, it was an impor- 
tant place of trade; according to Jer. 10:9, 
it exported silver, and according to Ezek. 
27:11, 12, 25, silver, iron, tin, and lead to 
the Tyrian markets. They embarked for 
this place from Joppa, Jonah 1:3 ; 4:2. In 
Isa. 23:1, 6, 10 it is evidently represented 
as an important Phoenician colony. It is 
named among other distant states in Isa. 



66:19, and in Psa. 72:10 with "the isles of 
the sea." A mine recently reopened near 
Huelva in Spain has long borne the name 
of Tharsis, and many traces of Phoenician 
occupation in that vicinity are found. All 
these notices agree with Tartessus. In 
Exod.28:2o; 39:13; Song 5: 14; Ezek. 1:16; 
10:9; 28:13; Dan. 10:6, the " beryl" or to- 
paz is tarshish in Hebrew. 

V. In some of these passages, however, 
Tarshish may be used as a general expres- 
sion, applicable to all the distant shores of 
Europe ; and thus the custom may have 
arisen of designating as " ships of Tar- 
shish " any large merchant ships bound on 
long voyages in any direction. The Eng- 
lish term Indiaman is very similarly used. 
Whether the ships fitted out by Solomon at 
Ezion-geber on the Red Sea sailed around 
Africa to Tarshish in Spain, or gave the 
name of Tarshish to some place in India 
or Ethiopia, as the discoverers of America 
called it and its inhabitants India and In- 
dians, cannot now be determined, 1 Kin. 
10:22; 22:48, 49; 2 Chr. 9:21; 20:36; Isa. 
23: 1, 14; 60:9. 

TAR'SUS, winged, the name of a celebra- 
ted city, the metropolis of Cilicia, in the 
southeastern part of Asia Minor, situated 
near the Mediterranean, in a fertile plain 
on the banks of the river Cydnus, which 
flowed through and divided it into 2 parts. 
It was a large city in Xenophon's day. 
Alexander the Great nearly lost his life 
by a fever caught by bathing in the waters 
of the Cydnus, flowing from the cold heights 
of the Taurus range in the rear of the city. 
Tarsus was distinguished for the culture of 
Greek literature and philosophy, so that at 
one time, in its schools and in the number 
of its learned men, it was the rival of Ath- 
ens and Alexandria. In reward for its ex- 
ertions and sacrifices during the civil wars 
of Rome, Tarsus was made a free city by 
Augustus. Such cities were governed by 
their own laws and magistrates, and were 
not subjected to tribute, to the jurisdiction 
of a Roman governor, or to the power of 
a Roman garrison, although they acknowl- 
edged the supremacy of the Roman peo- 
ple, and were bound to aid them against 
their enemies. That the freedom of Tar- 
sus, however, was not equivalent to being 
a Roman citizen appears from this, that 
the tribune, although he knew Paul to be a 
citizen of Tarsus, Acts 21:39, yet ordered 
him to be scourged, 22:24, but desisted 
from his purpose when he learned that 
Paul was a Roman citizen, 22:27. It is 

615 



TAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TEE 



therefore probable that the ancestors of 
Paul had obtained the privilege of Roman 
citizenship in some other way, Acts 9:1, 30; 
11:25; 22:3. It is now called Tarsus, and 
though much decayed and full of ruins, is 
estimated to contain a population in sum- 
mer of 7,000 and in winter of 30,000, chiefly 
Turks. It is now 12 miles from the sea, 
the mouth of the river being extended and 
obstructed by sandy deposits. During the 
excessive heat of summer a large part of 
the people repair to the high lands of the 
interior. 

TAR'TAK, hero of darkness, an idol in- 
troduced by the Avites into Samaria, 2 Kin. 
17:31; worshipped, according to the rab- 
bins, in the form of an ass. Believed to 
be the Accadian idol called Turtak, guar- 
dian of the Tigris. 

TAR'TAN, star-form, probably not the 
name but the official title of an Assyrian 
general sent by Sennacherib, with a chief 
eunuch or cup-bearer, on an embassy to 
Hezekiah, 2 Kin. 18:17; and of another, 
sent by Sargon against Ashdod, Isa. 20:1. 

TAT'NAI, gift, a Persian pasha, who suc- 
ceeded Rehum as governor of Samaria, in 
the time of Darius Hystaspis and Zerub- 
babel. His administration was character- 
ized by great justice and moderation to- 
wards the Jews. He visited Jerusalem to 
investigate the facts, recognized the author- 
ization of the king, and ordered his decree 
to be executed. Ezra 5 and 6, B. C. 519. 

TAX'ES in some form are essential for 
every organized government, to sustain 
both the civil and military administration. 
In the period of the Hebrew wanderings 
the taxes were largely voluntary, though 
the half-shekel atonement-money was re- 
quired, Exod. 30: 13. On the settlement in 
Canaan a regular system of tithes and 
offerings was established, partaking of the 
religious character of the Theocracy, and 
devoted largely to religious uses. See 
Tithes. Under the kings taxation greatly 
increased, including a tithe of the produce 
of the land and stock, 1 Sam. 8:15, 17; 
Amos 7:1, military service, 1 Kin. 9:22; 
1 Chr. 27 : 1, enforced presents, 1 Sam. 
10:27; 16:20; 17:18, duties on imports, 
1 Kin. 10:15, and the monopoly of various 
lines of commerce, 1 Kin. 9:28; 10:28, 29; 
22:48. The severity of the taxation under 
Rehoboam led to the secession of Israel, 
1 Kin. 12:4, 18. The foreign nations which 
at times subdued the Hebrews oppressed 
them with heavy taxes— as the Persians, 
Egyptians, Syrians, and Romans. Comp. 
616 



2 Kin. 15:20; 17:4; 18:14; 2 3'-35', Neh.. 
5:1-11, 14, 15; 9:37. 

TAX'ING, Luke 2 : 1-3, enrolment, as in 
the R. V., or registration. The same Greek 
word is used in Heb. 12:23, "enrolled in 
heaven." Being " of the house and lineage 
of David," Joseph and Mary went to Da- 
vid's city, Bethlehem, to be registered for 
a Roman tax but by Hebrew methods, 
which shows that the tribal laws and rec- 
ords were maintained. This registration 
was by order of Augustus, in the adminis- 
tration of Cyrenius, or Publius Sulpicius 
Quirinius, who is believed to have been 
twice the governor of Syria. According 
to Josephus, Quirinius finished his census- 
A. D. 6 or 7. See Cyrenius. A 2d regis- 
tration is referred to in Gamaliel's speech, 
Acts 5:37, and they were frequent in the 
time of Augustus. 

TEACH, in Matt. 28:19; Acts 14:21, 
"make disciples of" all nations. They 
that are "taught of God," Isa. 54:13, hav- 
ing "learned of the Father," come to 
Christ, John 6:45; and it is a chief duty of 
the believer to impart " to every creature," 
so far as possible," this saving knowledge 
of Christ. There was a class of men, called 
"teachers" in Eph. 4:11, perhaps private 
expounders of Christian doctrines and du- 
ties, occupying the place in the Christian 
Church of the learned Rabbis of the Jew- 
ish Church, Rom. 12:7. 

TEARS. Small urns or lachrymatories of 
thin glass or simple pottery, and supposed 
to contain the tears of mourners at funer- 
als, used to be placed in the sepulchres of 
the dead, where they are found in great 
numbers on opening ancient tombs. This 
custom may perhaps illustrate Psa. 56:8, 
which shows that God is ever mindful of 
the sorrows of his people; though many 
think these vases were receptacles for per- 
fumes or for flowers, not for tears. In Rev. 
7: 17 God is represented as tenderly wiping 
all tears from their eyes, or removing for 
ever all their griefs, especially death, one 
of the chief sources of sorrow, Isa. 25:8; 
Jer. 22:10; 31:15, 16, and the bitterness of 
repentance, Joel 2:12; Matt. 26:75. In an- 
cient times public weeping at funerals and 
in national calamities was more frequent 
than now, Num. 14:1; Eccl. 12:5. 

TE'BETH, winter, Esth. 2:16, the 10th 
month of the Hebrew sacred year, com- 
mencing with the new moon in January or 
late in December. The 8th, 9th, and 10th 
were fast days. 

TEETH. The Scripture references to. 



TEH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TEM 



"gnashing the teeth," as expressing rage 
and anguish, Matt. 8: 12; 24:51; Luke 13.28, 
to "cleanness of teeth" through starva- 
tion, Amos 4:6, and to being deprived of a 
tooth for having caused the loss of a tooth 
to another, Lev. 24:20, are readily under- 
stood; also the close connection between 
parents and children in guilt and punish- 
ment quaintly expressed in Ezek. 18:2-13. 
TEHAPH'NEHES, Ezek. 30: 18. See Ta- 

HAPANES. 

TEHIN'NAH, supplication, a Judahite, 
probably a kinsman of David and founder 
of the " city of Nahash," 1 Chr. 412. 

TEIL'-TREE, Isa. 6: 13, A. V., Heb. Elah, 
translated " elm " in Hos. 4: 13, and usually 
"oak," and meaning the terebinth. See 
Oak. The turpentine-tree, Pistachia tere- 
binthus, Arabic " butm," is now found in 
the warmer parts of Palestine, often stand- 
ing solitary in ravines, 20 feet high and up- 
wards. It is not an evergreen ; its leaves 
are lanceolate, of a dark reddish green, 
and it yields from the trunk a small quan- 
tity of pure turpentine. 

TE'KEL, weighed, Dan. 5 : 25. See Mene. 

TEKO'A, or TEKO'AH, a stockade, a city 
of Judah, founded by Ashur, 1 Chr. 2 : 24 ; 
4:5, and fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:6. 
It was the home of the wise woman whom 
Joab hired to intercede for Absalom, 2 Sam. 
14:2, of Ira, one of David's valiant men, 
2 Sam. 23:26, and also of Amos the proph- 
et, Amos 1:1. It is mentioned as a signal- 
post, Jer. 6:1, and as aiding to rebuild the 
temple at Jerusalem, Neh. 3:5, 27. It was 
inhabited by Christians in the time of the 
Crusades. It is found in the modern Te- 
ku'a, 9% miles northeast of Hebron, with 
extensive ruins on the broad top of a hill. 
Near by on the northeast is a large laby- 
rinthine cavern called Khureitun, able to 
shelter and conceal hundreds. 

TEL-A'BIB, hill of grass, a place on the 
river Chebar in Middle Mesopotamia, where 
a colony of captive Jews was located, Ezek. 

TELA'IM, lambs, 1 Sam. 15:4, the mar- 
shalling-place of Saul's forces before his 
war with Amalek. See Telem. 

TELAS'SAR, Assyrian hill f 2 Kin. 19:12; 
Isa. 37:12, a place won from the "children 
of Eden " by the Assyrians ; comp. Ezek. 
27:23 ; in the hill country north of Mesopo- 
tamia. 

TE'LEM, oppression, I., a town on the 
far south border of Judah, towards Edom, 
Josh. 15:24, possibly Telaim. 

II. A temple doorkeeper, Ezra 10:24. 



TEL-HAR'SA, Ezra 2:59, or TEL-HAR'- 
ESHA, Neh. 7:61 ; R. V., Tel-har'sha, hill 
of the wood, and TEL-ME'LAH, salt-hill, 
Babylonian towns from which Jews re- 
turned after the Captivity; perhaps in the 
low salt land near the Persian Gulf. 

TELL, in the A. V., Gen. 15:5; 2 Kin. 
12:10; Psa. 22:17, to count. See Tale. 

TE'MA, a desert, I., the 9th son of Ish- 
mael, Gen. 25:15; 1 Chr. 1:30. 

II. Descendants of the above, and their 
home in Northern Arabia, famous for its 
caravans, Job 6:19, associated with Dedan, 
Isa. 21:13, 14; Jer. 25:23. It is traced in 
the modern town Teima', on the Haj route 
south of Damascus. 

TE'MAN, the right ox south. I. The first 
son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau, Gen. 
36:11, a duke of Edom. 

II. The country settled by his posterity, 
Gen. 36:34, a stronghold of Idumsean pow- 
er, Ezek. 25:13; associated with Bozrah, 
Amos 1:12, on the south or southeast side 
of Edom, north or northeast of the Gulf of 
Akaba. The Temanites were bold and 
wise, Job 2:11; 22:1; Jer. 49:7, 20; Obad. 
8,9. 

TEM'PERATE, in Tit. 2:2 discreet; in 
other passages self-restrained, under self- 
control, Acts 24:25, 1 Cor. 7:9; 9:25; Gal. 
5:23; Tit. 1:8; 2 Pet. 1:6. In the Bible 
sense, the temperate man holds all his ap- 
petites and passions in subjection to con- 
science and God's Word, so that he can 
and does deny himself any indulgence 
which they forbid. This virtue is divinely 
enjoined, Prov. 23:1-3; Luke 21:34; Phil. 
4:5, is conducive to health of body and 
mind, and is a safeguard against many 
evils from without. 

TEM'PLE, a building hallowed by the 
special presence of God and consecrated 
to his worship. In Hebrew it is called 
" the palace of Jehovah," "the sanctuary," 
and "the house of God." In Greek, lepov 
is a general term, including all the sacred 
grounds, John 10:23; Acts 5:20, and vaog 
denotes the sanctuary itself, surrounded 
by other sacred precincts, Matt. 23 : 35 ; 
Luke 11:51. The distinctive idea of a tem- 
ple, contrasted with all other buildings, is 
that it is the dwelling-place of a deity ; and 
every heathen temple had its idol, but the 
true and living God dwelt "between the 
cherubim " in the Holy of Holies at Jeru- 
salem. Hence, figuratively applied, a tem- 
ple denotes the church of Christ, 2 Thess. 
2:4; Rev. 3:12; heaven, Psa. 11:4; Rev. 
7: 15 ; and the soul of the believer, in which 

617 



TEM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TEM 



the Holy Spirit dwells, i Cor. 3:16, 17; 
6:19, 2 Cor. 6:16. 

After the Israelites were settled in the 
promised land and the Lord had instructed 
David that Jerusalem was the place he had 
chosen in which to fix his dwelling, that 
pious prince began to realize his design of 
preparing a temple for the Lord that might 
be something appropriate to His divine 
majesty. But the honor was reserved for 
Solomon his son and successor, who was 
to be a peaceful prince, and not like David, 
who had shed much blood in war, 2 Sam. 
7:1-13; 1 Chr. 17:1-12; 28:2-10; 29:1-9. 
David, however, applied himself to collect 
great quantities of gold, silver, brass, iron, 
and other materials for this undertaking, 
1 Kin. 5; 1 Chr. 22; 29. The value of the 
gold and silver thus provided was more 
than $2,000,000,000. The erection of the 
temple was commenced 4 years after his 
death, 1 Kin. 6:1. 

The place chosen for erecting this mag- 
nificent structure was Mount Moriah, Gen. 
22:2, 14, the threshing-floor of Araunah the 
Jebusite, 2 Sam. 24:18-25; 1 Chr. 21:18-30; 
22:1; 2 Chr. 3:1. It occupied a central po- 
sition, on the boundary line between Judah 
and Benjamin, representing the southern 
and northern tribes. The summit origi- 
nally was unequal and its sides irregular ; 
but it was a favorite object of the Jews to 
level and extend it. The plan and the 
whole model of this structure were laid by 
the same divine architect who planned the 
tabernacle, namely, God himself, 1 Chr. 
28:11, 12, 19; and it was built much in the 
same form as the tabernacle, but was of 
double dimensions. The utensils for the 
sacred service were also the same as those 
used in the tabernacle, only several of 
them were larger, in proportion to the more 
spacious edifice to which they belonged. 
The foundations of this magnificent edifice 
were laid by Solomon in the year B. C. 
1011, about 480 years after the exodus and 
the building of the tabernacle ; and it was 
finished B. C. 1004, having occupied 7 years 
and 6 months in the building. Besides the 
30,000 Hebrews employed, Solomon en- 
gaged the services of 153,000 people of 
Lebanon, subjects of Hiram king of Tyre, 
who brought immense quantities of timber 
and hewn stone, 1 Kin. 5; 6; 7, and re- 
ceived in return liberal supplies of wheat 
and a cession of territory. See Cabul. It 
was dedicated with peculiar solemnity to 
the worship of Jehovah, who condescended 
to make it the place for the special mani- 
618 



festation of his glory, 2 Chr. 5-7. The 
front or entrance to the temple was on the 
eastern side, and consequently facing the 
Mount of Olives, which commanded a no- 
ble prospect of the building, Matt. 21:1. 
The temple itself, strictly so called, which 
comprised the Porch, the Sanctuary, and 
the Holy of Holies, formed only a small 
part of the sacred precincts, being sur- 
rounded by spacious courts, chambers, and 
other apartments, which were much more 
extensive than the temple itself. These 
"many mansions" illustrate our Saviour's 
words about heaven in John 14:2. It should 
be observed that the word temple does not 
always denote the central edifice itself, but 
in many passages some of the outer courts 
are intended. 

The following account may give a gen- 
eral idea of the building: 

The Temple itself was 70 cubits long: 
the Porch being 10 cubits, 1 Kin. 6:3, the 
Holy Place 40 cubits, ver. 17, and the Most 
Holy Place, 20 cubits, 2 Chr. 3:8. The 
width of the Porch, Holy, and Most Holy 
Places was 20 cubits, 2 Chr. 3:3, and the 
height over the Holy and Most Holy Places 
was 30 cubits, 1 Kin. 6:2 ; but the height of 
the porch was much greater, being no less 
than 120 cubits, 2 Chr. 3:4, or 4 times the 
height of the rest of the building, unless 
there is here an error in transcription. The 
oracle or Most Holy Place was separated 
from the Sanctuary by an impervious veil, 
Luke 23:45, and was wholly dark, 1 Kin. 
8:12, but for the glory of the Lord which 
filled it. It contained only the Ark of the 
Covenant, which see. To the north and 
south sides and the west end of the Holy 
and Most Holy Places, or all around the 
edifice, from the back of the porch on one 
side to the back of the .porch on the other 
side, certain buildings were attached. 
These were called side chambers, and con- 
sisted of 3 stories, each 5 cubits high, 1 Kin: 
6:10, and joined to the wall of the temple 
without. The material was white stone; 
the wood-work of cedar, overlaid with fine 
gold ; the floor of cedar, with planks of fir, 

1 Kin. 6:15. 

Solomon's temple appears to have been 
surrounded by 2 main courts: the inner 
court, that "of the Priests," 1 Kin. 6:36; 

2 Chr. 4:9; and the outer court, that "of 
Israel;" these were separated by a middle 
wall of partition, with lodges for priests 
and Levites, for wood, oil, etc., 1 Chr. 28: 12. 

The ensuing description is applicable to 
the temple courts in the time of our Lord : 



TEM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TEM 



The whole temple area was largely built 
up from a great depth by walls and but- 
tresses, and filled in to make a large level 
area, around a central prominence of na- 
tive rock; and the whole was inclosed by 
massive walls about 900 feet long and 600 
from east to west. The bed of the Kidron 
was then 40 feet below its present level and 
much nearer the temple walls; and from 
the pinnacle of the temple surmounting 
these walls at the southeast corner to the 
bed of the valley must have been a descent 
of 250 feet. 

The " Court of the Gentiles " was so called 
because it might be entered by persons of 
all nations. The chief entrance to it was 
by the east or Shushan gate, which was the 
principal gate of the temple. It was the 
exterior court and by far the largest of all 
the courts belonging to the temple, and is 
said to have covered a space of more than 
14 acres. It entirely surrounded the other 
courts and the temple itself; and in going 
up to the temple from its east or outer gate 
one would cross first this court, then the 
Court of the Women, then that of Israel, 
and lastly that of the Priests. The "Court 
of the Gentiles " had a beautiful pavement 
of variegated marble, and was surrounded 
on all 4 of its sides by double cloisters or 
porticos 15 cubits wide, with Corinthian 
columns of marble nearly 6 feet in diame- 
ter supporting a platform or gallery. These 
"porches" on the east, west, and north 
sides were of the same dimensions. That 
on the east was called " Solomon's Porch," 
John 10:23; Acts 3:11; that on the south, 
called "the Royal Porch," was triple, the 
middle aisle being 45 feet wide and the 
other two 30 feet each. From this Court of 
the Gentiles our Saviour drove the men 
who had established a cattle-market in it 
for the supply of sacrificial animals and 
tax-money to those who came from a dis- 
tance, Matt. 21:12, 13. It was separated 
from the next interior court, the " Court 
of the Women," by a wall of lattice-work 
3 cubits high, having inscriptions on its 
pillars forbidding Gentiles and unclean 
persons to pass beyond it on pain of death. 
It extended along the east side only of the 
next interior court, "the Court of Israel," 
and is named in Scripture " the new court," 
2 Chr. 20:5, and the "outer court," Ezek. 
46:21. It was called the court of the wo- 
men because it was their appointed place 
of worship, beyond which they might not 
go, unless when they brought a sacrifice, in 
which case they went forward to the court 



of Israel. The gate which led into this 
court from that of the Gentiles was " the 
Beautiful gate " of the temple, mentioned 
in Acts 3:2, 10; so called because the fold- 
ing-doors, lintel, and side-posts were all 
overlaid with Corinthian brass. The wor- 
shipper ascended to its level by a broad 
flight of steps. It was in this court of the 
women, called the "treasury," that our Sa- 
viour delivered his striking discourse to the 
Jews, related in John 8:1-20. It was into 
this court also that the Pharisee and the 
publican went to pray, Luke 18:10-13, and 
hither the lame man followed Peter and 
John after he was cured — the court of the 
women being the ordinary place of worship 
for those who brought no sacrifice, Acts 
3:8. From thence, after prayers, he went 
back with them through the " Beautiful 
gate " of the temple where he had been 
lying, and through the sacred fence, into 
the Court of the Gentiles, where, under the 
eastern piazza, or Solomon's Porch, Peter 
preached Christ crucified. It was in the 
same court of the women that the Jews laid 
hold of Paul when they judged him a vio- 
later of the temple by taking Gentiles 
within the sacred fence, Acts 21:26-29. 

The " Court of Israel " was separated 
from the court of the women by a wall 32^ 
cubits high on the outside, but on the in- 
side only 25. The reason of this differ- 
ence was that as the rock on which the 
temple stood became higher on advancing 
westward, the several courts naturally be- 
came elevated in proportion. The ascent 
into this court from the east was by a flight 
of 15 steps of a semicircular form and the 
magnificent gate Nicanor. On these steps 
the Levites stood in singing the 15 " songs 
of degrees," Psa. 120-134. The whole length 
of the court from east to west was 187 cu- 
bits, and the breadth from north to south 
135 cubits. In this court and the piazza 
which surrounded it the Israelites stood in 
solemn and reverent silence while their 
sacrifices were burning in the inner court 
and while the services of the sanctuary 
were performed, Luke 1:8-11, 21, 22. 

Within this court and surrounded by it 
was the "Court of the Priests," 165 cubits 
long and 119 cubits wide, and raised 2^2 
cubits above the surrounding court, from 
which it was separated by pillars and a 
railing. Within this court stood the bra- 
zen altar on which the sacrifices were con- 
sumed, the molten sea in which the priests 
washed, and the 10 brazen lavers for wash- 
ing the sacrifices ; also the various utensils 

619 



TEM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TEM 



and instruments for sacrificing, which are 
enumerated in 2 Chr. 4. It is necessary to 
observe here that although the Court of 



the Priests was not accessible to all Israel- 
ites, as that of Israel was to all the priests,, 
yet they might enter it for 3 several pur- 




PLAN OF THE TEMPLE IN THE TIME OF CHRIST. 



A. The Holy of Holies. 

B. The Holy Place. 

C. The Altar of Burnt-offerings. 

D. The Brazen Laver. 

E. The Court of the Priests. 

F. The Court of Israel. 

G. The Gate Nicanor. 

H. The Court of the Women. 

poses: to lay their hands on the animals 
which they offered, or to kill them, or to 
wave some part of them. 

From the Court of the Priests the ascent 
to the temple was by a flight of 12 steps, 
each half a cubit in height, which led into 
the sacred porch. Of the dimensions of 
this in Solomon's temple, as also of the 
Sanctuary and Holy of Holies, we have 
already spoken. It was within the door of 
the porch, and in the sight of those who 
stood in the courts immediately before it, 
620 



I. The Gate Beautiful. 

J. The Court of the Gentiles. 

K. The Eastern or Shushan Gate. 

L. Solomon's Porch, or Colonnade. 

M. The Royal Porch. 

N. The outer Wall. 

O. Apartments for various uses. 



that the 2 pillars, Jachin and Boaz, were 
placed, 2 Chr. 3:17; Ezek. 40:49. 

The temple of Solomon retained its pris- 
tine splendor but 33 years, when it was 
plundered by Shishak king of Egypt, 1 Kin. 
14:25, 26; 2 Chr. 12:9. After this period it 
underwent sundry profanations and pilla- 
ges from Hazael, Tiglath-pileser, Sennach- 
erib, etc., 2 Kin. 12; 14; 16; 18; 24; and 
was at length utterly destroyed by Neb- 
uchadnezzar king of Babylon, B. C. 588, 
after having stood, according to Usher, 



TEM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TEM 



424 years, 3 months, and 8 days, 2 Kin. 

25:9-17- = 

After lying in ruins for 52 years, the 
foundations of the 2d temple were laid by 
Zerubbabel and the Jews who had availed 
themselves of the privilege granted by Cy- 
rus and returned to Jerusalem, Ezra 1 : 1- 
4; 2:1; 3:8-10. After various hindrances, 
through the malice of the Samaritans, who 
obtained a decree from Babylon forbidding 
the work, it was resumed B. C. 520, and 
was finished and dedicated 21 years after 
it was begun, B. C. 515, Ezra 6: 15, 16. The 
dimensions of this temple in breadth and 
height were double those of Solomon's. 
The weeping of the people at the laying of 
the foundation, therefore, Ezra 3 : 12, 13, 
and the disparaging manner in which they 



spoke of it when compared with the first 
one, Hag. 2:3, were occasioned by its infe- 
riority, not in size, but in glory. It wanted 
the 5 principal things which could invest 
it with this : namely, the ark and mercy- 
seat, the divine presence or visible glory, 
the holy fire on the altar, the Urim and 
Thummim, and the Spirit of prophecy. In 
the year B. C. 168 this temple was plun- 
dered and profaned by Antiochus Epipha- 
nes, who ordered the discontinuance of the 
daily sacrifice, offered swine's flesh upon 
the altar, and completely suspended the 
worship of Jehovah, 1 Mac. 1:46, 47, etc. 
Thus it continued for 3 years, when it was 
repaired and purified by Judas Maccabaeus, 
who restored the divine worship and dedi- 
cated it anew. Still later, Pompey as- 




SIDE VIEW OF THE TEMPLE, IN PART AFTER DR. BARCLAY. 

In this profile view of the Temple and its precincts from the south, n n is the outer southern wall 
of the temple area ; a is a part of the royal buildings on Mount Zion ; b is the Tyropceon bridge, con- 
necting Zion with the south portico of the temple ; o and p are gates leading subterraneously to the 
area above ; q is a gate to the substructions ; / is the tower Ophel ; and m is the Red-heifer bridge 
over the Kidron. 

Within, towards the north, is shown a section of the temple area; c representing the western 
cloister; d the hil or sacred fence; e the high wall in the rear of the temple; f the Holy House; 
g the great Altar of Burnt-offerings ; h a covered colonnade in the Court of the Priests ; i the Gate 
Nicanor in front of the Court of Israel ; j the Gate Beautiful in front of the Court of the Women ; and 
k the Eastern Cloister, or Solomon's Porch. 



saulted the temple and entered the Holy 
of Holies. 

Herod, having slain all the Sanhedrin 
except two, in the first year of his reign, 
B. C. 37, and having a taste for architec- 
ture, resolved to seek the favor of the Jews 
by rebuilding and beautifying the temple. 
This he was the more inclined to do both 
from the peace which he enjoyed and the 
decayed state of the edifice. After employ- 
ing 2 years in preparing the materials for 
the work, the temple of Zerubbabel was 
pulled down, B. C. 20, and 46 years before 
the first Passover of Christ's ministry. Al- 
though this temple was fit for divine ser- 
vice in g% years, yet a great number of 
laborers and artificers were still employed 
in carrying on the outbuildings all the 
time of our Saviour's abode on earth. His 



presence fulfilled the predictions in Hag. 
2:9; Mai. 3:1. The temple of Herod was 
considerably larger than that of Zerubba- 
bel, as that of Zerubbabel was larger than 
Solomon's. For whereas the 2d temple 
was 70 cubits long, 60 broad, and 60 high, 
this was 100 cubits long, 70 broad, and 100 
high. The porch was raised to the height 
of 100 cubits, and was extended 15 cubits 
beyond each side of the rest of the build- 
ing. All the Jewish writers praise this 
temple exceedingly for its beauty and the 
costliness of its workmanship. It was built 
of white marble, exquisitely wrought, and 
with stones of large dimensions, some of 
them 25 cubits long, 8 cubits high, and 12 
cubits thick. To these there is no doubt a 
reference in Mark 13:1 ; Luke 21:5: "And 
as he went out of the temple, one of his 

621 



TEM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TEM 



disciples saith unto him, Master, see what 
manner of stones and what buildings are 
here!" Luke says, "goodly stones.'' See 
a description of the ornaments of one of 
its gates under Vine. 

This splendid building, which rose like 
a mount of gold and of snow, and was once 
the admiration and envy of the world, has 
for ever passed away. According to our 
blessed Lord's prediction, that "there 
should not be left one stone upon another 
that should not be thrown down," Mark 
13:2, the whole structure above ground 
was completely demolished by the Roman 
soldiers under Titus, A. D. 70. The sacred 
utensils and many of the captives were 
carried to Rome and graced his triumphal 
procession, and the golden table for show- 
bread, the sacred candlestick, and the book 
of the law are still to be traced in bold re- 
lief on the Arch of Titus in that ancient 
city. The emperor Julian undertook to 
rebuild the temple, A. D. 363, but was re- 
pulsed, we are told, by repeated and ter- 
rific explosions and outbursts of flames. 
The temple area is now Occupied by two 
Turkish mosques, into which, until recent- 
ly, neither Jew nor Christian was permit- 
ted to enter. The Mosque of Omar prob- 
ably occupies the very site of the Holy 
House, and its great and venerated rock 
is supposed to have once supported the 
altar of burnt-offerings. Travellers are 
now admitted at times to the Haram area 
under close watch. It includes the former 
site of the Castle of Antonia, which occu- 
pied the whole northern end and had a tur- 
ret at each of its 4 corners. The area is 
now 922 feet at its south side, and averages 
1,540 feet from north to south. On the west 
side there were 4 gates: Sur, 2 Kin. 11:6, 
Parbar, 1 Chr. 26:18, the 2 gates of Asup- 
pim, 1 Chr. 26: 17, with the " house of Asup- 
pim " between them. On the north was 
one gate named Tedi, on the east Shushan, 
on the south the double gate Huldah. In 
the foundation wall on the west side, 39 
feet from the southwest corner, certain 
huge stones mark the beginning of an arch 
of 45 feet span, one of 7 arches and piers 
once supporting a stately viaduct over the 
Tyropceon valley, leading from the 1st gate 
of the temple area to the king's palace on 
Zion. It was first built by Solomon, 1 Kin. 
10:5; 2 Chr. 9:4. A little north of this is 
the celebrated wailing-place of the Jews. 
See Wall. 

At the southeast corner of the area the 
wall is now jj feet high. Recent excava- 
622 



tions and shafts on the outside have reach- 
ed the native rock at a depth of 80 feet 
from the surface and uncovered the an- 
cient foundation stones, as finely cut and 
polished as the stones now above ground. 
Similar explorations 90 feet east of the 
southwest corner reached the well-worn 
pavement of an ancient street at the depth 
of 12 feet, and at 80 feet depth an aque- 
duct 4 feet high, running south, and appa- 
rently marking the former bed of the Tyro- 
pceon. Among recent discoveries of great 
interest is a stone tablet found by Ganneau, 
apparently once a part of the balustrade 
between the court of" the Gentiles and that 
of the Israelites, with an inscription for- 
bidding foreigners to pass it, Acts 21:28, 
29; Eph. 2:14. Beneath the vast area of 
el-Haram still exist immense arched ways 
and vaults of unknown date ; also a large 
and deep well, and other indications that 
the temple always possessed a copious and 
perennial supply of water, derived perhaps 
in part from Gihon by Hezekiah's aque- 
duct and in part from Solomon's pools, and 




REMAINS OF THE TYROPCEON ARCH. 

flowing off through the fountain of the Vir- 
gin and the pool of Siloam. 

In the time, of the kings a regular guard 
of Levites was always on duty at the tem- 
ple, 1 Chr. 26; 2 Chr. 23:19. During the 
supremacy of the Romans there was a Ro- 
man garrison in the strong tower of Anto- 
nia, which was connected with the temple 
by passages both above and under ground, 
John 18:12; Acts 4:1; 5:26; 21:31-40. 

The utmost veneration and love were 
alwa3 r s cherished towards the temple by 
pious Jews, Psa. 84. All the people also, 
from various motives, gloried in it, many 



TEM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TEN 



with a bigoted and idolatrous regard. 
Hence the charge of blaspheming the tem- 
ple, which was found the most effectual 
means of enraging the populace against 
Christ and his followers, Matt. 26 : 61 ; 27 : 40 ; 
John 2:19,20; Acts 6:13; 21:27-30. 

TEMPT, sometimes simply to try or put 
to the test, Acts 20:19; 1 Cor. 10:13; Heb. 
3:9; 2 Pet. 2:9, as God proved Abraham, 
Gen. 22:1, to exhibit the power of faith, 
and as he tested the children of Israel, 
Exod. 16:4, and as the queen of Sheba tried 
the wisdom of Solomon, 1 Kin. 10:1 ; 2 Chr. 
9:1. In other passages it has the more 
familiar sense of presenting inducements 
to sin. Satan is the great tempter, seek- 
ing thus most effectually to destroy men's 
souls, 1 Chr. 2t : 1 ; Job 1 and 2; Matt. 4:1, 
3; 1 Cor. 7:5; 1 Thess. 3:5, and hence is 
called "the old serpent," his temptation of 
our first parents being a type of subsequent 
assaults, Gen. 3:1-15; John 8:44; 2 Cor. 
11:3; 1 John 3:8; Rev. 12:9. He tempted 
Ananias and Sapphira, Acts 5:3. Men are 
also led into sin by their own evil inclina- 
tions and by other men, Jas. 1 : 14, 15. God 
being holy and desirous of men's holiness, 
does not thus tempt them, Jas. 1:13; but 
he makes trial of them to prove, exercise, 
and establish their graces, Gen. 22:1 ; Jas. 
1:2, 3. Christ stands ready to support 
his people under any possible temptation, 
1 Cor. 10:13; Heb. 2:18; 4:15; 2 Pet. 2:19. 
Yet they are not to rush into temptation 
unbidden, Luke 11:4. Men tempt God by 
presumptuously experimenting on his prov- 
idence or his grace, or by distrusting him, 
Exod. 17:2, 7; Num. 14:22; Psa. 78:18, 41, 
56; Isa. 7:12; Matt. 4:7; Luke 10:25; Acts 
5:9; 15:10. The Jews tempted Christ, ho- 
ping to ensnare him into some error or sin, 
Matt. 16:1; 19:3; 22:18. Sore afflictions 
are often called temptations or trials, as 
they are frequently the occasions of sin, 
Deut. 4:34; Matt. 6:13; Luke 8:13; 22:28; 
Jas. 1:12; 1 Pet. 1:6, 7. 

Christ, at the outset of his public minis- 
try, was violently assailed by the tempter, 
who thus displayed his effrontery and his 
blindness, hoping perhaps that the human 
soul of the Redeemer would be left unaided 
by his divinity, Matt. 4; Mark 1:12, 13. 
The temptations are to be understood as 
real transactions, and not as visions. The 
first was addresed to hunger, a pressing 
natural human want. Christ quotes the 
words of Moses in Deut. 8:3; and the les- 
son is, to remember our dependence on 
God for all things, and to obey him and 



trust him for the results. At the 2d Christ 
stood on the brink of the lofty colonnade 
at the southeast corner of the temple wall, 
overlooking the deep valley of the Kidron. 
He was urged to prove his claims by pre- 
sumptuously forcing God to work a mira- 
cle, and answered by quoting Deut. 6:16. 
At the 3d he stood on some lofty mountain, 
the wide view before him being perhaps 
enhanced by optical illusions and showing 
to the mind's eye the world's glory, and 
was offered an easy way to remove the 
world's opposition and transfer to himself 
the dominion of mankind. His reply was 
that Jehovah only is the rightful object of 
adoration. The tempter was baffled, and 
left him for a season, to meet a like rebuff 
on every future assault, Luke 4 : 1-13 ; 
22:53; J onn !4 : 3 - The Saviour triumphed 
and paradise was regained. 

TEN. See Numbers and Tithes. 

TEN COMMAND'MENTS. See DECA- 
LOGUE. 

TENT. Dwelling in tents was very gen- 
eral in ancient times among Eastern na- 
tions, Gen. 4:20; their way of life being 
pastoral, locomotion became necessary for 
fresh pasturage, and dwellings adapted for 
such a life became indispensable, Gen. 
26:12; Isa. 38: 12. The patriarchs Abraham, 
Isaac, and Jacob dwelt in tents, Gen. 18:1 ; 
Heb. 11:9; and on the exodus of the Isra- 
elites from Egypt, throughout their pere- 
grinations until they obtained the promised 
land, and to some extent afterwards, they 
adopted the same kind of habitation, Exod. 
16:6; Josh. 7:24; 22:8. Hence the expres- 
sion, "Every man to his tents, O Israel," 
etc.,Judg. 7:8; 2 Sam. 20:1, 22; 1 Kin. 12:16. 
Indeed, the people of the East, men, wo- 
men, and children, lived very much in the 
open air, as is obvious from the New Tes- 
tament narratives. Paul and Aquila were 
tent-makers, Acts 18:3. And the same is 
true at the present day. The Midianites, 
the Philistines, the Syrians, the descend- 
ants of Ham, the Hagarites, and the Cush- 
anites are mentioned in Scripture as living 
in tents. But the people most remarkable 
for this unsettled and wandering mode of 
life are the Arabs, who from the time of 
Ishmael to the present have continued the 
custom of dwelling in tents. Amid the 
revolutions which have transferred king- 
doms from one possessor to another these 
wandering tribes still dwell in tents, un- 
subdued and wild as was their progenitor. 
This kind of dwelling is not, however, con- 
fined to the Arabs, but is used throughout 

623 



TEN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TER 



the continent of Asia. Tents are distin- 
guished from huts or booths, Gen. 33:17; 
Job 29:18; Isa. 1:8; 24:20. See Booth 
and Hazerim. The word tent is formed 
from the Latin, "to stretch," tents being 



usually made of canvas, goats' hair, or 
camels' hair cloth, stretched out and sus- 
tained by poles with cords secured to pegs 
driven into the ground, Isa. 54 : 2 ; Jer. 
10:20. The " nail of the tent" with which 




ARABS PITCHING A TENT. 



Jael pierced the head of Sisera was such a 
tent-pin, Judg. 4:21. See also Isa. 33:20; 
40:22. The house of God and heaven are 
spoken of in Scripture as the tent or tab- 
ernacle of Jehovah, Psa. 15:1; 61:4; 84:1; 
Isa. 40:22; Heb. 8:2; 9:11; and the body 
as the tabernacle of the soul, taken down 
by death, 2 Cor. 5:1; 2 Pet. 1:13, 14. Says 
Lord Lindsay, "There is something very 
melancholy in our morning Sittings. The 
tent-pins are plucked up, and in a few 
minutes a dozen holes, a heap or two of 
ashes, and the marks of the camels' knees 
in the sand, soon to be obliterated, are the 
only traces left of what has been for a 
while our home," Isa. 38:12. "Often," says 
M'Cheyne, "we found ourselves shelter- 
less before being fully dressed. What a 
type of the tent of our body! Ah, how 
often is it taken down before the soul is 
made meet for the inheritance of the saints 
in light." A tent is also put for its inmates, 
Hab. y.'j) Zech. 12:7. 

Tents are of various colors : black, as 
the tents of Kedar, Psa. 120:5; Song 1:5; 
red, as of scarlet cloth ; yellow, as of gold 
shining brilliantly; white, as of canvas. 
They are also of various shapes ; some cir- 
cular, others of an oblong figure, not un- 
like the bottom of a ship turned upside 
down. In Syria the tents are now gener- 
624 



ally made of cloth of goats' hair, woven by 
women, Exod. 35:26. Those of the Arabs 
are of black goats' hair. Some other na- 
tions adopt the same kind, but it is not 
common. An Arab sheikh will have a 
number of tents, for himself, his family, 
servants, and visitors, as in patriarchal 
times Jacob had separate tents for himself, 
for Leah, Rachel, and their maids, Gen. 
24:67; 31:33; Judg. 4:17. Usually, how- 
ever, one tent suffices for a family ; being 
divided, if large, into several apartments 
by curtains. The portion intended for fe- 
males is called the harem. Some tents are 
so built as to house a flock at night. 

TENTH-DEAL, that is, tenth part, corre- 
sponding to the Hebrew assaron, or the 
loth part of an ephah. It would thus be 
the same as the omer, about 5 pints, Exod. 
29:40; Lev. 14:10; 23:17; Num. 15; 28; 29. 
See Measure. 

TE'RAH, a station, the son of Nahor and 
father of Haran, Nahor, and Abraham, 
Gen. 11:24-32, and ancestor of the Israel- 
ites, Ishmaelites, Midianites, Moabites, and 
Ammonites. He begat Abraham at the 
age of 130 years, in Ur of the Chaldaeans. 
Upon Abraham's first call to remove into 
the land of promise, Terah and all his fam- 
ily went with him as far as Haran in Meso- 
potamia, about B. C. 1918, Gen. 11:31, 32. 



TER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TET 



He died there the same year, aged 205 
years. Scripture intimates that Terah had 
fallen into idolatry, or had for a time min- 
gled some idolatrous practices with the 
worship of the true God, Josh. 24:2, 14; 
comp. Gen. 31:30; and some think that 
Abraham himself at first did the same 
thing; but that afterwards God, being gra- 
cious to him, convinced him of the vanity 
of this worship, and that he undeceived 
his father Terah. 




TER'APHIM or TERA'PHIM, nourishers, 
Judg. 17:5; 18:14-20, translated "idolatry" 
and "idols" in 1 Sam. 15:23; Zech. 10:2, 
and " images " in Gen. 31 : 19, 30-35 ; 1 Sam. 
19:13-16; 2 Kin. 23:24; Ezek. 21:21, and 
apparently the " strange gods " which Ja- 
cob buried under the oak at Shechem, Gen. 
35:2-4. Rachel's images and those of Mi- 
cah seem to have been small household 
divinities or talismans ; one was found in 
David's family resembling the human form 
or bust in shape and size, 1 Sam. 19:13-16; 
and in Hos. 3:4, 5 teraphim are spoken of 
as even accessory to the worship of God, 
like the Urim and Thummim : an illustra- 
tion, among many in Hebrew history, of 
the great difficulty of maintaining in the 
midst of idolaters a pure and spiritual 
worship. 

TE'RESH, strictness, one of the 2 eu- 
nuchs, doorkeepers of Ahasuerus, whose 
plot to murder him was discovered by 
Mordecai, and they were hanged, Esth. 
2:21 ; 6:2. 

TER'RACE, 2 Chr. 9:11, a staircase of 
algum-wood in Solomon's palace ; in many 
other passages the Heb. word is transla- 
ted "highway," Num. 20:19; Judg. 20:31; 
1 Sam. 6:12; Isa. 7:3. 

TER'TIUS, third, a Christian whom Paul 
at Corinth employed as his amanuensis in 
writing the Epistle to the Romans, Rom. 
40 



16:22. He sends a personal greeting, ver. 
23, and was probably a Roman. 

TERTUL'LUS, third, a Roman orator or 
advocate, whom the high-priest and San- 
hedrin employed to bring forward their 
accusation against Paul, before the Roman 
procurator at Caesarea, probably because 
they were themselves unacquainted with 
the language and modes of proceeding in 
the Roman courts, Acts 24:1, 2. His ora- 
tion began with falsehood and flattery ; we 
probably have only an abstract of it. 

TES'TAMENT, in common usage a man's 
last will, but in the New Testament the 
Greek diatheke, answering to the Hebrew 
berith, denotes a covenant, Exod. 2:24; 
24:8; Heb. 7:22; 9:15-20; Rev. 11:19. It 
is often used with the epithet " new," Matt. 
26:28, to distinguish it from the former cov- 
enant, Gal. 4:24, made with Abraham and 
his believing seed, Gen. 15:1-18; 17:1-19; 
Luke 1 : 72, 73 ; Acts 3 : 25 ; 7:8, and renewed 
under Moses, Exod. 24:3-12; Heb. 9:4, 15; 
Rev. 11:19, w i tn Heb. 8:5. It is the gos- 
pel dispensation, sealed by the blood of 
Christ, Mark 14:24; Luke 22:20; 1 Cor. 
11:25; 2 Cor. 3:6; Heb. 8:8, and is some- 
times translated " covenant" in the A. V., 
Heb. 8:6-10; 10:16, 29; 12:24; 13:20. In 
Heb. 9:15-17 in the A. V. the idea of the 
last will and death of the testator seems 
implied ; but if the simple Biblical sense of 
"covenant" is retained, the death of the 
attesting victim would be the customary 
and necessary seal of the covenant. The 
titles " New Testament," given to the 
Christian Scriptures," and "Old Testa- 
ment," given to the ante-Christian Scrip- 
tures, are retained even in the R. V. See 
Bible and Covenant. 

TES'TIMONY, the whole revelation of 
God, testifying to man what he is to believe, 
do, and hope, including both the law and 
the gospel, Psa. 19:7; 119:88,99; 1 Cor. 1:6; 
Rev. 1:2. The two stone tables of the law 
were a visible "testimony" or witness of 
God's covenant with his people ; and hence 
the ark of the covenant was called some- 
times the testimony, or the ark of the tes- 
timony, Exod. 25:16, 22; 34:29. See Ark. 

TE'TRARCH, ruler of the fourth part of 
a state or province, first used after Thes- 
saly was divided into 4 parts ; in the New 
Testament a general title applied to those 
who governed any part of a kingdom or 
province with an authority subject only to 
that of the Roman emperor. Thus Herod 
the Great and his brother were at one time 
in early life constituted tetrarchs of Judaea 

625 



THA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



THE 



by Antony. At the death of Herod the 
Great he left half his kingdom to Arche- 
laus, with the title of ethnarch ; while the 
other half was divided between 2 of his 
other sons, Herod Antipas and Philip, with 
the title of tetrarchs, the former over Gali- 
lee and Peraea, and the latter over Ituraea 
and Trachonitis, Luke 3:1. See Herod, 
IV. and V. In the same manner Lysanias 
is also said to have been tetrarch of Abi- 
lene, Luke 3:1. It is Herod Antipas who 
is called the tetrarch in Matt. 14:1; Luke 
3:1, 19; 9:7; Acts 13:1. As the authority 
of the tetrarch was similar to that of the 
king, so the general term king is also 
applied to Herod, Matt. 14:9; Mark 6:14- 
28. 

THADD/E'US, breast, a surname of the 
apostle Jude, Mark 3:18. In Matt. 10:3 
some of the most ancient MSS. have " Thad- 
daeus;" one has "Lebbaeus;" and one, fol- 
lowed by the A. V., " Lebbaeus, whose sur- 
name was Thaddaeus." In the R. V. only 
Thaddaeus is retained. Luke calls him 
Judas in both his catalogues, Luke 6:16; 
Acts 1 : 13. See Judas, III. 

THA'HASH, or TA'CHASH, badger, Gen. 
22:24, son of Nahor and Reumah. 

THA' M AH, laughter, one of the Nethi- 
nim whose sons returned from Babylon, 
Ezra 2 : 53 ; called Tamah in Neh. 7 : 55, 
A. V. 

THA'MAR, A. V., Matt. 1:3. See Ta- 

MAR. 

THAM'MUZ. See TAMMUZ. 

THANK'- OFFERING. See OFFERING, 

Sacrifice. 

THANKS'GIVING, the due expression of 
gratitude to God for all his favors and mer- 
cies, temporal and eternal, material and 
spiritual. It implies a just appreciation of 
all his kindnesses and of our unworthiness 
of them, bearing them in remembrance, 
loving him for them, making public ac- 
knowledgment of them, and making suita- 
ble returns of obedience and service. In- 
gratitude evinces the baseness and aliena- 
tion of the human heart from God. Under 
the Old Dispensation thank-offerings were 
required to be offered both statedly and 
on special occasions, Lev. 7:12, 15; Psa. 
107:22-31; 116:17; with the voice of joy 
and praise, Neh. 11 : 17; Isa. 51 : 3; Rev. 
7:12; and with prayer, Neh. 11:17; Phil. 
4:6: 1 Tim. 2:1-3. See Offering. 

THA'RA, Luke 3:34, A. V. See Terah. 

THAR'SHISH. See Tarshish. 

THE'ATRE. See next column. 

THEBES. See Amon. 
626 



THE'BEZ, brightness, an Ephraimite 
town, at the siege of which Abimelech was 
killed, Judg. 9:50-55. The story was re- 
called by David as well known, 2 Sam. 
11:21. The site of Thebez is at the mod- 
ern village Tubas, 9 miles northwest from 
Nablus, on the road to Beth-shean, on a 
hillside north of a plain among hills. 

THEFT, Exod. 20:15; Prov. 22:22, under 
the Mosaic law, was punished by exacting 
a full restitution, which was secured if 
necessary by the sale of the goods or ser- 
vices of the thief to the requisite amount, 
Prov. 6:31. Restitution was 2-fold if the 
living animal stolen was returned, Exod. 
22:3-8; if it was sold or spoiled it must be 
repaid 4-fold in case it was a sheep or goat, 
5-fold if horned cattle, Exod. 22:1; 2 Sam. 
12:6; Luke 19:8. Silver or gold stolen was 
to be restored with one-fifth added. If 
unable to make restitution the thief might 
be sold into temporary servitude with his 
wife and children, Gen. 44:17; 2 Kin. 4:1. 
A night-robber might lawfully be slain in 
the act, and a man-stealer was to be pun- 
ished by death, Exod. 21:16; 22:2; Deut. 
24:7. 

THELA'SAR, 2 Kin. 19:12. See Telas- 

SAR. 

THEOPH'ILUS, friend of God, an hon- 
orable person to whom the evangelist Luke 
addressed his Gospel and the Acts of the 
Apostles, Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1. He was 
perhaps a convert from paganism under 
Paul's preaching at Rome, and his title 
" most excellent " suggests that he was a 
magistrate or high official ; compare Acts 
23:26; 24:3; 26:25. 

THE'ATRE, a place built for dramatic 
representations, Acts 19:29, or the scene 
or " spectacle " there exhibited, 1 Cor. 4:9. 
It was in the theatre at Caesarea, used 
for large public assemblages, that Herod 
Agrippa was struck with death, Acts 12:21- 
23, and in the theatre at Ephesus a tumul- 
tuous crowd were stirred up against Paul, 
Acts 19:29. Its walls still remain, though 
its marble seats are gone, and it is a work 
of immense grandeur, in full view of the 
temple of Diana. See Ephesus and Rome. 
Ancient theatres were usually semicircular 
in form, open to the air unless covered at 
times by an awning, the seats in concentric 
rows rising in tiers one above another; 
they were often very large. A theatrical 
"spectacle" was sometimes shown, where 
criminals or slaves " fought with wild 
beasts," and were "made a gazing-stock " 
to 50,000 or more spectators, Heb. 10:33. 



THE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



THE 




THE ANCIENT THEATRE AT EPHESUS. 



In Heb. 12:1 the "cloud of witnesses" 
means those who watch the Christian race, 
as crowds of spectators watched the Gre- 
cian games. 

THESSALO'NIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, I. 
and II. These were the earliest of Paul's 
epistles, and were written from Corinth in 
A. D. 52 and 53. The subscription at the 
end of the epistles is not a part of them, 
and in this case is wrong. These are the 
only letters of Paul extant written during 
his 2d missionary tour, in company with 
Silas and Timothy. See Thessalonica. 
After being driven from Thessalonica he 
went to Bercea, Athens, and Corinth, Acts 
17:1 to 18:18; and various circumstances 
indicate the lapse of several years before 
he returned to Jerusalem and Antioch, 



1 Thess. 2:9; 3:1-7; 4:13-18; 5:14; Phil. 
4:16. He greatly desired to revisit the 
Thessalonians, but being hindered, sent 
Timothy to learn their state. Timothy's 
good report of their faith, brought to the 
apostle at Corinth, greatly cheered him, 
and in his first epistle he expresses his 
joy, and confirms them against the perse- 
cutions and temptations they would meet, 
by discussing the miraculous testimony of 
God to the truth of the gospel, 1 :5~io; the 
character of its preachers, 2:1 to 3:13 ; the 
holiness of its precepts, 4:1-12; and the 
resurrection of Christ and his people, 4:13 
to 5:11. The remainder of the epistle con- 
sists of practical exhortations to constancy. 
His tender and loving watch -care over 
every convert in that church appears in 

627 



THE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



THI 



this epistle, ch. 1:3; 2:7-11; 3 : 6-10, and he 
warns them not to neglect the duties of life 
in visionary anticipations of Christ's 2d 
coming, ch. 4:11; comp. 2 Thess. 3:10-12; 
and closes with salutations and a blessing. 
In the second epistle, written some 6 
months after the first, he commends their 
faith and patience in tribulation, ch. 1 : 1-12, 
and corrects certain errors into which they 
were falling particularly respecting the 2d 
coming of Christ. This, he shows, must 
be preceded by a great apostasy and by 
the career of "the man of sin," "the son 
of perdition," " whose coming is after the 
working of Satan, with all power and 
signs and lying wonders;" who usurps di- 
vine authority over the church and " oppo- 
seth and exalteth himself above all that is 
called God." These predictions probably 
still await their full realization, but their re- 
markable fulfilment thus far in the Church 
of Rome, at first so contrary to human anti- 
cipations, proves that the apostle wrote by 
inspiration. In ch. 2:1, 2 he alludes to 
some letter falsely ascribed to him, but 
teaching an opposite doctrine, or some per- 
version of his own words ; and with his 
closing benedictions adds his own sign- 
manual to the writing of his amanuensis. 

THESSALONI'CA, conquest of Thessaly, 
a city and seaport of the 2d part of Mace- 
donia at the head of the Thermaic Gulf, so 
called from the city's ancient name, Ther- 
ma, and the hot-springs in its neighbor- 
hood. It lay 27 miles from Pella and 67 
from Amphipolis, Acts 17:1, and had a 
good harbor and was well situated for 
commerce, being on the Via Egnatia, which 
connected Rome with the whole region 
north of the yEgean Sea, and thus it was 
well situated for diffusing the gospel by 
land and sea. In the conversion of the 
Slavonians and Bulgarians it was largely 
instrumental. It was rebuilt about B. C. 
315 by Cassander, son of Antipater, who 
named it Thessalonica after his wife, sister 
of Alexander the Great. When yEmilius 
Paulus, after his conquest of Macedonia, 
divided the country into 4 districts, this 
city was made the capital of the 2d divis- 
ion, and was the station of a Roman gov- 
ernor and questor. It was inhabited by 
Greeks, Romans, and Jews, from among 
whom Paul gathered a numerous church. 
There was a large number of Jews resident 
in this city, where they had a synagogue, 
in which Paul, after his expulsion from 
Philippion his 2d missionary tour, preached 
to them on 3 successive Sabbaths. Some 
628 



of the Jews and many of the Gentiles em- 
braced the gospel; but the rest of the Jews 
determined to maltreat the apostle, and 
surrounded the house in which they be- 
lieved he was lodging. The brethren, how- 
ever, secretly led Paul and Silas out of the- 
city towards Bercea, 45 miles west, and they 
escaped from their enemies, Acts 17. This 
inspired history is singularly confirmed by 
several undesigned coincidences with facts 
otherwise known. The magistrates men- 
tioned Acts 17:6 are called politarchs, a. 
name unusual in ancient literature, but 
found on a local monument — which also 
bears the names of Sosipater, Secundus,, 
and Gaius. The free assembly of the peo- 
ple before which Paul and Silas were sum- 
moned was characteristic of a " free city."' 
Paul was afterwards there, both going and 
returning, on his 3d tour, Acts 20:1-4, and 
probably after his 1st imprisonment at. 
Rome, 1 Tim. 1:3; 2 Tim. 4:13; Tit. 3:12. 
Among the early Christians there were Ja- 
son, Demas, and Gaius, Acts 19:29; 27:2;: 
Col. 4:10; Phile. 24, also Secundus and 
Aristarchus whom Paul took with him, Acts- 
20:4. The city was taken by the Saracens, 
A. D. 904, by the Sicilian Normans in 1185, 
and by the Turks in 1430. During all these 
changes many Jews seem to have lived 
there. The modern Saloniki abounds in 
broken columns and sculptured fragments,, 
and though a wretched town has a popula- 
tion of 70,000, one-third of whom are Jews. 
Many of the mosques were formerly Chris- 
tian churches. 

When Paul left Macedonia for Athens- 
and Corinth, he left behind him Timothy 
and Silas at Thessalonica, that they might 
confirm those in the faith who had been 
converted under his ministry. He after- 
wards wrote to the church at Thessalonica. 
two epistles. See Paul. 

THEU'DAS, praise, or God-given, an in- 
surgent Jew, mentioned by Gamaliel, A. D. 
29, & as of the preceding generation, Acts- 
5:36, 37, and therefore not to be confound- 
ed whhTheudas of A. D. 40, mentioned by 
Josephus. The period following the death 
of Herod the Great was full of revolts. 
Theudas was also a common name, an- 
swering to the Hebrew Matthias, under 
which name Josephus speaks of an unsuc- 
cessful reformer who was burned in the 
latter part of Herod's reign. 

THIEF, rather "robber" in Matt. 21:13; 
26:55; 27:38,44; Markn:i7; 14:48; i5 :2 7; 
Luke 10:30, 36; 19:46; 22:52; 23:39-43- 
The "penitent thief" showed a faith as 



THI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



THO 



remarkable as his penitence, recognizing 
Christ even on the cross as the divine King 
and Saviour. His turning to Christ, possi- 
bly after joining the other thief in mocking 
Him, seems to have been sudden, in view 
•of the Redeemer's godlike bearing, looks, 
and words and the attesting signs and cir- 
cumstances. 

THIGH. The mode of taking an oath 
alluded to in Gen. 24:2-9; 47:29-31 was 
significant of the swearer's obligation to 
obedience or to fidelity as under the cove- 
nant of circumcision. Jacob's thigh was 
disabled by the Angel, to show the patri- 
arch that his prevalence was through his 
faith and prayer, not through force, Gen. 
32:25-31. The ischiatic nerve is still ex- 
tracted from the hinder limbs of beeves by 
the Jews in England. Smiting the thigh 
was a gesture of self-condemnation and 
grief, Jer. 31:19; Ezek. 21:12. Warriors 
wore their swords upon the left thigh, un- 
less left-handed, in readiness for use, Judg. 
3:15-21; Psa. 45:3; Song 3:8; so too they 
may have borne their names and titles, not 
only on their shields, but on their swords, 
•or on the robe or mailed coat covering the 
thigh, Rev. 19:16. "Hip and thigh," Judg. 
15:8, seems to mean utterly and irrevoca- 
bly. In Isa. 47 : 2 " thigh " should be trans- 
lated "leg;" and in Song 7:1 "the joints 
-of thy thighs " some render " the cincture 
■of thy loins," i. <?., the drawers. 

THIMNA'THAH, Josh. 19:43. See Tim- 

KATHAH. 

THIS'TLES and THORNS. Under these 
terms, together with brambles, briers, and 
nettles, the translations of 22 Heb. and Gr. 
terms, are included numerous troublesome 
plants, many of them with thorns, well 
fitted to try the husbandman's patience, 
Gen. 3:18. They were very abundant in 
Palestine; among them were the Acacia, 
the Acanthus spinosa, the Solanum, Tribu- 
lus, Urtica, etc. ; some bearing true thorns, 
growing from the wood of the plant, others 
■only those from the bark. They were much 
used for fuel, and the flame of a dry thorn- 
oush is quick to rise and quick to expire, 
Psa. 58:9; 118:12; Eccl. 7:6; Isa. 33:12. 
They formed durable and impenetrable 
hedges, Prow 15:19; Hos. 2:6, the thorns 
being sharp as needles, Num. 33:55; Prov. 
26:9; 2 Cor. 12:7. Plants of this class 
were a symbol of desolation, Prov. 24:31. 
A petty village on the plain of Jericho is 
now protected against Arab horsemen by 
a hedge of thorny Nubk branches. Dr. 
Eli Smith, visiting the plain where Gideon 



once threatened to tear the flesh of the 
princes of Succoth with thorns and briers, 
noticed such plants there of remarkable 
size, some of them rising above his head on 
horseback, Judg. 8:7. Some have thorns 
curved like hooks, as the Heb. word sig- 
nifies which occurs in Eccl. 7:6; Isa. 34 : 13 ; 
Hos. 2:6; Nah. 1:10. Many of the heights 
and ruins of Palestine are covered with 
thorn-bushes which tear the clothing of 
travellers or turn them aside in despair, 
Isa. 7:23, 24; 32:13; Hos. 9:6; comp. 2 Sam. 
23:6, 7. Tristram says of the nubk, " No 
one can approach it with impunity unless 
clad in leather. In 3 days the whole party 
were in rags from passing through the 
thickets." Few of the Hebrew terms can 
now be affixed with certainty to particular 
varieties among the many found in Syria. 
The plant of which the thorny crown of 




THORN-TREE. 

the Saviour was made, with the design to 
mock as well as to torture him, is supposed 
to have been the Zizyphus Spina Christi, 
the nubk or dhom of the Arabs, a very 
common bush or tree, growing from 6 to 30 
feet high, with dark and glossy leaves, hav- 
ing many small and sharp spines on its 
round and pliant branches, Matt. 27:29; 
John 19:2, 3. Paul's "thorn in the flesh," 
2 Cor. 12:7-10, may have been some pain- 
ful and mortifying bodily infirmity, unfa- 
vorable to the success of his public minis- 
trations. Some have thought it an affec- 
tion of the eyes, a memento of his tempo- 
rary blindness at Damascus, Acts 9:3, 8, 
18. Comp. 2 Cor. 10:10; Gal. 4:13, 14; 
6:11, 17. In 2 Chr. 33:11, for " among the 
thorns," the R. V. reads, " with hooks " or 
" in chains." 
THOM'AS, the apostle, Matt. 10:3, in 
629 



THO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



THR 



Gr. Didymus, both meaning a twin, John 
20:24, was probably a Galilean as well as 
the other apostles; but the place of his 
birth and the circumstances of his calling 
are unknown, Luke 6: 13-15. He appears 
to have been of an impulsive yet far from 
sanguine temperament, ardently devoted 
to Christ, John 11:16; 14:5, 6, ready to act 
upon his convictions, and yet slow to be 
convinced, as he at first doubted our Lord's 
resurrection, John 20 : 19-29. Several of the 
Fathers say that he preached in the Indies ; 
others in Parthia. 

THORNS. See Thistles. 

THOUGHT, 1 Sam. 9:5; Matt. 6:25, 34; 
Luke 12:11, undue care or solicitude. 

THOU'SAND YEARS, or MILLEN'NIUM, 
Rev. 20: 1-7. As to this happy period, fore- 
told in many Scripture passages, a great 
diversity of views has prevailed in all ages 
of the Christian Church, according as a lit- 
eral or a figurative interpretation has been 
given to these passages. One class of in- 
terpreters place it after the 2d advent of 
Christ and before the general resurrec- 
tion and judgment; others before all these 
events. According to some, Christ's 2d 
coming or presence, in Greek parousia, has 
already begun. 

The general view of the first class seems 
to be that Christ will visibly come to the 
earth, suddenly, and perhaps very soon, to 
destroy the wicked, restore the converted 
Jews to Palestine, raise his saints and mar- 
tyrs from the dead, and personally reign 
on the earth 1,000 years or more — a period 
of peace and happiness, Isa. 2:4; Hos. 2:18; 
Zech. 9 : 10, when Satan shall be confined 
and even savage beasts tamed, Isa. 11 :6-g ; 
65:25; after which period will follow the 
2d resurrection and the general judgment. 
They so interpret with endless variations 
the prophetic Scriptures and such passages 
as Matt. 19:28; Luke 20:35; 22:18; Phil. 
3:10; 2 Tim. 2:12. 

Most Christians, however, now regard 
the promised millennium as a period of 
spiritual ascendency of Christianity, prece- 
ding Christ's 2d coming; and found their 
views not only on their interpretation of 
the special predictions of Scripture, but on 
parables like those of the leaven, the mus- 
tard-seed, the husbandman, the growing 
and ripening corn, the light dawning in- 
to perfect day; on the stone in Daniel's 
vision, which filled the whole earth ; on 
Christ's gift of the Holy Spirit as better 
than his own visible presence, and his last 
commission to his followers to preach the 
630 



gospel to every creature ; also on the har- 
mony of this view with the genius of Chris- 
tianity as unfolded in the Bible and by 
providence, looking to the triumph of the 
gospel by moral means and the power of 
the Holy Spirit; on the simultaneous res- 
urrection of the righteous and wicked at 
Christ's coming, and on the one day of 
judgment for all. 

In the midst of these conflicting views 
the Christian student may well bear in 
mind that prophecy is meant to be ex- 
pounded chiefly by its actual fulfilment; 
that " secret things belong unto God," 
while our part is "to do all the words of 
this law," Deut. 29:29; that it is not for 
us "to know the times and the seasons," 
but to be "witnesses" for Christ "to the 
uttermost parts of the earth," Acts 1:6-8; 
and that any zeal in the study of prophecy, 
or any conclusion formed that lessens our 
fidelity to these duties, cannot be pleasing 
to Christ. 

THREE. See Numbers. The phrase 
" three days and three nights," Matt. 12:40, 
was equivalent in Hebrew to the English 
"three days;" the Jews employing the ex- 
pression "a day and a night" to denote 
our "day" of 24 hours. Nor did "three 
days," 1 Sam. 30:13, literally "this third 
day," necessarily include the whole of 3 
days, but a part of 3 days, a continuous 
period including one whole day of 24 hours 
and a portion of the day preceding it and 
the day following it. Comp. Gen. 7: 12, 17; 
1 Sam. 30:12, 13; 2 Chr. 10:5, 12. 

THREE TAVERNS, Acts 28:15. a place 
on the famous Appian Way, traversed by 
Paul going from Puteoli to Rome ; near the 
modern Cisterna, 32 miles from Rome. 

THRESH'ING was anciently and is still 
performed in the East, sometimes with a 
flail, Ruth 2:17; Isa. 28:27, sometimes by 
treading out the grain with unmuzzled ox- 
en, Deut. 25 : 4, but more generally by means 
of oxen dragging an uncouth instrument 
over the sheaves of grain. See Corn. The 
instrument most used in Palestine at this 
time is simply 2 short planks fastened side 
by side and turned up in front, like our 
common stone-sledge, having sharp flints 
or irons projecting from the under side, 
Isa. 28:27; 41:15; Amos 1:3. The Egyp- 
tian mode is thus described by Xiebuhr : 
" They use oxen, as the ancients did, to 
beat out their corn, by trampling upon the 
sheaves and dragging after them a clumsy 
machine. This machine is not, as in Ara- 
bia, a stone cylinder, or a plank with 



THR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



THU 



sharp stones, as in Syria, but a sort of 
sledge, consisting of 3 rollers fitted with 
irons, which turn upon axles. A farmer 
chooses out a level spot in his fields, and 



has his corn carried thither in sheaves 
upon asses or dromedaries. Two oxen 
are then yoked to a sledge ; a driver gets 
upon it and drives them backward and for- 




ward upon the sheaves ; and fresh oxen 
succeed in the yoke from time to time." 
By this operation the straw is gradually 
chopped fine and the grain released. Mean- 
while the whole is repeatedly turned over 
by wooden pitchforks with 3 or more 
prongs, and in due time thrown into a heap 
in the centre of the floor. The machine 
thus described is called a noreg, and an- 
swers to the Hebrew morag mentioned in 
2 Sam. 24:22; 1 Chr. 21:23. 

When the grain is well loosened from 
the straw the whole heap is next thrown 
with forks several yards against the wind, 
which, blowing away the chaff, the grain 
falls into a heap by itself, 2 Kin. 13:7; and 
if necessary the process is repeated. For 
this purpose the threshing-floors are in the 
open air, Judg. 6:37, and often on high 
ground, like that of Araunah on Mount 
Moriah, 1 Chr. 21:15, that the wind may 
aid more effectually in winnowing the 
grain, Jer. 4:11, 12, which is afterwards 
sometimes passed through a sieve for fur- 
ther cleansing. The ground is prepared for 
use as a threshing-floor by being smoothed 
off and beaten down hard. Boaz was wont 
to sleep on his threshing-floor, probably to 
guard it against thieves, Ruth 3:3,7. While 
the wheat was carefully garnered the straw 
and chaff were gathered up for fuel ; a most 



instructive illustration of the day of judg- 
ment, Matt. 3:12. 

THRONE, an established emblem of 
kingly dignity and power, used by sove- 
reigns on all state occasions, 1 Kin. 2:19; 
22:10; Esth. 5:1; Prov. 20:8. The same 
term is sometimes given to the seat of 
judges and princes, 1 Sam. 1:9; Psa. 122:5; 
Jer. 1:15. Solomon's throne was of ivory 
overlaid with gold, having arms, a circular 
back, and 6 broad steps, every one guard- 
ed by a gilded lion at each end, 1 Kin. 
10:18-20. Heaven is called God's throne 
and the earth his footstool, Isa. 66:1. His 
throne, "high and lifted up," is also sub- 
limely described as everlasting and as built 
upon justice and equity, Psa. 45:6; 97:2. 
See also Isa. 6:2-4; Ezek. 1:26. Christ is 
on the throne for ever as the King of heav- 
en, Psa. 110:1; Heb. 1:8; Rev. 3:21; and 
his faithful disciples will partake of his 
kingly glory, Luke 22:30; Rev. 4:4; 5:10. 
He forbade men lightly to swear by heav- 
en or its throne, as they were thus irrev- 
erent to God, Matt. 5:34; 23:22. In Neh. 
3:7 " throne " means the governor's palace ; 
and in Col. 1:16 "thrones" designates an 
order of celestial beings. 

THUM'MIM. See Urim. 

THUN'DER and lightning are significant 
manifestations of the power of God and 

631 



THY 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TIB 



emblems of his presence and his anger 
against sin, as at the giving of the law, 
Exod. 19:16; 1 Sam. 2:10; 2 Sam. 22:14; 
Job 28:26; Psa. 18:13; 81:7. Thunder is 
poetically called "the voice of the Lord" 
in the sublime description of a thunder- 
storm in Psalm 2.9 : 

" The voice of the Lord is upon the waters ; 
The God of glory thundereth; 
The Lord is upon many waters. 
The voice of the Lord is powerful ; 
The voice of the Lord is full of majesty. 
The voice of the Lord breaketh the cedars ; 
Yea, the Lord breaketh the cedars of Leba- 
non," etc. 

See also 1 Sam. 7:10; Job 37:1-5; 40:9; 
Jer. 10 : 13 ; and John's sublime visions, 
Rev. 4:5; 11:19; 16:18; 19:6; 20:9. In 
illustration of Psa. 29:9, Moffat, while de- 
scribing the thunder-storms of South Africa, 



says that the antelopes flee in consterna- 
tion, and that he has observed the Bechua- 
nas starting off early on the morning fol- 
lowing such a storm in quest of young 
antelopes prematurely born. In Psa. 78:48 
" hot thunderbolts " means lightning. 
Thunder, as well as rain, is extremely rare 
in Palestine in all the summer months, 
Prov. 26:1, and the instance mentioned in 
1 Sam. 12:17, I 3 was signally miraculous. 
In Job 39:19 "thunder" should rather be 
" a waving mane." In Job 26 : iq. a whisper 
of God, a "little portion," is sublimely 
contrasted with " the thunder of his pow- 
er." The solemn voice from heaven attest- 
ing Christ's mission, John 12:28, 29, was 
called thunder by some who stood by. 
Those best understand all divine revela- 
tions whose hearts listen for them, Acts 
22:9. See Boanerges. 




THYATI'RA, a city of Lydia, in Asia 
Minor, a Macedonian colony founded by 
Seleucus Nicator after the death of Alex- 
der the Great; anciently called Pelopia 
and Euhippia, now Ak-hissar. It was sit- 
uated on the confines of Lydia and Mysia, 
near the river Lycus, between Sardis and 
Pergamos. It was the seat of one of " the 
7 churches," Rev. 1:11; 2:18, 24. The art 
of dyeing purple was particularly cultiva- 
ted at Thyatira. as appears from an inscrip- 
tion recently found there; and it still sends 
to Smyrna, 60 miles southwest, large quan- 
tities of scarlet cloth, perpetuating Lydia's 
business. Acts 16:14. Ak-hissar, the white 
castle, is a thriving town of 17,000 inhab- 
632 



itants, largely Turks, with extensive ruins 
around it. 

THY'INE-WOOD, Rev. 18:12. the wood 
of the Thyia or Thuja Articulata of Lin- 
naeus, an aromatic evergreen-tree resem- 
bling the arbor-vitae-tree, 15 to 25 feet high, 
and found in Libya, near Mount Atlas. 
The wood was used in burning incense, 
and under the name of citron-wood was 
highly prized by the Romans for orna- 
mental wood-work. It yields the sanda- 
rach resin of commerce. 

TIBE'RIAS, a city of Galilee, founded by 
Herod Antipas and named by him in hon- 
or of the emperor Tiberius. At first it was 
the capital of Galilee; many Greeks and 







=~TM=^iK 



TIBERIAS, SEEN FROM THE NORTHWEST. 



TIB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TIB 




Romans resided there, and Herod erected a 
stadium and a.palace. A more ancient and 
greater city, perhaps Chinnereth or Rak- 
kath, Josh. 19:35, seems previously to have 
flourished and gone to ruin near the same 
site, on the south. Tiberias was situated 
on the western shore of the Lake of Gen- 
nesaret, about two hours' ride, or 5% miles, 
from the place where the Jordan issues 
from the lake. In the vicinity of the city, 
south, were hot springs, which were much 
celebrated. The lake is also sometimes 
called, from the city, the Sea of Tiberias, 
John 6:1, 23; 21:1. See Sea, IV. It is 
noteworthy that only the last of the evange- 
lists gives it this name, Matthew, Mark, and 
Luke having written before the name had 
become generally adopted. After the de- 
struction of Jerusalem, Tiberias was cele- 
brated as the seat of a flourishing school of 
Jewish learning, and the Jewish Mishna 
was here compiled, A. D. 190, and the Ma- 
sorah or body of traditions as to the Old 
Testament text, etc. It was the 4th of the 
Jewish sacred cities, only Jerusalem, He- 
bron, and Safed ranking above it. The 
Crusaders held it several times, and erect- 
ed a church, in which the Arabs have since 
housed their cattle. It was in possession in 
turn of Persians, Arabs, and Turks. Mod- 
ern Tubariyeh lies on a narrow undulating 
plain 2 miles long and a fourth of a mile 



wide, between the high table-land and the 
sea. It was half destroyed by an earth- 
quake in 1837, and has a population of 3,000 
souls, about one-half of whom are Jews. 
The walls are little more than heaps of 
ruins, the castle is much shattered, and the 
place has an aspect of extreme wretched- 
ness and filth. As the Arabs say, " The 
king of the fleas holds his court at Tubari- 
yeh." South of the town are numerous 
remains of the ancient city or cities, ex- 
tending for 1% miles, nearly to the hot 
springs. The waters of these springs are 
nauseous and salt, and too hot for imme- 
diate use, 136 to 144 ; but the baths are 
much resorted to for the cure of rheumatic 
diseases, etc. No mention is made of any 
visit to Tiberias by our Lord, and he may 
have avoided it because it was a favorite 
residence of the crafty and unscrupulous 
Herod Antipas, who only saw him shortly 
before his crucifixion, Luke 13:32; 23:8. 

TIBE'RIUS, Clau'dius Ne'ro, the 2d 
emperor of Rome, was the son of Claudius 
Nero and Livia, and stepson of Augustus ; 
and being adopted by that emperor he suc- 
ceeded to his throne, A. D. 14, being joint 
emperor with him 2 years. He was at first 
moderate and just, but soon became infa- 
mous for his vices and crimes, and died 
A. D. 37, after a cruel reign of 22% years. 
It was in the 15th year of his reign that 

633 



TIB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TIM 



John the Baptist commenced his ministry, 
Luke 3:1, and the crucifixion of Jesus took 
place in the 3d or 4th year after. Tacitus, 
the Roman historian, Annal. 15, 44, couples 
this event with the reign of Tiberius and 
the procuratorship of Pontius Pilate. This 
emperor is several times casually men- 
tioned under the title of Caesar, Matt. 22 : 17 ; 
Luke 20:22-25; 23:2; John 19:12. His 
subjects were commanded to pay divine 
worship to his images. 

TIB'HATH, extension, a city of Hadade- 
zer king of Zobah, 1 Chr. 18:8; called Betah 
in 2 Sam. 8 : 8. Probably northeast of Anti- 
Lebanon. 

TIB'NI, edifying, an unsuccessful com- 
petitor with Omri the general for the 
throne of Israel during 3 years after the 
death of Elah and the suicide of Zimri, 
1 Kin. 16:18-23. 

TI'DAL, reverence, the king of several 
allied tribes apparently near the Euphra- 
tes, with whom he joined Chedorlaomer in 
the invasion of the vale of Siddim, Mount 
Seir, etc., and was defeated by Abraham, 
Gen. 14:1-16. 

TIG'LATH-PILE'SER II., called TIL'- 
GATH-PILNE'SER in i Chr. 5:26; 2 Chr. 
28:20, king of Assyria in the time of king 
Ahaz, B. C. 747-729, Tiglath-pileser I. hav- 
ing begun to reign about B. C. 1130, but 
not being named in Scripture. The later 
king early in his reign, about B. C. 741, 
made a campaign against Pekah king of 
Israel, overran all the northern part of his 
kingdom, carried captive the inhabitants 
of many of the cities, and placed them in 
various parts of his own kingdom, 2 Kin. 
15:29. Some years later the allied kings 
of Israel and Syria, Pekah and Rezin, hav- 
ing made war against Judah and threaten- 
ing to place " the son of Tabeal " on the 
throne, 2 Kin. 15:37; 16:5; 2 Chr. 28:6-15, 
king Ahaz foolishly applied to Tiglath- 
pileser for assistance. The Assyrian army 
first attacked and captured Damascus, ra- 
zed it to the ground as his monuments 
claim, and slew Rezin, 2 Kin. 16:9; they 
then ravaged Israel chiefly east of the Jor- 
dan, and carried off many captives, uncon- 
sciously fulfilling Isaiah's predictions, ch. 
7:18; 8:4; but ai the same time he exacted 
a heavy tribute from Ahaz and greatly dis- 
tressed him, 1 Chr. 5:26; 2 Chr. 28:16-21; 
Isa. 9:1. As he makes on his monumental 
records no mention of his ancestors, it is 
inferred that he usurped the throne. His 
reign was probably 19 years long, and he 
was succeeded by his son Shalmaneser IV. 
634 



The Nineveh tablets record his capture of 
Damascus, Samaria, and Tyre, and his ex- 
acting tribute from aiding of Judah, Yahu- 
khazi, evidently Ahaz. Some recent au- 
thorities confound Tiglath-pileser with Pul. 

TI'GRIS. See Hiddekel. 

TILE, a broad and thin brick, usually 
made of fine clay and hardened in the fire. 
Such tiles were very common in the region 
of the Euphrates and Tigris (see Babylon),. 
and offered to the exiled prophet Ezekiel 
the most natural and obvious means of de- 
picting the siege of Jerusalem, Ezek. 4:1. 
Great numbers of similar rude sketches of 
places as well as of animals and men are 
found on the tiles recently exhumed from 
the ancient mounds of Assyria and Babylo- 
nia, interspersed among the wedge-shaped 
inscriptions with which one side of the tile 
is usually crowded. At Nineveh Layard 
found a large chamber stored full of such 
inscribed tiles, like a collection of histori- 
cal archives, Ezra 6:1. They are usually 
about a foot square and 3 inches thick. 
The inscriptions were made with a sharp 
stylus on the clay while moist and in a 
mould, and it was then baked and some- 
times glazed. Besides the tiles many clay- 
cylinders, similarly inscribed and depos- 
ited in the corners of royal edifices, have 
been found and are legible after 2,000 or 
3,000 years. 

TI'LING, Luke 5:19, literally "tiles," of 
earthenware, apparently roofing the border 
of the court in the centre of the house, the 
roof being reached by outside stairs or 
from an adjoining house. See House. 

TIM'BREL, an instrument of music, early 
and often mentioned in Scripture, Gen. 
31:27; Job 21:12. The Hebrews called it 
toph, under which name they comprehend- 
ed all kinds of drums, tabrets, tabors, and 
tambourines. We do not find that they 
used it in war, but only at public rejoicings 
and festive occasions, Isa. 5:12; 24:8; Jer. 
31 : 4. It was commonly played by women,. 
1 Sam. 18:6; Psa. 68:25, but was used by 
the j'-oung prophets in Samuel's day, 1 Sam. 
10:5; 1 Chr. 13:8; comp. Psa. 81:2; 149:3. 
It consisted, and still consists, of a small 
circular rim or hoop, over which a skin is 
drawn. The rim is also hung with small 
bells. The timbrel is used as an accom- 
paniment to lively music, being shaken and 
beaten with the knuckles in time. After 
the passage of the Red Sea, Miriam, sis- 
ter of Moses, took a timbrel and began to 
play and dance with the women, Exod. 
15:20. The daughter of Jephthah came to 



TIM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TIM 



meet her father with timbrels and other 
musical instruments, Judg. 11:34. See 
Music. 

TIME. Besides the ordinary uses of this 
word, the Bible sometimes employs it to 
denote a year, as in Dan. 4:16; or a pro- 
phetic year, consisting of 360 natural years, 
a day being taken for a year. Thus in 
Dan. 7:25; 12:7, the phrase " a time, times, 
and the dividing of a time " is supposed 
to mean 3% prophetic years, or 1,260 natu- 
ral years. This period is elsewhere par- 
alleled by the expression, "forty -two 
months," each month including 30 years, 
Rev. 11:2,3; I2:6 > H; i 3 : 5- See Day, 
Hour, Month, Week, Year. In Eph. 
5:16; Col. 4:5, "redeeming the time" 
means " buying " or improving " the op- 
portunity," as the same word is translated 
in Gal. 6:10; Heb. 11:15. To "observe 
times" in Lev. 19:26 means to "practise 
augury." In Num. 23:23 "according to 
this time " means " now." 

TIM'NA, restraint, I., a secondary wife 
of Eliphaz the son of Esau, sister of Lotan 
the Horite Seir's son, and mother of Ama- 
lek, Gen. 36:12, 22; 1 Chr. 1:39. 

II. Son of Eliphaz and a duke or sheikh 
of Edom, Gen. 36:40; 1 Chr. 1:36, 51. 

TIM'NAH, portion, I., a town in the 
mountain region of Judah, associated with 
Maon, Ziph, and Carmel, Josh. 15:57; per- 
haps el-Amod, on a low hill west of the 
road from Ziph to Carmel, south of He- 
bron. Probably the Timnath of the A. V., 
mentioned in Gen. 38:12-14. 

II. A city near the northwest border of 
Judah, between Beth-shemesh and Ekron, 
Josh. 15:10. It was long subject to the 
Philistines, and Samson's wife was a Tim- 
nite, Judg. 14:1-5; 2 Chr. 28:18. In later 
times it was a place of considerable im- 
portance; now a deserted village called 
Tibneh, 2 miles west of 'Ain-Shems, or 
Beth-shemesh. 

TIMNA'THAH, in the A. V. Thimnathah, 
a town in Dan, Josh. 19:43; now Tibneh, 
17 or 18 miles southwest of Nablus. 

TIM'NATH-SE'RAH, portion of Serah, or 
abundance, according to the Jews a name 
changed to Tim'nath-he'res, portion of 
the sun, in memory of Joshua's miracle, 
Josh. 10:12-14. It was a town "in Mount 
Ephraim, on the north side of the hill Ga- 
ash," and furnished the Hebrew leader a 
home, an income, and a burial-place, Josh. 
19:50; 24:30; Judg. 2:9. It is now traced 
at Kefr Haris, 9 miles southwest of Nab- 
lus; but Dr. Eli Smith suggests Tibneh, 



8 or 9 miles farther in the same direction. 
See Timnathah. 

TI'MON, honoring, Acts 6:5, one of the 7 
first deacons. 

TIM'OTHY, in Latinized-Greek TIMO'- 
THEUS, honoring God— this form of the 
name being often used in the A. V., and 
Timothy alone in the R. V. — the disciple 
and companion of Paul. He was a native 
of Lystra, or perhaps Derbe, both cities of 
Lycaonia, his father being a Greek, i. e. r 
Gentile, and his mother a Jewess, Acts- 
16:1. The instructions and prayers of his. 
pious mother, Eunice, and grandmother, 
Lois, 2 Tim. 1:5; 3:15, and the preaching 
of Paul during his first visit to Lystra, 
A. D. 48, Acts 14:6, resulted in the conver- 
sion of Timothy and his introduction to 
the ministry which he so adorned. He 
had witnessed the sufferings of Paul and 
loved him as his father in Christ, 1 Tim. 
1:2; 2 Tim. 3:10, 11. When the apostle 
returned to Lystra, about A. D. 51, the 
brethren spoke highly of the merit and 
good disposition of Timothy, and the apos- 
tle determined to take him along with him, 
for which purpose he circumcised him at 
Lystra, Acts 16:3, to disarm the prejudices 
of the Jews, and he was set apart to the 
ministry by the laying on of the hands of 
the elders, 1 Tim. 4:14; 2 Tim. 1:6; 4:5,. 
probably at Iconium. Timothy applied 
himself to labor in the gospel, and did Paul 
very important services through the whole 
course of his preaching. Paul calls him 
not only his dearly beloved son, but also 
his brother, the companion of his labors, 
and a man of God, observing that none 
was more united with him in heart and 
mind than Timothy, Rom. 16:21; 1 Cor. 
4:17; 2 Cor. 1:1; 1 Tim. 1:2, 18. Indeed, 
he was selected by Paul as his chosen com- 
panion in his journeys, and accompanied 
him on his Macedonian tour, labored zeal- 
ously at Philippi, Acts 16:12; Phil. 2:22, 
and perhaps bore the alms of' the church 
to Paul, Phil. 4: 15.; he was with Paul at Be- 
roea, and remained there alone for a time, 
rejoining him at Athens, Acts 17:14, 15; 
1 Thess. 3:2. Thence he went to Thessa- 
lonica and to Corinth, Acts 18:1, 5, as ap- 
pears from Paul's letters written there, 
1 Thess. 1:1: 2 Thess. 1:1. He was an 
advance-courier of Paul in his 3d tour 
through Galatia and Phrygia to Ephesus, 
and after 2 years there, to Macedonia and 
Corinth, Acts 19:22; 1 Cor. 4:17; and was 
with him at Philippi on his 5th and last 
visit to Jerusalem, Acts 20:3-6. He shared 

635 



TIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TIR 



for a time Paul's imprisonment at Rome, 
Phil. 1:1; 2:19; Phile. 1; Heb. 13:23, and 
labored much at Ephesus, 1 Tim. 1.3; 
3:14. The last mention we have of him 
is in Paul's request that \,\z would go to 
him at Rome during his 2d imprisonment, 
2 Tim. 4:9, 13, 21. He appears to have 
possessed in a very high degree the confi- 
dence and affection of Paul, and is often 
mentioned by him in terms of warm com- 
mendation. The cautions and encourage- 
ments he gave to this ardent and beloved 
young disciple should be well pondered by 
all young ministers. It is worthy of note 
and imitation that he abstained from wine, 
though it was a customary beverage of the 
time, and only used "a little," if at all, 
when prescribed as a medicine by an in- 
spired apostle, 1 Tim. 5 : 23. He was appar- 
ently not robust in health, and required 
strengthening rather than restraint, 1 Cor. 
16:10, 11 ; 2 Tim. 1:7, 8; 2:3. 

Epistles to Timothy. The 1st of these 
Paul seems to have written subsequently 
to his 1st imprisonment at Rome and while 
he was in Macedonia, having left Timothy 
at Ephesus, 1 Tim. 1:3, A. D. 64. The 2d 
appears to have been addressed to Timo- 
thy in Northwestern Asia Minor during 
Paul's 2d imprisonment at Rome and in 
anticipation of martyrdom, A. D. 67. This 
dying charge of the faithful apostle to his 
beloved son in the gospel, the latest fruit 
of his love for him and for the church, we 
study with deep emotions. Both epistles 
are most valuable and instructive docu- 
ments for the direction and admonition of 
every Christian, and more especially of 
church officers and ministers of the gospel. 
With the epistle to Titus they form the 3 
"pastoral epistles." 

TIN, a metal known and used at an early 
period, e. g., by Midianites, Num. 31:22, 
and brought by the Tyrians from Tarshish, 
Ezek. 27:12. In Isa. 1:25; Ezek. 22:18, 20, 
it means the alloy of lead, tin, and other 
base admixtures in silver ore, separated 
from the pure silver by smelting. Comp. 
Jer. 6:29, 30. It was used for plummets, 
Zech. 4:10, but chiefly with copper in the 
manufacture of bronze. It was not found 
in Palestine, but may have come from Mid- 
ian, from the Spanish peninsula, or even 
from Devonshire, England, in Phoenician 
vessels. 

TIPH'SAH, a ford, I., the ancient Thap- 

sacus, an important city on the western 

bank of the Euphrates, which constituted 

the northeastern extremity of Solomon's 

636 



dominions, 1 Kin. 4:24. The ford at this 
place being the last one on the Euphrates 
towards the south, its possession was im- 
portant to Solomon in his design to attract 
the trade of the East to Palestine; hence, 
too, the building of Tadmor on the desert 
route. It was also a depot for the transfer 
of goods between caravans and vessels 
plying up and down the river. The lowest 
ford en the Euphrates is now at Suriyeh, 
where the river turns from a southerly to 
an easterly course and is 800 yards wide. 
A bridge of boats was used when the water 
was high. 

II. Some writers think the above city is 
intended in 2 Kin. 15:16, as a place smit- 
ten by Menahem, king of Israel, who after- 
wards suffered from the Assyrian arms. 
Others identify it with the place now called 
Tapsah, anciently En-tappuah, 6 miles 
southwest of Shechem. 

TI'RAS, Gen. 10:2, the youngest son of 
Japheth, supposed to have been the fore- 
father of the ancient Thracians and the 
early occupants of Northern and Central 
Asia Minor. 

TIRED, 2 Kin. 9:30, attired or dressed. 

TIRES, or " little moons," apparently 
pendent disks, like modern coins on 
strings for the neck, worn by women, Isa. 
3:18, and even on the necks of camels, 
Judg. 8:21, 26, where the same word is 
translated " ornaments " in the A. V. The 
tire in Ezek. 24:17, 23 was an ornamental 
headdress or tiara, called "beauty" and 
" ornaments " in Isa. 61 -.3, 10. 

TIRHA'KAH, king of Ethiopia or Cush, 
and apparently having Egypt tributary, 
for he marched chrough it with a powerful 
army — probably composed, like those of 
Shishak, Zerah, and Pharaoh -necho, of 
Lubim, Sukkiim, and other tribes south 
and west of Egypt, 2 Chr. 12:3; 16:8; Jer. 
46:9— to relieve king Hezekiah when at- 
tacked by Sennacherib on his way to Egypt, 
2 Kin. 19:9; but the Assyrian army was 
demolished before his arrival, and he can 
only have gathered their spoils, ver. 35; 
Isa. 37:9. B. C. 712. He was undoubtedly 
the Taracus of Manetho and the Tearchon 
of Strabo, the 3d and last king of the 25th 
or Ethiopian dynasty. It is supposed that 
he is the Pharaoh intended in Isa. 30:2; 
and that Isa. 19 depicts the anarchy which 
succeeded his reign. He was a powerful 
monarch, ruling both Upper and Lower 
Egypt, and extending his conquests far 
into Asia and towards the " pillars of Her- 
cules " in the West. His name and victo- 



TIR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TIT 



ries are recorded on an ancient temple at 
Medinet Abou, in Upper Egypt; whence 




also the representation above given of his 
head was copied by Rosselini. 

TIRSHA'THA, the austere or august, a 
title of honor borne by Zerubbabel and 
Nehemiah as Persian governors of Judaea, 
Ezra 2:63; Neh. 7:65, 70; 8:9; 10:1. In 
Neh. 12:26 Nehemiah is called "the gov- 
ernor." 

TIR'ZAH, delight, I., one of the 5 daugh- 
ters of Zelophehad ; which see. 

II. A city of the Canaanites, Josh. 12:24, 
and afterwards of the tribe of Manasseh 
and the royal seat of the kings of Israel 
from Jeroboam to Omri, who built the city 
of Samaria, which then became the capital 
of this kingdom, 1 Kin. 15:21, 2>2>\ x 6:6, 8, 
9, 15, 23, 24, 29. It reappears as the place 
where Menahem conspired against Shal- 
lum, 2 Kin. 15:14, 16. It was famed for its 
beauty, Song 6:4; and is now represented 
by Teiasir, some 12 miles northeast of 
Shechem, once a place of importance, as 
its ruins indicate. 

TISH'BITE, the usual designation of the 
prophet Elijah, 1 Kin. 21:17, 28; 2 Kin. 
I: 3> 8; 9:36; probably denoting his birth- 
place Thisbe, in Naphtali, now Teitaba, 
12 miles north of northwest from the Sea 
of Galilee. Elijah seems to have made his 
home in Gilead, 1 Kin. 17:1. 



TISH'RI, or TIS'RI, the 1st month of the 
Jewish civil year, and the 7th of the eccle- 
siastical; called, in 1 Kin. 8:2, Ethanim, 
which see; and answering nearly to our 
October. On the 1st day of Tishri the 
Feast of Trumpets occurred, Lev. 23:24; 
Num. 29:1, 2; on the 10th the great Day of 
Expiation, Lev. 23:27; Num. 29:7; and on 
the 15th the Feast of Tabernacles com- 
menced, Lev. 23:34. 

TITHE, a tenth, the proportion of a man's 
income devoted to sacred purposes from 
time immemorial, Gen. 14:20; 28:22. This 
was prescribed in the Mosaic law, Num. 
31:32. A twofold tithe was required of 
each Jewish citizen. The Jirst consisted of 
one-tenth of the produce of his fields, trees, 
flocks, and herds, to be given to God as the 
sovereign Proprietor of all things and as 
the King of the Jews, Lev. 27:30-32; 1 Sam. 
8:15, 17. The proceeds of this tax were 
devoted to the maintenance of the Levites 
in their respective cities, Num. 18:21-24. 
A person might pay this tax in money,, 
adding one-fifth to its estimated value. 
The Levites paid a 10th part of what they 
received to the priests, Num. 18:26-28. 
The second tithe required of each land- 
holder was one-tenth of the 9 parts of his 
produce remaining after the 1st tithe, to be 
expended at the tabernacle or temple in 
entertaining the Levites, his own family,, 
etc., changing it first into money, if on ac- 
count of his remoteness he chose to do so, 
Deut. 12:17-19, 22-29; 14:22-27. Every 3d 
year a special provision was made for the 
poor, either out of this 2d tithe or in addi- 
tion to it, Deut. 14:28, 29; 26:12-15. These 
tithes were not burdensome ; but the pious 
Israelite found himself the richer for their 
payment, though it does not seem to have 
been enforced by any legal penalties. See 
the promises to the obedient in Deut. 28: 1- 
13. The system of tithes was renewed 
both before and after the captivity, 2 Chr. 
31:5, 6, 12; Neh. 10:37, 38; 12:44; !3 : 5, i 2 l 
but they were not always regularly paid, 
and hence the divine blessing was with- 
held, Mai. 3:8-12. At a later period the 
tithe was apparently divided into 3 por- 
tions, one of which was given to the priests 
and Levites, one to the temple storehouse, 
and one to the needy at Jerusalem. The 
Pharisees were scrupulously exemplary in 
paying their tithes, but neglected the more 
important duties of love to God and man, 
Matt. 23:23. 

The principle of the ancient tithes, name- 
ly, that ministers of the gospel and objects 

637 



TIT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TOC 



of benevolence should be provided for by 
the whole people of God, according to their 
means, is fully recognized in Scripture as 
applicable to the followers of Christ. He 
:sent his servants forth two and two, with- 
out provisions or purses, to receive their 
support from the people, since " the laborer 
is worthy of his hire," Matt. 10:9-14; Luke 
10:4-8, 16. Paul also reasons in the same 
way, 1 Cor. 9:13, 14; Gal. 6:6. For pur- 
poses of piety and beneficence he directed 
the Corinthians, and virtually all Chris- 
tians, to lay aside from their income on the 
first day of the week as the Lord had pros- 
pered them, 1 Cor. 16:2. There is no rea- 
son to doubt that the early Christians gave 
more freely of their substance than did the 
ancient Jews, Acts 4:34-37; 2 Cor. 8:1-4. 

TI'TLE, 2 Kin. 23:17, a pillar set up as a 
sepulchral monument; the Heb. word is 
translated " waymark " in Jer. 31:21, and 
■" sign " in Ezek. 39:15. In John 19:19,20 
an inscription on a tablet. 

TIT'TLE, a very small particle; Greek, 
"" a small horn," the minute tip at the ex- 
tremity of some Hebrew letters, Matt. 5: 18. 
In transcribing the Hebrew Scriptures the 
Jews exacted the utmost accuracy. Every 
page and every line must contain just so 
much ; and the most trivial defect vitiated 
the whole roll and compelled the scribe 
to begin his task anew. Yet this extreme 
•care for the perfect integrity of the letter 
of God's Word is but a feeble illustration 
of the Saviour's care for the same Word— 
every truth, every threatening, and every 
promise has the most perfect guarantee 
possible : " It is easier for heaven and earth 
to pass than one tittle of the law to fail," 
Luke 16: 17. 

TI'TUS, a distinguished Christian minis- 
ter of Greek origin, Gal. 2:3 ; converted un- 
-der the preaching of Paul, Tit. 1:4, whose 
companion and fellow-laborer he became, 
2 Cor. 8:23. He joined Paul and Barnabas 
in the mission from Antioch to Jerusalem — 
without submitting to circumcision like 
Timothy, Acts 16:3, since neither of his 
-parents was of Jewish birth, Acts 15:1, 2; 
Gal. 2:1-5 — and subsequently was sent to 
Corinth and labored with success, 2 Cor. 
8:6; 12:18. He did not rejoin the apostle 
at Troas, as was expected, but at Philippi, 
2 Cor. 2:12, 13; 7:6, 7, 13-15; and soon 
:after resumed his labors at Corinth in con- 
nection with a general effort for the relief 
of poor Christians in Judaea, taking with 
him Paul's 2d epistle, 2 Cor. 8:6, 16, 17. 
:Some 8 or 10 years later we find him left 
638 



by the apostle at Crete to establish and 
regulate the churches of that island, Tit. 
1:5. Here he received the Epistle to 
Titus from Paul, then at Ephesus, inviting 
him to Nicopolis, Tit. 3:12; whence he went 
into the neighboring Dalmatia, before Paul 
was finally imprisoned at Rome, 2 Tim. 
4: 10. Tradition makes him labor for many 
years in Crete, and die there at an ad- 
vanced age. A ruined church on the site 
of Gortyna in Crete bears his name; and it 
was the watchword of the Cretans when 
invaded by the Venetians. His character 
seems to have been marked by integrity, 
discretion, and a glowing zeal. He was 
trusted and beloved by Paul, whose epistle 
to him is similar in its contents to the first 
epistle to Timothy, and was probably writ- 
ten not long after it, while Paul was on his 
way to Nicopolis, A. D. 66. He may have 
been the Christian with whom Paul lodged 
at Corinth, Acts 18:7, called Titus Justus 
in the R. V. 

TOB, good, a region northeast of Gilead 
where Jephthah, when banished by his rel- 
atives, took refuge and gathered a band of 
warriors, Judg. 11:3,5. The "men of Tob," 
Heb. " Ish-tob," assisted the Ammonites 
against David, 2 Sam. 10:6, 8. There is a 
ruined site of a similar name south of the 
Lejah. 

TOBI'AH, Heb. Tobi'yah, goodness of 
Jehovah. I. A family which returned with 
Zerubbabel from captivity, but lost the 
proofs that they were of Israelite descent, 
Ezra 2:59, 60; Neh. 7:62. 

II. A Levite, called Tobijah in the A. V., 
Heb. Tobiya'hu ; commissioned by Jehosh- 
aphat to teach Judah the law, 2 Chr. 17:8. 

III. A low-born (" servant " or slave) 
Ammonite, in league with Sanballat and 
the Samaritans against the pious Jews who 
were rebuilding the ruined temple, Neh. 
2:10; 4:3, B. C. 442. His threats and 
treachery were employed in vain. During 
Nehemiah's absence Tobiah was unlawful- 
ly established by some of the chief men of 
Judah, his relatives, in a fine apartment of 
the new temple, but was ignominiously ex- 
pelled on the governor's return, Neh. 6: 17- 
19; 13:1-9. 

IV. A representative Jewish captive de- 
puted to place a symbolic crown on the 
head of the high-priest Joshua, Zech. 6:9- 
15, as a type of the Messiah, King and 
Priest, Eph. 2:13-17. 

TOBI'JAH. See Tobiah, III. and IV. 
TO'CHEN, a task, 1 Chr. 4:32, probably 
Telem. 



TOG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TOR 



TOGAR'MAH, i Chr. 1:6, a descendant 
of Japheth, Gen. 10:3, supposed to have 
given his name to the region of Asia after- 
wards called Armenia, Ezek. 38:15, 16. It 
was celebrated for its horses and mules; 
and the men of Togarmah, like the modern 
Armenians, were an industrious, peacea- 
ble, and trafficking people, Ezek. 27:14. 

TO'I and TO'U, erring, a king of Hamath, 
on the Orontes in Syria, who sent his son, 
laden with appeasing gifts, to congratulate 
David on his defeat of Hadadezer king of 
Zobah, 2 Sam. 8:9-11 ; 1 Chr. 18:9, 10. 

TO'LA, a worm, L, the eldest son of Issa- 
char, head of a family which furnished 
22,600 soldiers for David, Gen. 46: 13 ; Num. 
26:23; 1 Chr. 7:2. 

II. Of the tribe of Issachar, judge of 
Israel, at Shamir in Mount Ephraim, for 23 
years after the death of Abimelech, Judg. 
10:1, 2. 

TO'LAD, fatherhood, 1 Chr. 4:29; called 
Eltolad in Josh. 15:30; 19:4, a town of 
Simeon, in the Negeb or South, perhaps in 
wady el-Thoula, 40 miles south of Beer- 
sheba. 

TOMB. See Sepulchre. 

TONGUE, often used for speech itself, as 
a chief expression of thought and character, 
Job 6:30; as a soft tongue, Prov. 25:15, a 
froward tongue, Prov. 10:31, an evil tongue, 
Psa. 57:4, a wise and wholesome tongue, 
Prov. 10:20; 12:18; 15:4. A "stammering 
tongue," in Isa. 33:19, was that of one 
speaking a foreign language. The power 
of the tongue for good and for evil is well 
described in Jas. 3. 

Confusion of Tongues. It is a Bible 
truth, confirmed more and more as the 
sciences of ethnology and philology ad- 
vance, that the whole human race was one 
in origin, and at first one in language, 
Gen. 11 :i; Mai. 2:10; Acts 17:26, which 
was preserved by Noah and his family 
after the flood. To frustrate the ambitious 
design of the multitudes who repeopled the 
earth to concentrate around a lofty metrop- 
olis, God " confounded their tongues " — 
apparently by miraculously hastening the 
process by which in the lapse of time new 
dialects and languages are formed in iso- 
lated communities ; and as each band who 
understood each other went off in a differ- 
ent direction, his plan for peopling the 
earth was thus fulfilled. 

Among the Borsippa inscriptions of Neb- 
uchadnezzar the confusion' of tongues is 
thus referred to: "A former king built it," 
the Borsippa monument, "but he did not 



complete its head. Since a remote time 
people had abandoned it, without order 
expressing their words." 

The Gift of Tongues, foretold by Joel, 
2:28, and by Christ, Mark 16:17; compare 
Matt. 10:19, 20; Mark 13:11, seems to have 
been of two kinds, both intended for the 
infancy of the Christian Church. The first 
gift was the power to " declare the wonder- 
ful works of God " in languages ordinarily 
unknown to the speakers, for the benefit of 
foreign hearers, Acts 2:4-11. This served 
the double purpose of attesting the divine 
origin of the gospel and promoting its dif- 
fusion, and may have been limited to those 
Pentecostal days. The other form of the 
gift of tongues is thought to have been an 
ecstatic form of worship, chiefly praise, dis- 
tinct from "prophesying" or preaching, 
and unintelligible except to those who had 
the gift of interpretation, Acts 10:46; 1 Cor. 
12:30. It may have been marked by a 
musical intonation, as when the sons of 
Asaph prophesied with harps and psalter- 
ies, 1 Chr. 25:1. It should be said, how- 
ever, that interpreters are not agreed in 
this view of a difficult subject, and that 
some arrange all the passages under the 
first head, and some exclude the first and 
assign all the passages to the second head. 

TOP, in Judg. 15:8, 11; Isa. 2:21, cleft.] 

TO'PAZ, a precious stone of wine-yellow 
color, with occasional pale tinges of green 
or red. It was the second of the 12 gems in 
the high-priest's breastplate, Exod. 28:17; 
39:10, and the 9th stone in the foundation 
of the New Jerusalem, Rev. 21:20. The 
king of Tyre wore it, Ezek. 28: 13, and Job, 
28:19, mentions it as a highly-prized pro- 
duct of Cush. Smith regards it as the mod- 
ern chrysolite, a softer stone than the topaz, 
and of a greenish tinge. 

TO'PHEL-, lime, Deut. 1:1, a town on the 
Israelites' route, east of the Arabah; found 
at Tuf ileh, a large village in a well-watered 
and fruitful valley, 17 miles south-southeast 
of the Dead Sea. 

TO'PHET, or TO'PHETH, 2 Kin. 23:10; 
Isa. 30: 33; Jer. 7:31,32; 19:2,6, 11-14; per- 
haps from toph, a tambourine, and mean- 
ing music-grove, but otherwise interpreted 
burning, ox filth. It lay at the southeast 
end of the valley of Hinnom, adjoining the 
" king's gardens." See Hinnom. 

TORCH'ES, FLA'MING, Nah. 2:3, in the 
R. V., "flash with steel." 

TORMENT'ORS, men who had charge of 
instruments of torture by which unwilling 
witnesses were compelled to testify, Acts 

639 



TOR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TRA 



22:24, a practice which the humane Mosaic 
code did not authorize. The same men 
were keepers of prisons, and it is probably 
with reference only to their office as jailers 
that the word is used in Matt. 18:34. 

TOR'TOISE, an unclean reptile accord- 
ing to the Mosaic code, Lev. 11:29. Sev- 
eral species of land and water tortoise are 
found in Palestine and its vicinity. The 
Hebrew word is translated "covered" 
(wagons) in Num. 7:3, and ''Titters'-' in 
Isa. 66:20, suggesting the shelly covering 
of this animal. Some, however, think the 
dhab or Arabian lizard is meant, a very 
common animal, sometimes 2 feet long, 
with a formidable tail covered with scales 
or spines. 

TO'U, 1 Chr. 18:9, 10. See Toi. 

TOW, Judg. 16:9; Isa. 1:31. In Isa. 
43: 17, linen. 

TOWARD, Psa. 5:7, at. 




TOWERS were erected on the outer walls 
of cities, especially at the corners and over 
the gates, 2 Chr. 26 : 9, 15 ; 32 : 5 ; Neh. 3:11; 
12:38; Jer. 31:38, and sentries were posted 
on them, 2 Kin. 9:17. Elevations within 
the city were also occupied by towers or 
forts, Judg. 9 : 47-49, and commanding 
heights along the frontiers of a country, 
where the approach of an enemy could be 
descried at a distance, Isa. 21:6-9; Ezek. 
33:2-6. A tower afforded a refuge to the 
surrounding inhabitants in case of inva- 
sion ; and often, when most of a city was 
subdued, the tower or citadel remained 
impregnable. So God is a strong and safe 
protector of his people, Psa. 18:2; 61:3; 
Prov. 18:10. Many isolated towers are 
mentioned in Scripture: as "the tower of 
Edar " or "the flock," Gen. 35:21; Mic. 
4:8, 8 miles southwest of Bethlehem; the 
tower of David and of Lebanon, Song 4:4; 
640 



7:4; that of Siloam, Luke 13:4; and of 
Ophel, Neh. 3:26. A structure for the pro- 
tection of the keeper of a vineyard or flock 
was often built, sometimes slight, but often 
of stone and large enough to house the 
w r hole family during the vintage, 2 Chr. 
26 : 10; 27 : 4 ; Isa. 5:2; Matt. 21 : 33, and 
travellers in Palestine see them in use at 
this day. Towers were also raised by hos- 
tile armies in besieging a city, Ezek. 21 :22. 
In Ezek. 29:10; 30:6, instead of " the tower 
of Syene," some read, "from Migdol to 
Syene," or Seveneh. See Migdol. 

'TOWN-CLERK, or scribe, Acts 19:35, the 
acting head of the municipal government 
at Ephesus, a lieutenant of the supreme 
authority; such an officer is mentioned in 
history and on a coin of the time. 

TRACHONI'TIS, rugged region, the an- 
cient Argob ; in the time of Christ a Roman 
province northeast of Palestine, associated 
with Batanaea, Auranitis, and Gaulonitis, 
Luke 3:1. It lay between Damascus on 
the north and Bostra on the south, with 
Gaulonitis, now Jaulan, on the west and 
the ridge Jebel Hauran on the east, inclu- 
ding the modern Lejah — an oval region, a 
rough plain elevated 30 feet above the ad- 
jacent region, and formed of black basalt, 
hard as flint and full of air-bubbles and 
hollows. The region is still a refuge for 
the lawless, as of old, 2 Sam. 13:37, 38. 
See Argob. Herod the Great subdued the 
robbers that infested it ; and after his death 
it was governed by Philip his son, and then 
by Herod Agrippa. One of its towns, Phae- 
no, had a Christian church, represented at 
the councils of Chalcedon and Ephesus. 

TRADI'TION, a doctrine, sentiment, or 
custom not found in the Bible, but trans- 
mitted orally from generation to genera- 
tion from some presumed inspired author- 
itv. In patriarchal times much that was 
valuable and obligatory was thus preserved. 
But tradition has long been superseded by 
the successive and completed revelations 
of God's will which form the inspired Scrip- 
tures, the only perfect and sufficient rule 
of belief and practice. With this, even be- 
fore the time of the Saviour, Isa. 8:20. all 
traditions were to be compared, as being 
of no value if they conflicted with it, added 
to it. or took from it. Comp. Acts 17:11; 
2 Tim. 3:15-17; Tit. 1:14; Rev. 22:19. The 
Jews had numerous unwritten traditions, 
which they affirmed to have been delivered 
to Moses on Mount Sinai, and by him trans- 
mitted to Joshua, the judges, and the proph- 
ets. After their wars with the Romans 



TRA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY.. 



TRE 



under Adrian and Severus, in view of their 
increasing dispersion over the earth, the 
Jews desired to secure their traditions by 
committing them to writing. Accordingly 
Rabbi Judah "the Holy" composed the 
Mishna or 2d law, the most ancient collec- 
tion of the Hebrew traditions, about A. D. 
190-220. To this text two commentaries 
were afterwards added : the Gemara of 
Jerusalem, probably about A. D. 370, and 
the Gemara of Babylon, A. D. 500, forming 
with the Mishna the Talmud of Jerusalem 
and that of Babylon. The contents of these 
voluminous works poorly remunerate the 
student for the laborious task of reading 
them. Our Saviour severely censured the 
adherents of such legendary follies in his 
own day, and reproached them with pre- 
ferring the traditions of the elders to the 
law of God itself, and superstitiously ad- 
hering to vain observances while they 
neglected the most important duties, Matt. 
15:1-20; Mark 7:1-3. The traditions of 
the Romish Church, with less apology than 
the ancient Jews had before the New Tes- 
tament was written, are still more in con- 
flict with the Word of God and still more 
deserving of the Saviour's condemnation. 
The doctrine of that church, as expressed 
by one of its prelates and approved by 
Pius IX., is, " We owe entire credence to 
Scripture and to tradition, for they are 
equally the word of God." The apostles 
appealed to God's Word as authority, not 
to tradition, Acts 15:2, 15-17; 17:11.; 24:14; 
1 Cor. 15:3, 4. 

In 1 Cor. 11:2, R. V.; 2 Thess. 2:15; 3:6, 
" tradition " means inspired instructions 
from the lips of those who received them 
from God and were authorized to dispense 
them in his name. These apostolic say- 
ings were obligatory only on those who 
received them as inspired directly from 
the apostles. Had any of them come down 
to our times the only means of indorsing 
them must be by showing their agreement 
with the Word of God, since inspiration 
and miracles have ceased. 

TRANCE, a state of the human svstem 
distinguished from dreaming and revery, 
in which the bodily senses are locked up 
and almost disconnected from the spirit, 
which is occupied either with phantasms, 
as in trances produced by disease, or, as 
in ancient times, with revelations from 
God. Numerous instances are mentioned 
in Scripture : as that of Balaam, Num. 24:3, 
16; those of Peter and Paul, Acts 10:10; 
11:5; 22:17; 2 Cor. 12:1-4. Compare also 
41 



the " deep sleep " of Adam, Gen. 2:21, and 
of Abraham, Gen. 15:12-17, the vision of 
Job, 4:12-17, the experience of Saul, 1 Sam. 
19:24, and of some of the prophets, Jer. 
29:26; Ezek. 3: 15. 

TRANSFIGURATION, Matt. 17 : 1-9 ; John 
1:14; 2 Pet. 1:16-18. This remarkable 
event in the life of Christ probably took 
place at night, 'Luke 9:37, and on Hermon 
or some other mountain not far from Caesa- 
rea Philippi, the tradition which assigns it 
to Tabor not being sustained. See Tabor. 
The whole form and raiment of the Saviour 
appeared in supernatural glory. The Law 
and the Prophets, in the persons of Moses 
and Elijah, did homage to the Gospel. 
Comp. Exod. 33:18. By communing with 
Christ on the theme most momentous to 
mankind, his atoning death, they evinced 
the harmony that exists between the old 
and new dispensations and the sympathy 
between heaven and earth ; while the voice 
from heaven in their hearing gave him 
honor and authority over all. Besides its 
great purpose, the attestation of Christ's 
Messiahship and divinity, this scene dem- 
onstrated the continued existence of de- 
parted spirits in an unseen world, furnished 
in the Saviour's person an emblem of hu- 
manity glorified, and aided in preparing 
both him and his disciples for their future 
trials, Mark 9:2-13; Luke 9:28-36. The 
witnesses of the transfiguration were Pe- 
ter, James, and John. See James. 

TRAVELLING. See JOURNEY. 

TREAS'URES. Kings were wont to store 
their possessions and guard what they most 
valued in well-fortified cities, hence called 
treasure-cities, Exod. 1:11; 1 Chr. 27:25; 
Ezra 5:17. " Treasures in the field," Jer. 
41:8, were provisions, etc., buried,, as is the 
custom in many parts of the world, in sub- 
terranean pits. Numerous ruined grana- 
ries of this kind are still found in the 
vicinity of Beth-shean. The " Pilgrim fa- 
thers " in like manner found heaps of corn 
buried in the ground by the Indians. In 
consequence also of the great insecurity of 
property in the East it seems to have been 
usual from the earliest times to hide in the 
ground gold and jewels; and the owners 
being killed or driven away, or forgetting 
the place of deposit, these hidden treasures 
remain till chance or search brings them 
to light. They are much sought for by the 
Arabs at this day, and are believed by them 
to be the object travellers from the West 
have in view in exploring ancient ruins. 
Job 3:21; Prov. 2:4; Matt. 13:44. A few 

641 



TRE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TRI 



years since some workmen digging in a 
garden at Sidon discovered several copper 
pots filled with gold coin from the mint of 
Philip of Macedon and his son Alexander, 
unmixed with any of later date. The lost 
treasure, worth many thousands of dol- 
lars, had remained undisturbed over 2,000 
years. 

TREAS'URY, the portion of the temple 
in which were deposited the offerings of 
the people for sacred purposes ; there were 
apartments for the tithes of flour, wine, oil, 
etc., 1 Chr. 9:26; Neh. 10:38; 13:4-9, and 
chests for gifts in money, which the rabbis 
say stood in the Court of the Women and 
were 13 in number, Mark 12:41; Luke 
21:1; John 8:20. Kings had their treasu- 
ries, Esth. 3:9, and officers in charge of 
them, Ezra 1:8, those of the kings of Baby- 
lon having some authority, Ezra 7:21 ; Dan. 
3:2, 3. Snow, wind, hail, and rain are said 
to be issued as from God's storehouse, 
2 Chr. 7:13; Job 38:22; Psa. 135:7; Jer. 
51:16. 

TREES were frequently used as types of 
kings or men of wealth and power, Psa. 
37 : 35.' Isa - 2:I 3; Dan. 4:10-26; Zech. 
11: 1, 2. The Hebrews were forbidden to 
cut down an enemy's fruit-trees in time of 
war, Deut. 20:19, 20. The " tree of knowl- 
edge of good and evil " bore the forbidden 
fruit, by eating of which Adam fatally in- 
creased his knowledge — of good by its loss, 
of sin and woe by actual experience, Gen. 
2:9, 17. The "tree of life" may have been 
both an assurance and a means of impart- 
ing life, a seal of eternal holiness and bliss, 
if man had not sinned. Comp. Rev. 22:2. 
In Acts 5:30; Gal. 3:13, "tree" is literally 
" a beam of wood." 

TRENCH, in 1 Kin. 18:32-38, a circular 
ditch; in 1 Sam. 26:5-7; 2 Sam. 20:15, a 
wall or rampart, often formed by arran- 
ging the vehicles, camels, and impedimen- 
ta of a caravan or equipage of a camp in 
a circle, within which the tents are pitched, 
1 Sam. 17:20. See Camp. A trench was 
also a means of preventing sorties and a 
passage of approach to the walls of a be- 
sieged city, like a deep moat or ditch, the 
earth thrown up constituting a wall. The 
Redeemer, weeping over Jerusalem a few 
days before he was crucified under its 
walls, said, "The days shall come upon 
thee that thine enemies shall cast a trench 
about thee and compass thee round and 
keep thee in on every side,*' Luke 19:43- 
The Romans fulfilled this prediction by 
inclosing the entire city of Jerusalem by a 
642 



wall in 3 days, that the Jews might neither 
escape nor be relieved from without. 

TRES'PASS, an injury done to another, 
with more or less culpability. The Mo- 
saic law required a trespasser not only to 
make satisfaction to the person injured, 
but by an offering at the altar to reconcile 
himself to the divine Governor, Lev. 5; 
6:1-7; Psa. 51:4. See Sacrifice. Christ 
repeatedly declares that in order to be for- 
given of God we must be forgiving to men, 
Matt. 6:14, 15, and that no brother must 
have aught against us, Matt. 5 : 23, 24. 

TRI'AL. See Justice. In Acts 19:38 
for " the law is open," read "for the court 
is open," R. V. : it is now a court-day, and 
the proconsul with his adsessors, selected 
from the people, will do justice. 

TRIBE. Jacob having 12 sons, heads of 
as many families, which together formed a 
great nation, each of these families was 
called a tribe. They are named in the 
order of their birth in Gen. 49: Reuben, 
Simeon, Levi, Judah, Zebulun, Issachar, 
Dan, Gad, Asher, Naphtali, Joseph, Ben- 
jamin. But this patriarch on his death-bed 
adopted Ephraim and Manasseh, the 2 sons 
of Joseph, and would have them also to 
constitute 2 tribes in Israel, Gen. 48:5. In- 
stead of 12 tribes there were now 13, that 
of Joseph being 2. Yet in the distribution 
of lands by Joshua under the order of God, 
they reckoned but 12 tribes and made but 
12 lots; for the tribe of Levi, being ap- 
pointed to the sacred service, had no share 
in the distribution of the land, but received 
certain cities to dwell in, with the first- 
fruits, tithes, and oblations of the people. 
Each tribe had its own leaders and tribu- 
nals; and the whole 12, in their early his- 
tory, constituted a republic somewhat re- 
sembling the United States. In the divi- 
sion made by Joshua of the land of Canaan, 
Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh had 
their lot beyond Jordan, east; all the other 
tribes and the remaining half of Manasseh 
had their inheritance on this side the riv- 
er, west. 

The 12 tribes continued united as one 
state, one people, and one monarchy till 
after the death of Solomon, when 10 of the 
tribes revolted from the house of David 
and formed the kingdom of Israel. See 
Hebrews. 

TRIB'UTE. Every Jew 20 years old was 
required to pay an annual tribute or capi- 
tation-tax of half a shekel, about 25 cents, 
in acknowledgment of God's sovereignty 
and for the maintenance of the temple 



TRI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TRO 



service, Exod. 30:12-15. In Matt. 17:24, 
for "tribute" the R. V. reads "the half- 
shekel." It was with reference to this that 
Christ says in effect, " If this tribute be 
levied in the name of the Father, then I, 
the Son, am free." In other New Testa- 
ment passages tribute means the tax lev- 
ied by the Romans. See Tax. On the 
question of paying tribute to foreigners 
and idolaters, Matt. 22:16-22, Christ gave 
a reply which neither party could stigma- 
tize as rebellious or as unpatriotic and irre- 
ligious. By themselves using Caesar's cur- 
rency, both parties acknowledged the fact 
of his supremacy. Christ warns them to 
render to all men their dues, and above 
all, to regard the claims of Him whose su- 
perscription is on everything, 1 Cor. 10:31 ; 

1 Pet. 2:9, 13. 

TRIN'ITY, or TRI -UNITY, the doctrine 
that Jehovah is the one and only God, ex- 
isting eternally in three Persons, the Father, 
the Son, and the Holy Spirit, all equal in 
perfect and supreme Godhead. The Fa- 
ther in relation to mankind appears as the 
Creator, Preserver, and Governor of the 
universe; the Son as the revealer of the 
Deity to us, and the Redeemer ; the Holy 
Spirit as the regenerator, indweller, and 
sanctifier ; yet each appears in harmonious 
union with the others in their several 
spheres. It is a doctrine of pure revela- 
tion, chiefly in the New Testament, though 
intimations of it are found in the Old Tes- 
tament also: possibly in several Hebrew 
names of God, which are plural in form; 
in texts like Gen. 1:26, " Let us make man 
in our image;" in passages which speak 
of the Son, Psa. 2:7-12, of the Holy Spirit, 
Isa. 48 : 16, or of the three together, as Num. 
6:24-27; Psa. 33:6; Isa. 6:3; 63:8-10. 

In the New Testament there are many 
passages where the three are named to- 
gether, as in the apostolic benediction, 

2 Cor. 13:14; comp. Eph. 4:4-6; in the ini- 
tiatory ordinance of the Christian Church, 
Matt. 28:18-20; in the descent of the Holy 
Spirit at Christ's baptism, Matt. 3:16, 17; 
in the Saviour's promise of the Comforter, 
John 14; 26; and in the opening passage of 
Peter's first epistle. 

To these should be added all the passa- 
ges which ascribe deity to each of the sev- 
eral Persons : 

1. To the Father: including all that in- 
volve the existence and deity of God. 

2. To the Son : (a) ascribing to him the 
names of God, as John 1:1, 2; 10:28-30; 
20:28; Phil. 2:6 with John 5:18; Tit. 2:13, 



and the many passages in which he is 
called the Son of God; (6) implying divine 
attributes: as eternity, John 1:1; 8 : 58; 
17:5; Col. 1:17, creative power, John 1:1-3, 
10; Col. 1:16; Heb. 1:10; 2:10, omnipo- 
tence, Phil. 3:21, omniscience, Matt. 11:27; 
1 Cor. 4:5, and divine honor, John 5:23; 
Acts 1:24; 7:59; 2 Cor. 12:8; Heb. 1:6 with 
Psa. 97:7; Rom. 14:11 with Isa. 45:3; 2 Cor. 
5:8-11; Phil. 2:10; 2 Tim. 4:17, 18. 

3. To the Holy Spirit, which see. 

TRI'UMPH. All nations have delighted 
to honor their successful generals, and a 
favorite method has been by gorgeous pro- 
cessions of the victorious host, the leaders 
crowned with laurel, displaying their cap- 
tured banners, trophies, and spoils, and 
their enslaved enemies, with triumphal 
arches, martial music, and the acclama- 
tions of the people. There are various 
Scripture allusions to similar scenes, as in 
the songs of Miriam and Deborah, Exod. 
15 : 1-21 ; Judg. 5; compare Psa. 24 : 7-10; 
110:1; Isa. 60:14. The victors were praised 
in songs, 1 Sam. 18:6-8; 2 Chr. 20:21-28, 
and the dead were mourned, 2 Sam. 1 : 17- 
27; 2 Chr. 35:25. These triumphal pomps 
furnished figures for the future triumphs 
of the Prince of peace, Isa. 52:7-10; Eph. 
4:8; Col. 2:15, significantly foreshadowed 
in his triumphal entry into Jerusalem, Matt. 
21 : i-ii. 

TRO'AS, a maritime city of Mysia, in the 
northwest part of Asia Minor, situated on 
the ^Egean coast, at a little distance south 
of the supposed site of ancient Troy, the 
ruins of which, at Hissarlik, have recently 
been explored by Schliemann. It lay op- 
posite the island Tenedos, and Mount Ida 
overlooked it on the east. The adjacent 
region, including all the coast south of the 
Hellespont, is also called Troas, or the 
Troad. The city was a Macedonian and 
Roman colony of much promise, and was 
called Alexandria Troas. It had a fine 
harbor, and Julius Caesar and Augustus, 
and still more Constantine, seriously pro- 
posed to make it the seat of their empire. 
The Turks call its ruins Eski Stamboul, the 
old Constantinople. Its remains, in the 
centre of a forest of oaks, are still grand 
and imposing. The apostle Paul was first 
at Troas for a short time in A. D. 52, and 
sailed thence into Macedonia, Acts 16:8-11. 
At his 2d visit, in A. D. 57, he labored with 
success, 2 Cor. 2:12, 13. At his 3d record- 
ed visit he tarried but a week ; at the close 
of which the miraculous raising of Euty- 
chus to life took place, Acts 20:5-14, A. D. 

643 



TRO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TUR 



58. In 2 Tim. 4:13 we find traces of an- 
other visit, after his first imprisonment at 
Rome. 

TROGYL/LIUM, the name of a town and 
promontory of Ionia, in Asia Minor, be- 
tween Ephesus and the mouth of the Mean- 
der, opposite to Samos, which is not a mile 
distant. The navigation is intricate, and 
Paul on his last visit to Jerusalem, there 
being no moon, waited here one night, 
Acts 20:15. The promontory is a spur of 
Mount Mycale. 

TROOP, a band of marauders, like the 
modern Bedouin tribes, Gen. 49:19; 2 Sam. 
3:22; 22:30; Job 19:12; Jer. 18:22; Hos. 
6:9; 7:1. In Amos 9:6 for "troop" read 
rather "vault." On Isa. 65:11 see Gad, III. 

TROPH'IMUS, nourished, a disciple of 
Paul, a Gentile and an Ephesian by birth, 
Acts 21:29, who came to Corinth with the 
apostle, and accompanied him in his whole 
journey to Jerusalem, probably in charge 
of the collection for the poor of Judaea, 
A. D. 58, Acts 20:4. When the apostle was 
in the temple there the Jews laid hold of 
him, crying out, " He hath brought Greeks 
into the temple, and hath polluted this holy 
place;" because, having seen him in the 
city accompanied by Trophimus, they ima- 
gined that he had introduced him into the 
inner court of the temple, Acts 21:27-30. 
Some years afterwards Paul writes that 
he had left him sick at Miletus, 2 Tim. 4:20. 
This did not occur at Paul's former visit to 
Miletus, since Trophimus went with him to 
Jerusalem ; nor on the voyage to Rome, 
for they did not then go near Miletus. It 
is therefore one of the circumstances which 
prove that Paul was released and revisited 
Asia Minor, Crete, Macedonia, and per- 
haps Spain, before his 2d imprisonment 
and death. Of Trophimus nothing farther 
is known. 

TROW, an old word for think, Luke 17:9. 

TRUMP, 1 Cor. 15:52; 1 Thess. 4:16, 
A. V., and TRUM'PET. The Lord com- 
manded Moses to make 2 trumpets of beat- 
en silver, for the purpose of calling the 
people together when they were to decamp, 
Num. 10:2, of proclaiming the beginning of 
the civil year, of the sabbatical year, Lev. 
23:24; Num. 29:1, and of the Jubilee, Lev. 
25:9, 10. See Music. 

The Feast of Trumpets was a New Year's 
festival, kept on the first day of the 7th 
month of the sacred year, which was the 
first of the civil year, called Tishri. The 
beginning of the year was proclaimed by 
sound of trumpet, Lev. 23:24; Num. 29:1 ; 
644 



and the day was kept solemnly, all servile 
business being forbidden. In addition to 
the daily and the monthly sacrifices, Num. 
28:11-15, a solemn holocaust was offered 
in the name of the whole nation, of a bul- 
lock, a ram, a kid, and 7 lambs of the same 
year, with offerings of flour and wine, as 
usual with these sacrifices. The ordinary 
new-moon sacrifices were marked by trum- 
pet-blowing, but were not days of rest and 
special worship. Both the straight trurh- 
pet and the cornet were used at the Feast 
of Trumpets, which prepared for the Day 
of Atonement, the 10th of Tishri, Joel 2:15; 
and, according to the rabbis, commemora- 
ted the finished work of creation, when 
" all the sons of God shouted for joy," Job 
38:7. The trumpet "long and loud" be- 
tokened the descent of Jehovah on Mount 
Sinai, Exod. 19 : 16-19, his word by the 
prophets, Hos. 8:1; Zeph. 1:16; Rev. 1 : 10, 
and will mark Christ's 2d coming, Pdatt. 
24:31; 1 Cor. 15:52; 1 Thess. 4:16. 

TRUST, sometimes in the Hebrew "lean 
upon," 2 Kin. 18:5, 19, 20, 21, 24; sometimes 
"take refuge in," Ruth 2:12; Psa. 2:12; 
31:1; Nah. 1:7; Zeph. 3:12. 

TRYPHE'NA and TRYPHO'SA, luxuri- 
ous, female disciples at Rome, apparently 
sisters, and very useful in the work of 
evangelization, Rom. 16:12. 

TU'BAL, a son of Japheth, associated 
with Meshech and Javan, Gen. 10:2; 1 Chr. 
1:5, as originator of a northern nation, 
Isa. 66:19; Ezek. 32:26; 38:2, 3, 15; 39:1, 
2 ; supposed to have been the Tybareni, 
who occupied the northeastern part of Asia 
Minor. They were a warlike people, and 
brought slaves and copper vessels to the 
market of Tyre, Ezek. 27: 13. In Assyrian 
inscriptions 24 kings of that race are enu- 
merated. 

TU'BAL-CAIN, son of the Cainite La- 
mech and Zillah, inventor of the art of 
forging metals, Gen. 4:22; famed, accord- 
ing to Josephus, for his prodigious strength 
and success in war. 

TUR'TLE-DOVE, or Turtle, the Colum- 
ba Turtur ; a distinct bird from the com- 
mon dove or pigeon, smaller and differ- 
ently marked, having a soft and plaintive 
note, Psa. 74:19; Isa. 59:11; Ezek. 7:16, 
and gentle eyes, Song 1:15; 4 :I ; 5 :I2 - Its 
fidelity and innocence, Matt. 10:16, made it 
especially fit to be an offering to Jehovah 
and a symbol of the Holy Spirit, Matt. 3 : 16. 
There are 3 species of the turtle in Pales- 
tine : the Turtur visorius or collared turtle; 
the Turtur iEgyptiacus or palm-turtle, of a 



TUT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TYR 



chestnut color, a longer tail, and no collar ; 
and the Turtur auritus, the most abundant 
of all. It is a bird of passage, Jer. 8:7, 



£b 




turtle-dove: columba turtur. 

leaving Palestine for a short trip to the 
south and returning earl}'- in spring, Song 
2:12. It is timid and fond of seclusion, 
and pines in captivity, Psa. 11 :i. The law- 
allowed it as a burnt or sin offering by the 
poor, Lev. 1:14; 5:7; Matt. 21:12, and in 
several cases of purification, etc.. Lev. 12:6- 
8; 14:22; Num. 6:10, its use °by Joseph and 
Mary being a proof of their poverty, Luke 
2:24. Even before the giving of the law 
Abraham offered birds, w^hich were a tur- 
tle and a pigeon; and when he divided the 
other victims he left the birds entire, Gen. 

15:9- 

TU'TORS, Gal. 4:2, guardians. 

TWAIN, two, Matt. 5:41; 27:51; Eph. 
2:15. 

TWIN-BROTH'ERS, Acts 28:11, R. V., 
for " Castor and Pollux." See Castor. 

TYCH'ICUS, casual ox fortunate, a native 
of Asia Minor, probably of Ephesus, a fellow- 
laborer with Paul, first mentioned as with 
him on returning from his third mission- 
ary tour, Acts 20 : 4. He probably remained 
at Miletus or Ephesus while Trophimus 
went on to Jerusalem, Acts 20: 15, 38 ; 21 \2^. 
He was with Paul in his first imprisonment 
at Rome, and was the bearer of his letters 
to the Colossians and Ephesians, Col. 4:7, 
8; Eph. 6:21, 22. He was probably sent 
either to replace Titus in Crete or to accom- 
pany him to Nicopolis, Tit. 3:12, and was 
with Paul during part of his second impris- 
onment, being sent on some mission to Eph- 
esus, 2 Tim. 4:12. The apostle calls him 
his dear brother, a faithful minister of the 
Lord, and his companion in the service of 
God. 



TYPE, an image, stamp, or mould, Gr. 
tupos, denoting resemblance, and transla- 
ted "figure" in Rom. 5:14, A. V., "exam- 
ple" or "ensample" in 1 Cor. 10:6, 
11; Phil. 3: 17; 1 Thess. 1:7; 2 Thess. 
3:9," manner " in Acts 23 : 25, "form " 
in Rom. 6: 17, "fashion "in Acts 7: 44, 
and "pattern "in Heb. 8:5. Spir- 
itual truths were thus often repre- 
sented by material symbols — objects, 
acts, or institutions. In the more 
general use of the word, a Scriptural 
type is a prophetic symbol, " a shad- 
ow of good things to come," Heb. 
10: 1, " but the body is Christ," Col. 
2:17. The typical character of the 
old dispensation is its most distin- 
guishing feature. For example, the 
paschal lamb and all the victims sac- 
rificed under the law were types of 
the Lamb of God, and illustrated his 
great atonement; showing that guilt de- 
served death and could only be atoned for 
by the blood of an acceptable sacrifice. 
But they were also intended to foretell the 
coming of their great Antitype. 

The Old Testament types include per- 
sons, officers, objects, events, rites, places, 
and institutions, which were significant and 
appropriate as well as figurative. Thus 
Adam and Melchizedek, the prophetic and 
the priestly office, manna and the brazen 
serpent, the smitten rock and the passage 
over Jordan, the Passover and the Day of 
Atonement, Canaan and the cities of ref- 
uge, are Scriptural types of Christ. 

However striking the points of resem- 
blance which an Old Testament event or 
object may present to something in the 
New Testament, it is not properly a type 
unless it was so appointed by God and 
thus has something of a prophetic charac- 
ter. Due care should therefore be taken to 
distinguish between an illustration and a 
type. 

TYRAN'NUS, ruler, the name of a person 
at Ephesus in whose audience-room Paul 
publicly proposed and defended the doc- 
trines of the gospel for 2 years, Acts 19:9. 
By some he is thought to have been a Greek 
sophist, a teacher of rhetoric or philosophy, 
apparently a friend of free discussion, and 
very likely a convert finally to Christianity. 
TYRE, or TY'RUS, a rock, the celebrated 
emporium of Phoenicia, the seat of im- 
mense wealth and power, situated on the 
east coast of the Mediterranean, within the 
limits of the tribe of Asher as assigned by 
Joshua, Josh. 19:29, though never reduced 

645 



TYR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TYR 



to subjection, Judg. 1:31, 32. Tyre was a 
" daughter of Zidon," lying 20 miles south, 
but rapidly gained an ascendency over 
this and all the other cities of Phoenicia, 
which it retained with few exceptions to 
the last. It is mentioned by neither Moses 
nor Homer. At the time of the Judges the 
Phoenicians were called Zidonians, Josh. 
13:6; Judg. 18:7, and Virgil so calls the 
Phoenician founders of Carthage* but from 
the time of David onward reference is fre- 
quently made to Tyre in the books of the 
Old Testament. Though it was a commer- 
cial city, its government was regal, not re- 
publican, Jer. 25:22 ; 27:3. Many Israelites 
seem to have resided there, 2 Sam. 24:7. 
There was a close alliance between David 
and Hiram king of Tyre, which was after- 
wards continued in the reign of Solomon ; 
and it was from the assistance afforded by 
the Tyrians, both in artificers and materi- 
als, that the house of David, and after- 
wards the temple, were principally built, 
2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Kin. 5 ; 1 Chr. 14 ; 2 Chr. 2:3; 
9: 10. The marriage of Ahab king of Israel 
with Jezebel, a royal princess of Phoenicia, 
brought great guilt and endless misfor- 
tunes on the 10 tribes ; for the Tyrians were 
gross idolaters, worshippers of Baal and 
Ashtoreth, and addicted to all the vices of 
heathenism. The Bible gives us graphic 
descriptions of Tyre's immense exports and 
imports — its precious metals, slaves and 
brass, horses and mules, ebony and ivory, 
wheat, oil, honey, wine, wool, and spices, 
its frequent fairs, and its dealings with 
many countries, from England to India. 
Secular history informs us that Tyre pos- 
sessed the empire of the seas, and drew 
wealth and power from numerous colonies 
on the shores of the Mediterranean and 
Atlantic. The inhabitants of Tyre are 
represented in the Old Testament as filled 
with pride and luxury and all the sins 
attendant on prosperity and immense 
wealth ; judgments are denounced against 
them in consequence of their idolatry and 
wickedness. It exulted in the capture of 
Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, Ezek. 26:2, 
as removing a commercial rival and the 
city of Jehovah; comp. 2 Kin. 23:19, 20; 
and was denounced by the prophet Joel, 
3 : 4-8, for selling children of Judah as 
slaves to the Greeks, and by Amos, 1 :g, 10, 
for delivering them as captives to Edom, 
forgetting the "brotherly covenant" with 
David. Phoenicia was invaded by Shal- 
maneser not far from B. C. 723, and Tyre 
was besieged by him and by Sargon, and 
646 



probably became tributary for a time. Its 
destruction by Nebuchadnezzar was fore- 
told, and in a few years followed, Isa. 23:1, 
13; Ezek. 26:7-21; 27; 28:1-19; 29:18-20, 
though it appears that the conqueror pro- 
fitted less than he anticipated, and made 
amends by his inroad on Egypt, Ezek. 
29:18-20. Tyre was a double city, appar- 
ently from a very early period, a part be- 
ing on the mainland, 7 miles long, and a 
part on an island less than a mile long and 
half a mile from the shore. The siege 
under Nebuchadnezzar lasted 13 years, and 
at its end it would seem that the inhabi- 
tants withdrew to insular Tyre, which was 
enlarged and fortified and became opulent 
and powerful. It had 2 harbors, the one 
on the north a natural bay, that on the 
south formed by a costly breakwater. It 
fell for a time under Persian control, and 
furnished materials for Zerubbabel's tem- 
ple, Ezra 3:7. Its strength and resources 
enabled it to withstand the utmost efforts 
of Alexander the Great for the space of 7 
months. It was at length taken by him in 
332 B. C, having been first united to the 
mainland by an immense causeway made 
of the ruins of the old city, the site of which 
was thus laid bare; many thousands were 
massacred, and 30,000, it is said, were sold 
as slaves. After the death of Alexander 
Tyre was ruled by the Seleucidae, having 
been besieged by Antigonus 14 months. It 
fell at last under the dominion of the Ro- 
mans, and continued to enjoy a degree of 
commercial prosperity, though the deterio- 
ration of its harbor and the rise of Alexan- 
dria and other maritime cities have made 
it decline more and more. Our Saviour 
once journeyed into the region of Tyre and 
Sidon, Matt. 15:21, and may have visited 
it in his youth, for it was only 40 miles 
from Nazareth. A Christian church was 
here established before A. D. 58, when 
Paul spent a week there, Acts 21 : 3-7. 
Comp. Matt. 11:21, 22. The church pros^ 
pered for several centuries, and councils 
were held here, at one of which Athanasius 
was condemned, A. D. 335. It fell into the 
hands of the Moslems under Caliph Omar, 
A. D. 633-638, and was still famed as a 
strong fortress, as it was also in the age of 
the Crusaders, by whom it was only taken 
A. D. 1 124, 25 years after they had gained 
Jerusalem. Since its reconquest by the 
Turks, A. D. 1291, it has been in a ruinous 
condition and often almost without inhabi- 
tants. At present it is a poor town, called 
Sur, slightly defended by its wall, and hav- 





MODERN TYRE. 



UCA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



UNI 



ing a population of less than 5,000. It occu- 
pies the east side of what was formerly the 
island, one mile long and half a mile from 
the shore, thus inclosing two so-called har- 
bors separated by Alexander's causeway, 
which is now a broad isthmus. The only 
real harbor is on the north, but even this is 
too shallow to admit any but the smallest 
class of vessels. It is filled and the north 
coast of the island lined with stone col- 
umns, whose size and countless number 
evince the former magnificence of this 
famous city. But its old glory is gone for 
ever, and a few fishermen spread their nets 
amid its ruins in the place of the merchant 
princes of old, Ezek. 26:5, 14. 

U. 

U'CAL, sorrowful, Prov. 30:1, and Ith- 
iel, God is, apparently two disciples of 
Agur; yet these names may be symbolical 
of two classes of people addressed by the 
wise man. Dr. Davidson renders the pas- 
sage, " I am weary, O God, I am weary, O 
God, and have become weak." 

U'LAI, pure water, the clasic Eulae'us, 
the river in Persia on the bank of which, 
by the city Shushan, Daniel had his vision 
of the ram and the he-goat, Dan. 8:2-16. 
Some 20 miles north of Shushan this 
river, usually called there the Choas- 
pes, was divided — one stream, generally 
called the Eulaeus, passing down on the 
east of Shushan and emptying into the 
Kurun or Pasitigris, which flowed into 
the Persian Gulf; the other stream, gen- 
erally called the Choaspes, now the Ker- 
khah, passing on the west of Shushan and 
flowing southwest into the Tigris. The 
bed of the Eulaeus, 900 feet wide, is now 
dry. 

U'LAM, front, I., grandson of Manas- 
seh, 1 Chr. 7:16. 

II. A descendant of Saul, 1 Chr. 8 : 39, 40. 

UL'LA, yoke, a brave prince of the 
tribe of Asher, 1 Chr. 7:39. 

UM'MAH, union, a city on the north 
border of Asher, Josh. 19:30; now 'Abna 
esh Shaub, 6 miles northeast of Achzib. 

UNBELIEF' of the testimony of God 
makes him a liar, and is a sin of the great- 
est enormity. It is the work of a depraved 
and guilty heart; for no one without this 
bias could reject the abundant witness God 
furnishes of the truth of his word, Psa. 14:1; 
Rom. 1:19-23. Especially is unbelief to- 
wards an offered Saviour an unspeakable 
crime, justly sealing the condemnation of 



him who thus refuses to be saved, John 
3:11, 18; 5:38; 1 John 5:10. 

UNCIR'CUMCISED persons, men not 
having undergone the initiatory rite of ad- 
mission to the Hebrew commonwealth; 
heathen. The term is used figuratively of 
lips thick and slow of speech, Exod. 6:12, 
30, ears dull of hearing, Jer. 6:10, indica- 
ting hearts impervious to gospel truth, 
Deut. 10:16; Acts 7:51; also of the first 
fruit of a tree, Lev. 19:23. See Circum- 
cision. 

UNCLEAN'. See Clean. 

UNCTION, anointing, 1 John 2:20, 27, 
the special communication of the influence 
of the Holy Spirit by Christ to believers, 
leading them into all truth and holiness. 
Often used in our times to denote divine 
aid in preaching, and implying something 
far above mere earnestness and warmth. 

UNDERGIRD', passing a cable several 
times under and around a ship and tight- 
ening it on deck to prevent the working 
and parting of the timbers and planks in 
a gale, Acts 27:17. The process is called 
frapping, and has been resorted to in vari- 
ous instances in modern times. 

UNDERTAKE', to be surety for, Isa. 
38:14. 




U'NICORN, one-horned, Gr. Monokeros, 
by which the original Heb. Reem is trans- 
lated by the Seventy. The Hebrew word 
means erect, and has no reference to the 
number of horns. In Deut. 33 : 17 we should 
read, according to the Hebrew, "the horns 
of a unicorn," not " unicorns." The reem 
is usually associated in Scripture with cat- 
tle, Isa. 34:6, 7, and is now understood to 
denote a huge animal of the bison or buf- 
falo kind, the Bos primigenius, or aurocks, 
now extinct, of immense strength and fe- 
rocity, like the wild bull so frequently rep- 

647 



UNK 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



UR 



resented on the Assyrian monuments, as 
formidable for hunters as the lion. 

UNKNOWN' GOD, Ax, not The, Acts 
17:23; not Jehovah, but some supposed 
divinity who had befriended the Athenians, 
it was claimed, in a time of general trouble. 

UNKNOWN' TONGUE, literally "an- 
other tongue." See Tongues. 

UNLEARN'ED, the translation of four 
Greek words, meaning " unlettered " in 
Acts 4:13, "untaught" in 2 Pet. 3:16, "un- 
instructed " in 2 Tim. 2 : 23 ; a " private per- 
son " in 2 Cor. 14:16, 23, 24. The latter 
word is translated "rude" in 2 Cor. 11:6. 
All denote a person without education. 

UNLEAVENED BREAD, made from un- 
fermented dough, which the Hebrews, like 
the modern Bedouins, often used, Gen. 
19:3; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24; though 
they were familiar with leaven or yeast, 
made from lees of wine or from flour and 
water allowed to stand, Lev. 7:13; 23:17. 
At the Passover festival unleavened bread 
was prescribed as a memorial of the haste 
of their departure from Egypt, and every 
particle of fermenting matter was scrupu- 
lously removed from their houses, Exod. 
12:19; 13:7; 1 Cor. 5:7. See Leaven and 
Passover. 



UNPAR'DONABLE SIN, Matt. 12:31, 32. 
See Blasphemy. 

UNTO' WARD, Acts 2:40, perverse. 

UNWIT'TINGLY, Lev. 22:14; Josh. 20:3, 
5, not purposely. 

UPHAR'SIN, and they are dividing, a 
Chaldee word, an active plural form with 
the conjunction prefixed ; while peres or 
p hares, from the same root, is a passive 
participle, and means divided, Dan. 5:25, 28. 

U'PHAZ, a region producing fine gold, 
Jer. 10:9; Dan. 10:5. In Hebrew it differs 
from Ophir by only one letter, and it is 
thought by many to denote the same re- 
gion. 

UP'PER CHAM'BER or ROOM, Heb. 
aliyyah, an apartment on the roof of a 
house, sometimes projecting over the porch 
and communicating with it by a private 
staircase ; translated " parlor " in Judg. 
3:20-24, and "loft" in 1 Kin. 17:19, 23, 
A. V. It was often the most desirable 
summer room in the house, 2 Kin. 23:12, 
and a prophet was honored by being there 
lodged, 1 Kin. 17:19; 2 Kin. 4:10, 11. See 
House; also Mark 14:15; Acts 1 :13s 9:37; 
20:8. 

UR, light, I., Ur of the Chal'dees, the 
home of Terah and the birthplace of Abra- 




POOL OF ABRAHAM AT ORFAH. 

ham, Gen. 11:28, 31; 15:7; Neh. 9:7; Acts ] city of Orfah, in Northwestern Mesopota- 
7:2-4. It has long been identified with the I mia, a town of 40,000 inhabitants— Turks, 

648 



URB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



URI 



Arabians, Kurds, Jews, and Armenian Chris- 
tians — which both Jews and Moslems honor 
as the early home of Abraham. There is a 
pool near by, bearing his name, and a cave 
in which he is said to have dwelt is covered 
by a specially sacred mosque. Other au- 
thorities have placed Ur at Warka in South- 
ern Mesopotamia, 120 miles southeast of 
Babylon. See Erech. Later geographers 
incline to place it at Mugheir, near the 
west bank of the Euphrates, just above its 
junction with the Tigris, 125 miles from the 
Persian Gulf. This region of Southern 
Babylonia seems to have been the ancient 
Chaldaea, while the country north of it was 
Mesopotamia, Job 1:17; Isa. 13:19; 43:14. 
The ruins of Mugheir cover a space 1,000 
yards by 800 — a number of low mounds 
surrounded by countless tombs, with re- 
mains of a very ancient temple in several 
stages, in each corner of which an inscribed 
cylinder was found, and tablets, the rec- 
ord of a series of kings beginning with 
Urukh, about B. C. 2230, to Nabonnedus, 
B. C. 540, the last of the Babylonian kings, 
Avho associated with himself Belshazzar his 
eldest son. See Belshazzar. The re- 
gion around Mugheir is now a dismal 
swamp. 

II. Father of one of David's warriors, 
1 Chr. 11:35. 

UR'BANE, R. V. UR'BANUS, of the city, 
Rom. 16:9, a Roman disciple, Paul's com- 
panion in Christian labors. 

U'RI, fiery, I., son of Hur and father of 
Bezaleel, of the tribe of Judah, Exod. 31:2; 
35 : 3°°, 38:22; 1 Chr. 2:20; 2 Chr. 1:5. 

II. Father of one of Solomon's providers 
in Gilead, 1 Kin. 4:19. 

III. A gate-keeper in the restored tem- 
ple, Ezra 10:24. 

URI'AH, or URI'JAH; in the A. V., Matt. 
1:6, URI' AS ; the light of Jehovah. I. A Hit- 
tite, one of David's yj chief warriors, 2 Sam. 
23:39; 1 Chr. 11:41, husband of the beauti- 
ful Bath-sheba, to whom he was devotedly 
attached, 2 Sam. 12:3. He had a home in 
Jerusalem near the royal palace, 2 Sam. 
11:2, was a patriot of a high and noble 
spirit— refusing to visit his home in war- 
time at the suggestion of David, who hoped 
thus to conceal his own crime, ver. 9-13 — 
but was treacherously exposed to certain 
death in a battle with the Ammonites, by 
the order of David, who thus secured Bath- 
sheba for himself, ver, 16-27; 12:9-15. 

II. A high-priest in the reign of Ahaz, 
supposed to have succeeded the Azariah 
under king Uzziah, and been followed by 



the Azariah under king Hezekiah. He is 
called "a faithful witness" by Isaiah, 8:2, 
but erred in constructing at the king's re- 
quest an altar unlike that prescribed in 
the law, Exod. 27: 1-8 ; 38 : 1-7, after the pat- 
tern of one the king had seen at Damascus, 
and giving it the place of honor in the holy 
temple, 2 Kin. 16:10-16; compare 23:12; 
2 Chr. 28:23-25. 

III. A priest after the Captivity, Ezra 
8:33; Neh. 3:4, 21. 

IV. Son of Shemaiah, a faithful prophet 
from Kirjath-jearim in Judah in the time 
of Jehoiakim. He confirmed the predic- 
tions of Jeremiah against Judah; and hav- 
ing fled to Egypt for refuge from the en- 
raged king, and been sent back by Pha- 
raoh-necho on demand, he was wickedly 
slain and dishonorably buried, Jer. 26:20- 
23. Comp. 2 Kin. 24:4. 

V. A priest who assisted Ezra when he 
read the book of the law to the people, 
Neh. 8:4. 

U'RIEL,>r^ of God, I., father of Uzziah, 
a Kohathite Levite, 1 Chr. 6:24. 

II. A chief of the Kohathites in David's 
time, prominent in bringing up the ark 
from Obed-edom's house to Jerusalem, 
1 Chr. 15:5, 11. 

III. Father of the favorite wife of Reho- 
boam, granddaughter of Absalom, 2 Chr. 
11:20, and mother of Abijah, 2 Chr. 13:2. 

U'RIM AND THUM'MIM, the lights and 
perfections, or light and truth; compare 
Psa. 43:3; a divinely appointed means of 
" inquiring of the Lord," its name being 
expressive of the truth of his revelations. 
It would appear to have been made known 
to the Jews at some time prior to its first 
mention in Scripture, Exod. 28:15-30. It 
was placed within or on the high-priest's 
breastplate, Lev. 8:8, and probably is to 
be understood as present when the ephod 
is mentioned — being worn on the outside 
of it, Num. 27:21; 1 Sam. 14:3; 23:9, 11; 
30:7, 8; 2 Sam. 2:1; and when counsel is 
asked of God by the high-priest, Judg. 1:1; 
20:18,28; 1 Sam. 14:18, 19. It was given 
as a special prerogative to the " holy " or 
consecrated tribe of Levi, in the line of its 
high-priests, Deut. 33:8, 9; but is not men- 
tioned after Abiathar's day, 1 Sam. 23:6-12, 
28:6; 2 Sam. 21:1, and had been forfeited 
for some time at the era of the Captivity, 
Ezra 2:63; Neh. 7:65; comp. John 11:510 
King Saul sought information through it, 
but was not answered, 1 Sam. 28:6. The 
teraphim seem to have become an unau- 
thorized substitute for it, Ezek. 21:21 ; Zech, 

649 



usu 



BIBLE DICTIONARY, 



UZZ 



10:2. It is not known what were the mate- 
rial and form of the Urim and Thummim, 
nor in what manner God thereby revealed 
his will. According to Josephus and the 
rabbis, the 12 precious stones of the breast- 
plate formed this divine oracle; and some 
conjecture that they revealed God's pur- 
pose ,by emitting an extraordinary lustre. 
According to others the words Urim and 
Thummim, or else the sacred name of 
Jehovah, engraved on a plate of gold or on 
one or two precious stones, comp. Rev. 
2:17, and placed within the breastplate, 
formed the oracle. When the Urim and 
Thummim were to be used in inquiring of 
the Lord, if at Jerusalem, the high-priest 
put on his robes, and going into the Holy 
Place, stood before the curtain that sepa- 
rated the Holy Place from the Most Holy 
Place; then turning towards the ark and 
the mercy-seat, upon which the divine 
presence rested, he proposed the subject 
respecting which he desired " light and 
truth." See Breastplate. 

U'SURY in the A. V. means only Inter- 
est, the word usury not having formerly 
assumed the bad sense which it now has, 



Luke 19: 



The Jews might require in- 



terest of foreigners, Deut. 23:19, 20, but 
were forbidden to receive it from each 
other, Exod. 22 : 25 ; being instructed to 
lend money, etc., in a spirit of brotherly 
kindness, " hoping for nothing again," 
Deut. 15:7-11; Luke 6:33-35. The exact- 
ing of real usury, Heb. devouring, is often 
rebuked, Neh. 5:7, 10; Psa. 15:5; Prov. 
28:8; Jer. 15:10; Ezek. 22:12, 14. Land 
was often mortgaged at an excessive rate 
of interest, Lev. 25:36,37; Ezek. 18:8, 13, 
17, and the abuse was condemned by Ne- 
hemiah, 5:3-13, and by our Lord, Luke 
6:30-35; yet reasonable interest for money 
loaned is not censured, Matt. 25:27. The 
Mosaic code was adapted to a non-com- 
mercial people, but its principles of equity 
and charity are of perpetual and universal 
obligation. 

UZ, wooded, fertile, I., son of Aram, Gen. 
10:23, an d grandson of Shem, 1 Chr. 1:17. 

II. In the A. V. Huz, son of Nahor and 
Milcah, Gen. 22:21. 

III. A Horite prince, Gen. 36:28; 1 Chr. 
1:42. 

IV. The land where Job dwelt, Job 1:1. 
The Seventy call it Ausitis. It appears to 
have been a region in Arabia Deserta, be- 
tween Palestine, Idumaea, and the Euphra- 
tes, within reach of the Sabaeans and Chal- 
daeans, Job 1:15, 17, near the Edomites, 

650 



Job 30:6, 7; Lam. 4:21, and at one time a 
part of Idumaea. Eliphaz the Temanite 
was an Idumaean. See Teman. It is un- 
certain whether its inhabitants were de- 
scendants of Uz the son of Aram, Huz the 
son of Nahor, or Uz the Horite, Gen. 10:23; 
22:21; 36:28. They appear to have had 
much knowledge of the true God and the 
principles of virtue and religion. 

U'ZAI, strong, Neh. 3:25. 

U' Z AL, going forth, the 6th son of Jok- 
tan, Gen. 10:27; 1 Chr. 1:21. His home is 
identified by Jewish writers with San'a in 
Yemen, Arabia Felix, 150 miles from Aden 
and 100 from the Red Sea — a large city on 
an imposing site, with fortifications, fine 
houses, minarets, etc., and having some 
15,000 Jews mingled with the Arabs. In 
Ezek. 27:19 some interpreters read "from 
Uzal," instead of "going to and fro." In 
the R. V. the clause reads, "Vedan and 
Javan traded with yarn for thy wares." 

UZ'ZA, strength, I., son of Ehud the 
Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8:7. 

II. Owner of the burial-place of Manas- 
seh and Amon, a garden by the royal pal- 
ace, 2 Kin. 21:18, 26; 2 Chr. 33:20. 

III. A father of Nethinim, Ezra 2:49; 
Neh. 7:51. 

UZ'ZAH, strength, in some places in the 
A. V. Uzza, 1 Chr. 6:29; 13:7, 9, 11. 

I. A Merarite Levite, 1 Chr. 6:29. 

II. A Levite, son of Abinadab, who fell 
dead while conducting the ark from Kir- 
jath-jearim towards Jerusalem, after its 20 
years' stay in his father's house, 2 Sam. 
6; 1 Chr. 13. He was the 2d son, 1 Sam. 
7:1, Eleazar being the 1st and Ahio the 3d. 
He was walking by the side of the ark 
when the oxen stumbled, and he rudely 
caught it lest it should fall to the ground. 
In his person God chastised the prevalent 
irreverence, which was intimated in the 
rude jolting along of the ark by oxen, ex- 
posed both to sight and to touch, comp. 
1 Sam. 6:13-19, while the law required it 
to be fully covered by the priests and then 
reverently borne by staves on the shoul- 
ders of the Levites, who were not to look 
upon or touch the ark itself on pain of 
death, Exod. 25:14; Num. 4:5, 15, 19, 20. 
Comp. 1 Chr. 15:2, 13, 15. The place long 
bore the name of Perez-uzzah, " the breach 
on Uzzah," 2 Sam. 6:8, and was near the 
threshing-floor of Chidon, disaster, or Na- 
chon, stroke. 

UZ'ZI, my strength, the name of 6 He- 
brews, 1 Chr. 6:5, 6, 515 7:2; 7:7; 9:8; 
Neh. 11:22; 12:19. 



uzz 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



VEI 



UZZI'A, strength of Jehovah, one of Da- 
vid's champions, i Chr. 11:44. 

UZZI'AH, strength of Jehovah, L, a Ko- 
hathite Levite, one of Samuel's ancestors, 
1 Chr. 6:24; called Azariah, ver. 36. 

II. Father of one of David's purveyors, 
1 Chr. 27:25. 

III. The 10th king of the Southern king- 
dom, called Ozias in Matt. 1:8, 9, A. V. 
He reigned 52 years, B. C. 810-759. A 
great earthquake occurred in his reign, 
Amos 1:1; Zech. 14:5. See Azariah. 

IV. A descendant of Judah, living in Je- 
rusalem after the Captivity, Neh. 11:4. 

V. A faithful priest in Nehemiah's time, 
Ezra 10:21. 

UZZI'EL, strength of God, the name of 
6 Hebrews. I. A Benjamite, son of Bela, 
1 Chr. 7:7. — II. A Kohathite Levite, Exod. 
6:18, 22; Lev. 10:4; Num. 3:27; 1 Chr. 
23:12, 20; 26:23. — HI- A musician, son of 
Heman, 1 Chr. 25:4, called Azareel in ver. 
18. — IV. A Levite, son of Jeduthun, 2 Chr. 
29 : 14. — V. A warlike Simeonite chieftain, 
who completed the subjugation of the 
Amalekites defeated by Saul and David, 

1 Chr. 4:42. — VI. A repairer of the walls of 
Jerusalem, Neh. 3:8. 

V. 

VAG'ABOND, in the A. V. a wanderer, 
not necessarily worthless or vicious, Gen. 
4:12; Psa. 109:10; Acts 19:13. 

VAIL. See Veil. 

VALE, VAL'LEY. Five different He- 
brew words so translated are used to des- 
ignate different varieties of low ground 
intermingled with the mounts and ridges 
of Palestine. See Canaan. One, biqah, 
generally denotes a wide and level plain 
bordered by higher ground, and is often 
rendered "plain," Gen. 11:2; Isa. 40:4; 
Amos 1:5; it is applied to the plain of Ono, 
Neh. 6:2, of Coele-Syria, Josh. 11:17; 12:7, 
and of the lower Jordan, Deut. 34:3. 

A 2d term, erne], denotes a long and 
wide valley between hills, as the valley of 
Ajalon, Josh. 10:12, of Hebron, and of Je- 
hoshaphat, Joel 3:2, 12, 

The 3d, gat, designates a deep and ra- 
vine-like valley, as that of Hinnom, Josh. 
15:8. It is applied to the valley of Salt, 

2 Sam. 8:13, the ravine where Moses was 
buried, Deut. 34:6, and to the "valley of 
the shadow of death," Psa. 23:4, where it 
images an extremely perilous and cheer- 
less state of the soul. See view in Sela. 

The 4th, nachal, corresponds to the mod- 



ern " wady," a valley or water-course, more 
or less filled with a rapid stream in the 
rainy season, but for most of the year dry. 
Palestine abounds in " wadys," and the He- 
brew term often occurs, and is translated 
"brook," "plain," "river," and "valley." 
It is applied to the brook Gerar, Eshcol, 
Cherith, Kidron, etc. 

The 5th term, shephelah, is appropriated 
to the great plain sloping down from the 
mountains of Judah to the Mediterranean, 
often called " the plain ;" in the R. V. " low- 
lands," Deut. 1:7; Josh. 9:1; 10:40; 11:2, 
J 6; 15:33; 1 Kin. 10:27; 1 Chr. 27:28; 
2 Chr. 1:15; 9:27; Jer. 32:44; 33:13; Obad. 
19; Zech. y.j. See Shephelah. 

Still another Heb. term of specific appli- 
cation, the Arabah, is found in Num. 22:1; 
35:1; Josh. 3:16; 2 Sam. 2:29, etc., and de- 
notes the great valley south of the Dead 
Sea, and its prolongation north along that 
sea and the Lower Jordan. See Arabah. 

VAN'ITY does not usually denote in 
Scripture self-conceit or personal pride, 
2 Pet. 2:18, but sometimes emptiness and 
fruitlessness, Job y.T,; Psa. 144:4; Eccl. 1; 
often wickedness, particularly falsehood, 
Deut. 32:21; Psa. 4:2; 12:2; 24:4; 26:4; 
41:6; 119:37; 144:8, and sometimes idols 
and idol-worship, 2 Kin. 17:15; Jer. 2:5; 
18:15; Jonah 2:8. Comp. Paul's expres- 
sion, they " turned the truth of God into a 
lie," Rom. 1:25. "In vain," in the third 
commandment, Exod. 20.7, means " unne- 
cessarily and irreverently." "Vain men," 
2 Sam. 6:20; 2 Chr. 13:7, are dissolute and 
worthless fellows. 

VASH'TI, beautiful, the queen of Persia, 
divorced by Ahasuerus or Xerxes her hus- 
band for refusing to appear unveiled before 
his revelling company, Esth. 1, resenting 
apparently the degradation to the level of 
a dancing-girl. 

VEIL, an indispensable part of the out- 
door dress of Eastern ladies, who live se- 
cluded from the sight of all men except 
their own husbands and their nearest rela- 
tives, Gen. 24:65. If an Egyptian lady is 
surprised uncovered, she quickly draws 
her veil over her face, with some exclama- 
tion like, " Oh, my misfortune !" To lift or 
remove one's veil was to insult and de- 
grade her, Song 5:7; 1 Cor. 11:5, 10. The 
custom of wearing veils, however, has not 
been prevalent at all times. Veils do not 
appear on the Assyrian or Egyptian sculp- 
tures. Mohammedanism has done much 
to effect the change. Sarah the wife of 
Abraham, and Rebekah and her compan- 

651 



VEN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



VIN 



ions at the well do not appear to have worn 
them, Gen. 12:14, 15; 24:16, 65; 29:10; 
1 Sam. 1:12. Comp. also Gen. 38:14, 15; 
Prov. 7:13. Moses put a veil over his face 
when he had done speaking to the people, 
Exod. 34:33. See Abimelech. 




Veils were of different kinds. Those 
now worn in Syria and Egypt may be divi- 
ded into two classes, the one large and 
sometimes thick, the other small and of 
lighter materials. The usual indoor veil 
is of thin muslin, attached to the head-dress 
and falling over the back, sometimes to the 
feet. A similar veil is added to the front 
of the head-dress on going abroad, 
partially covering the face and hang- 
ing low. The other veil, to be worn 
in the street, is a large mantle or 
sheet, of black silk, linen, or some 
coarse material, so ample as to en- 
velop the whole person and dress, lea- 
ving but one of the eyes exposed, Song 
4:9. Such was the veil worn by Ruth, 
3:15, properly translated "mantle" 
in Isa. 3:22. Many women wear no 
other veil than this. The Greek word 
translated "power" in 1 Cor. 11:10 
probably means a veil, as a token of 
her husband's rightful authority and 
her own subordination. This was to be 
worn in their Christian assemblies " be- 
cause of the angels;" that is, because of 
the presence either of true angels or of the 
officers of the church, who being unaccus- 
tomed to see the unveiled faces of women, 
might be distracted by them in the dis- 
charge of their public duties. 

For the " veil of the temple," see Tab- 
ernacle and Temple. 

VEN'GEANCE, in Deut. 32:35; Rom. 
12:19; Heb. 10:30- Jude 7, means retribu- 
652 



tive justice — a prerogative of God, with 
which those interfere who seek to avenge 
themselves. See Anger. In Acts 28:4 
many suppose that the islanders meant 
the goddess of justice, Dike, whom the 
Greeks and Romans regarded as a daugh- 
ter of Jupiter, and feared as an indepen- 
dent, just, and unappeasable deity. 

VERMIL'ION, a brilliant red color, re- 
sembling scarlet. It was associated with 
idolatry, Jer. 22:14; Ezek. 23:14; and on 
the walls of Khorsabad, and on a marble 
from Nimrud now in the British Museum, 
traces of vermilion still remain. The ver- 
milion now used is a sulphuret of mercury. 

VETCH'ES. See Fitches. 

VEX, harass, or oppress, Exod. 22:21; 
Num. 25:17; 1 Sam. 14:47; Matt. 15:22; 
17:15; Acts 12:1. "Vexation of spirit," in 
Eccl. 1:14; 2 : 1 1 , 17, 26, etc. , is rendered in 
the R. V. "striving after wind." 

VI'ALS. See Censer. 

VILE, in Phil. 3:21, humiliated; in Jas. 
2:2, poor. 

VIL'LAGE, a collection of dwellings less 
large and regular than a town or city, 
1 Sam. 6:18 , Neh. 6-2; Luke 8:1, or a tem- 
porary pastoral settlement, tents or huts in 
a circle, with some inclosure by a hedge or 
otherwise, and a gate, Josh. 13 : 23, 28 ; 
15:32 ; often the suburbs of a walled town, 
Lev. 25:31, 34; Mark 6:56; 8:27. 




VINE. Of this valuable and familiar 
plant there are several varieties, the natu- 
ral products of warm climates, where also 
it has been cultivated from the earliest 
times. Hence the early and frequent men- 
tion of its products in Scripture, Gen. 9:20; 
14:18; 19:32; Job 1:18. The grape-vine 
grew plentifully in Palestine, Deut. 6:11; 
8:8, and was particularly excellent in some 
of the districts. The Scriptures celebrate 
the vines of Sibmah and Eshcol ; and pro- 
fane authors mention the excellent wines 



VIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



VIN 



of Gaza, Sarepta, Lebanon, Sharon, Aske- 
lon, and Tyre. See Sorek. The grapes 
of Egypt, Gen. 40:9-11, being small, we 
may easily conceive of the surprise which 
was occasioned to the Israelites by wit- 
nessing the bunch of grapes brought by 
the spies to the camp from the valley of 
Eshcol, Num. 13:23, 24. The account of 
Moses, however, is confirmed by the testi- 
mony of several travellers; and even in 
England a bunch of Syrian grapes has 
been produced which weighed 19 lbs., was 
23 inches in length and 19^ in its greatest 
diameter. At the present day, although 
the Mohammedan religion does not favor 
the cultivation of the vine, there is no want 
of vineyards in Palestine. Besides the 
large quantities of grapes and raisins which 
are daily sent to the markets of Jerusa- 
lem and other neighboring places, Hebron 
alone, in the first half of the 18th century, 
annually sent 300 camel-loads, or nearly 
300,000 lbs. weight, of grape juice, or honey 
of raisins, to Egypt. 

In the East grapes enter very largely 
into the provisions at an entertainment, 
and in various forms contribute much to 
the sustenance of the people. See Grapes. 
To show the abundance of vines which 
should fall to the lot of Judah in the parti- 
tion of the promised land, Jacob, in his 
prophetic benediction, says of this tribe, he 
shall be found 

" Binding his colt to the vine, 
And to the choice vine the foal of his ass ; 
Washing his garments in wine, 
His clothes in the blood of the grape." 

Gen. 49 : 11. 

Vines are usually planted in rows, 8 or 10 
feet apart in each direction, with strong 
stakes at intervals, 6 or 8 feet high, between 
which the vines are festooned. In many 
places, where the land is uneven or on hill- 
sides, they spread over the ground and 
rocks unsupported. Often, however, they 
are trained upon trellis-work over walls, 
trees, arbors, the porches and walls of 
houses, and at times within the house on 
the sides of the central court ; thus grow- 
ing, the vine became a beautiful emblem 
of domestic love, peace, and plenty, 1 Kin. 
4:25; Psa. 128:3; Mic. 4:4. As a wood it 
was of little worth, Ezek. 15:2-6. 

The law enjoined that he who planted a 
vine should not eat of the produce of it be- 
fore the 5th year, Lev. 19:23-25. Nor did 
Hebrews gather their grapes on the year 
of Jubilee or the sabbatical year ; the fruit 
was then left for the poor, the orphan, and 



the stranger, Exod. 23:11 ; Lev. 25:4, 5, 11, 
and the gleanings every year, Lev. 19:10; 
Deut. 24:21. At anytime a traveller was 
permitted to gather and eat grapes in a 
vineyard as he passed along, but was not 
permitted to carry any away, Deut. 23 : 24. 
Another generous provision of the Mosaic 
code exempted from liability to serve in 
war a man who, after four years of labor 
and of patience, was about to gather the 
first returns from his vineyard, Deut. 20:6. 

Josephus describes a magnificent and 
costly vine of pure gold, with precious 
stones for grapes, with which Herod 
adorned the lofty eastern gate of the Holy 
Place. It was perhaps in view of this that 
our Saviour said, " I am the true Vine," 
and illustrated the precious truth of his 
oneness with his people, John 15:1-8. 

"VINE OF SOD'OM," Deut. 32 .-32. See 
Sodom, Vine of. 

For the "wild grapes" in Isa. 5:2, 4, "see 
under Grapes. 

VIN'EGAR, the product of the second or 
acetous fermentation of vinous liquors. 
The term sometimes designates a thin, 
sour wine, much used by laborers and by 
the Roman soldiers, Num. 6:3; Ruth 2:14; 
2 Chr. 2:10. It was given to our Saviour 
on the cross, Matt. 27:48; Mark 15:36; 
John 19:29, 30; and was previously offered 
to him, mingled with bitter ingredients to 
deaden pain, and refused by him, Matt. 
27 : 34 ; Mark 15 : 23 ; comp. Psa. 69 : 21. See 
Gall. In other places it denotes the com- 
mon sharp vinegar, which furnished the 
wise man with two significant illustrations, 
Prov. 10:26 ; 25:20. 

VINE'YARD. The Jews often planted 
their vineyards on the side of a terraced 
hill or mountain, Jer. 31:5 (see Mountain), 
the stones being gathered out and the space 
hedged round with thorns or walled, Isa. 
5:1-6; Psa. 80:13; Song 2:15; Matt. 21:33. 
Vineyards were sometimes rented for a 
share of their produce, Matt. 21 133, 34 ; and 
from other passages we may perhaps infer 
that a good vineyard consisted of 1,000 
vines, and produced a rent of 1,000 silver- 
lings or shekels of silver, Isa. 7:23, and 
that it required 200 more to pay the dress- 
ers, Song 8:11, 12. In these vineyards the 
keepers and vine-dressers labored, dig- 
ging, planting, propping, and pruning or 
purging the vines, John 15:2, gathering 
the grapes, and making wine. The vine- 
yard tower is often large enough to lodge 
them ; and they had to guard not only 
against robbers, but against wild-boars, 

653 



VIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



VIR 



jackals, birds, and locusts. They formed 
a distinct class among cultivators of the 
ground, and their task was sometimes la- 
borious and regarded as menial, 2 Kin. 
25:12; 2 Chr. 26:10; Song 1:6; Isa. 61:5. 
Scripture alludes to the fragrance of the 
"vines with the tender grapes," Song 2:13, 
and draws from the vineyard many illus- 
trations and parables, Judg. 9:12; Matt. 
20:1; 21:28. The vineyard of Naboth, 
1 Kin. 21, has become a perpetual emblem 
of whatever is violently taken from the 
poor by the rich or the powerful. The de- 
serted hut or tower, in which a watchman 
had kept guard during the season of ripe 
grapes, Psa. 80:12, 13; Song 2:15, becomes, 
when all are gathered, an apt image of 
desolation, Isa. 1:8. A beautiful allegory 
in Psalm 80 represents the church as a 
vineyard, planted, defended, cultivated, 
and watered by God. 

The vintage followed the wheat harvest 
and the threshing, Lev. 26:5; Amos 9:13. 
The " first ripe grapes " were gathered in 
June, or later on elevated ground, Num. 
13:20; and grapes continued to be gath- 
ered for four months afterwards. The gen- 
eral vintage, however, was in September, 
when the clusters of grapes were gathered 
with a sickle and put into baskets, Jer. 6:9, 
carried and thrown into the wine-vat or 
wine-press, where they were probably first 
trodden by men and then pressed, Rev. 
14:18-20. It was a laborious task, light- 
ened with songs, jests, and shouts of mirth, 
Jer. 25:30; 48:33. It is mentioned as a 
mark of the great work and power of the 
Messiah that he had trodden the figurative 
wine-press alone, and of the people there 
was none with him, Isa. 63 : 1-3 ; Rev. 19 : 15. 
The vintage was a season of great mirth, 
Isa. 16:9, 10, and often of excesses and idol- 
atry, Judg. 9:27; while the mourning and 
languishing of the vine was a symbol of 
general distress, Isa. 24:7; Hab. 3:17; 
Mai. 3:11. Of the juice of the squeezed 
grapes were formed wine and vinegar. 
See Press. 

Grapes were also dried into raisins. A 
part of Abigail's present to David was 100 
clusters of raisins, 1 Sam. 25:18; and when 
Ziba met David his present contained the 
same quantity, 2 Sam. 16:1; 1 Sam. 30:12; 
1 Chr. 12:40. Respecting other uses of the 
fruits of the vine, see Grapes, Honey, 
Vinegar, and Wine. 

VINE'YARDS, PLAIN OF THE, Judg. 
11:33, m tne R - v - " Abel-cheramim." See 
Abel-carmaim. 

654 



VI'OL, Isa. 5:12; Amos 5:23; 6:5, a 
stringed instrument of music, elsewhere 
translated " psaltery." See Music and 
Harp. It was used in the worship of Jeho- 
vah, 1 Kin, 10:12; 1 Chr. 15:16; 25:1; 
2 Chr. 20:28; and of idols, Dan. 3:5, 7; 
and also at banquets and festivals, 2 Chr. 
20: 28 ; Isa. 5 : 12. 




EASTERN VIPER. 

VI'PER, a genus of serpents noted for the 
virulence of their poison, which is said to 
be one of the most dangerous in the animal 
kingdom. Hence the viper is a symbol of 
whatever is most evil and destructive, Job 
20 : 16 ; Isa. 30 : 6 ; 59 : 5. As such the term 
was applied by Christ and by John to cer- 
tain classes of the Jews, Matt. 3:7; 12 : 34 ; 
23 : 33 ; Luke 3 : 7. Paul's escape from the 
bite of a viper in Malta led the people to 
believe that he was a god in human form, 
Acts 28 : 3. A species of viper in Northern 
Africa and Southeastern Asia — having 
bright yellow and brown spots, with black- 
ish specks, and being 2 feet long and thick 
as a man's arm— is called the most formid- 
able serpent there ; and Hasselquist speaks 
of a viper in Cyprus whose bite produces a 
universal gangrene, and occasions death 
within a few hours. See Serpents. 

VIR'GIN, usually an unmarried female, 
Gen. 24:16; Exod. 22:15-17; Lev. 21:3, 14; 
Deut. 22:23; Judg. 21:12; but in 1 Cor. 
7:25; Rev. 14:4 an unmarried young man. 
Fortified and guarded cities are often per- 
sonified as virgins, e. g., Tyre and Baby- 
lon, Isa. 23 : 12 ; 47 : 1 ; so also Egypt, Jer. 
46:11, and the chosen people, Jer. 14:17; 
18 : 13 ; 31:4; Lam. 1:15; Amos 5 : 2. 

VIR'TUE, Mark 5 : 30 ; Luke 6:19; 8 : 46, 
healing power. In Phil. 4:8; 2 Pet. 1:3, 5, 
Christian manliness. In the general sense, 
true virtue towards men is inseparable 



VIS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



VUL 



from piety towards God ; and together the 
two words describe the character and life 
of one who loves God supremely and his 
fellow-men as truly as himself. " Virtu- 
ous," in Ruth 3:11; Prov. 12:4; 31:10, 
means capable and worthy. 

VIS'ION, Num. 24:15, 16; 1 Sam. 3:1, a 
mode by which God often revealed him- 
self and his will to men, usually his own 
servants, and especially in the early ages 
when his written Word was incomplete. 
Visions came to men while asleep, Job 
4:13 ; Dan. 2 : 19; 4: 10; 7:2,7; and while 
in a trance, Dan. 10:5-9; Acts II: 5J an d 
the receiver was no doubt assured of their 
divine origin. The term is often applied 
to the revelations of the Holy Spirit to the 
prophets. 

VOCA'TION, a divine calling, either to 
some special service, Exod. 31:2; Isa. 
22:20, or from sin and Satan to holiness 
and God, Eph. 4:1; 2 Thess. 2:14. See 
Call. 

VOL'UME. in the R. V. " roll," Psa. 40 : 7 ; 
Heb. 10:7. See Book. 

VOW, a voluntary special dedication of 
person or property to sacred uses, a free- 
will offering made to God, or a promise to 
do some good thing or abstain from some 
lawful enjoyment, under the influence of 
devotion to him, of gratitude for his good- 
ness, of imminent danger, the apprehension 
of future evils, or the desire of future bless- 
ings. To fulfil a vow binding one to sin 
was to add sin to sin ; but no considera- 
tions of inconvenience or loss could absolve 
one from a vow, Psa. 15:4; Mai. 1 : 14. Ja- 
cob going into Mesopotamia vowed the 
tenth of his income, and promised to offer it 
at Beth-el to the honor of God, Gen. 28:20- 
22; 31:13; 35:1-3- Moses enacted several 
laws for the regulation and execution of 
vows. " If thou shalt forbear to vow, it 
shall be no sin in thee; that which is 
gone out of thy lips thou shalt keep and 
perform," Deut. 23:21, 23; Judg. 11:35; 
Eccl. 5:4, 5. The vows of minors, etc., 
were not binding without the consent of 
the head of the family, Num. 30. A man 
might devote himself or his children to the 
Lord, Num. 6:2. Jephthah devoted his 
daughter, Judg. 11:30-40; and Samuel was 
vowed to the service of the Lord, 1 Sam. 
1:11, 27, 28. If men or women vowed 
themselves to the service of the Lord, they 
were obliged to adhere strictly to his ser- 
vice; but persons and things so devoted 
were sometimes redeemed, according to 
specified provisions, Lev. 27. These self- 



imposed services were more in keeping 
with the ancient dispensation, in which 
outward sacrifices and observances had so 
large a share, than with enlightened Chris- 
tianity. See Corban, Nazarites, Rech- 

ABITES. 

VUL'GATE, the name of the Latin ver- 
sion of the Scriptures used by the Church 
of Rome, the parent of all the versions of 
the Bible made by that church, and for 
many centuries almost the only Bible in 
general use in Central and Western Eu- 
rope. The Old Testament was originally a 
translation of the Greek Septuagint, not of 
the Hebrew. This version, with the Greek 
and Syriac, and the N. T. Latin Itala, were 
used by Jerome, A.D. 383-404 ; he also trans- 
lated anew from the Hebrew. The final 
revision of the Vulgate was in 1592. 




VUL'TURE, a large bird of prey, belong- 
ing to the genus hawks, and including a 
great many species. It is pronounced un- 
clean by Moses, Lev. 11:14; Deut. 14:13. 
See Birds. The word is used in the Bible 
to translate three Hebrew words, ay yah, 
daah, and dayyah. The ay yah, better trans- 
lated " kite " in Lev. 11:14; Deut. 14:13, is 
believed to denote the Milvus regalis, very 
common in Palestine in winter, hanging 
about camps and villages for garbage, gath- 
ering in groups on the trees in stormy 
weather, hovering high in the air in fine 
weather, keenly watching for its prey on 
the ground, carrion, or rats, mice, frogs, 
and young birds. It is of a reddish color, 
27 inches long, and has a long forked tail. 
It is called the " falcon " in Job 28:7, R. V. 
By the dayyah, Deut. 14:13; Isa. 34:15, and 
perhaps the daah, Lev. 11:14, is probably 
meant the Black Kite, Milvus migrans, a 
bird about 21 inches long, exceedingly com- 
mon in Palestine except during the winter, 

655 



WAF 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WAL 



building its nest loosely on ledges or trees, 
and feeding on garbage. It resembles the 
Milvus .Egyptius. See Glede. The He- 
brew nesher, translated "eagle" in Scrip- 
ture, means the Griffon or Great Vulture, 
a far larger and stronger bird than our 
eagles. The Egyptian vultures, a smaller 
variety, are commonly called in Egypt 
" Pharaoh's hens." The vulture has a na- 
ked or downy head, with a long beak 
curved only at the tip, a bare neck, and 
long wings, and is disgusting to every 
sense, especially to the smell. It is a car- 
rion bird, though not exclusively, and has 
extraordinary powers of vision. Scarcely 
can an exhausted camel fall on its route 
and die before numbers of these filthy 
scavengers show themselves in the dis- 
tance, hastening to the spot, Job 28 : 7 ; 
9:30; Matt. 24:28. This bird is called the 
'•gier eagle" in Lev. 11:18; Deut. 14:17; 
in the R. V. the " vulture." 



W. 



WA'FER, Exod. 16:31, a thin cake made 
of fine flour, unleavened, and used in con- 
nection with various offerings, anointed 
with sweet oil, Exod. 29:2, 23; Lev. 2:4; 
7:12; 8:26; Num. 6:15, 19; 1 Chr. 23:29. 

WA'GES were paid both in produce and 
in silver, Gen. 20; 30; 31; Exod. 2:9. In 
Christ's time a farm laborer received "a 
penny," about 16 cents, a day ; Matt. 20:2- 
13. The law and the gospel both require 
the full and prompt payment of a just 
equivalent for all services rendered ac- 
cording to agreement, Lev. 19:13; Deut. 
24:14, 15; Jer. 22:13; Ma l- 3 : 5> a °d with- 
holding wages due is denounced as a cruel 
wrong, Jas. 5:4. Eternal death is the wa- 
ges or just recompense of sin ; while eter- 
nal life is not a recompense earned by obe- 
dience, but a sovereign gift of God, Rom. 
6:22, 23. 




EGYPTIAN FOUR-WHEELED FUNERAL CAR, SYMBOLICAL. 



WAG'ONS were sent by Joseph to con- 
vey his father's family into Egypt, Gen. 
45:19,21, 27. The same vehicle, sometimes 
called a " cart," was employed to transport 
some of the sacred utensils, Num. 7:3, 6, 
in two instances, unlawfully, the ark itself, 
1 Sam. 6:7-14; 2 Sam. 6:3; 1 Chr. 13:7. 
See Uzzah. See also Ezek. 23:24. Wag- 
ons were drawn by oxen or by horses. 
They were probably of simple structure, 
with 2 solid wheels. Such carts are some- 
times used in Syria in removing agricultu- 
ral produce, Amos 2:13; but vehicles of 
any kind are little used, and travellers and 
merchandise are borne on the backs of 
camels, horses, and mules. See Carts. 

WALK is often figuratively used to de- 
note a man's mode of life, or his spiritual 
656 



character, course, and relations, Ezek. 
1 1 : 20. He may walk as a carnal or as a 
spiritual man, Rom. 8:1; with God or in 
ignorance and sin, Gen. 5:24; 1 John 1:6, 
7; in the fire of affliction, Isa. 43:2, or in 
the light, purity, and joy of Christ's favor 
here and in heaven, Psa. 89:15; Rev. 3:4. 

WALLS. The walls of dwellings in the 
East were of very different materials, from 
mere clay or clay and pebbles to durable 
hewn stone. See the latter part of the arti- 
cle House. Walls surrounding cities were 
often built of earth, or of bricks made of 
clay mixed with reeds and straw and dried 
in the sun ; these were very wide and often 
high (see Babylon), and some were de- 
structible by fire, Amos 1:7, 10, 14. Many 
cities, however, like Jerusalem, had walls 








A WALLED CITY: JAFFA. 



WAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WAN 



of hewn stone, with towers, bastions, and 
battlements, Isa. 2: 15 ,-.9:10. Even dwell- 
ing-houses were sometimes built on them, 



Josh. 2:15; 1 Sam. 19:12; 2 Cor. 11 -.33. The 
ruin caused by a falling wall was often 
great, Psa. 62:3; Isa. 30:13. See City and 




WAILING-PLACE OF THE JEWS. 



Jerusalem. The accompanying cut shows 
a portion of the western wall of the sacred 
area, Haram-es-Sherif, at Jerusalem. The 
huge stones in its lower part are believed 
by the Jews, and with good reason, to have 
formed a part of the substructions of their 
ancient temple, and to be as near as they 
can approach to the site of the Holy of Ho- 
lies. Hence they assemble here every Fri- 
day, and more or less on other days, to 
w r eep and wail with every token of the 
sorest grief, Psa. 79:1, 4, 5; 102:14, and to 
pray for the coming of the Messiah. In 
former years they had to pay a large price 
for this melancholy privilege. The wall 
here is 60 feet high. A little beyond this 
spot, towards the south, is the fragment of 
an immense arch of 41 feet span, one of 5 
or 6 which supported a lofty causeway from 
Mount Zion to the temple area at its south- 
ern portico, 1 Kin. 10:5; 1 Chr. 26:16, 18. 
Some of the stones in this part of the wall 
are 20 to 25 feet long. Excavation in some 
parts has shown that the walls of the tem- 
ple area reached down to the native rock. 

Hillside terraces were supported by 
walls, and vineyards and gardens were in- 
closed by them, Num. 22:24; Song 4:12. 

WAN'DERINGS OF THE ISRAELITES. 
42 



See Exodus. On departing from Egypt 
to go to the Promised Land the Israelites 
were unable to take the direct road north- 
east, " the way of the land of the Philis- 
tines," nor " the way of Shur," directly east, 
on account of the fortified frontier of Egypt 
and the Amalekites, Gen. 25 : 18. They 
were turned to the southeast, " the way of 
the wilderness by the Red Sea," Exod. 
13:17, 18, towards which they were also 
turned back from Kadesh two years later. 
Num. 14:25; Deut. 2:1. Having crossed 
the western arm of the Red Sea below 
Suez, they journeyed southeast along the 
coast, and then turning to the east pene- 
trated to the heart of the Sinaitic moun- 
tains, around Ras Sufsafeh. Here they 
received the law and remained over a year. 
Thence journeying northeast and north, on 
the west side of the mountainous range 
bordering the Arabah on the west, they 
came, some 15 months later, to Kadesh- 
barnea — whence the 12 spies were sent up 
to explore Canaan, and where, on their 
disheartening report, the rebellious and 
unbelieving Israelites were condemned to 
wander in the desert till that generation of 
men of war should die off, Num. 32:11-13; 
Deut. 2:14-16. 

657 



WAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WAN 



The whole record of their 40 years' so- 
journ in the desert is full of interest and 
instruction — narrating many marvellous 
providences and signal deliverances, show- 
ing the origin of the various institutions, 
and illustrating the Christian's pilgrimage 
to the heavenly Canaan, Neh. 9:10-21 ; Isa. 
63 : 1 1-14 ; Amos 2 : 10. 

The scene of the wanderings was Arabia 
Petraea. Of the portion included between 
the two arms of the Red Sea, the southern 
half is occupied by the vast ranges of the 
limestone Sinaitic Mountains, bounded on 
the north by the long cliffs of Jebel et-Tih; 
and the northern half by the desert et-Tih, 
ihe wandering . North of this is the vast 
desert of Paran, extending to the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, Num. 13:26, and the desert of 
Zin, Num. 33:36, on the northeast, reaching 
to Mount Hor, Kadesh, and the Negeb, or 
South Country. On the border of Egypt 
was the desert of Etham or Shur, Exod. 
13:20; 15:22, and farther south, between 
Sinai and the Red Sea, the wilderness of 
Sin, Exod. 16:1. The whole region is de- 
scribed as " the great and terrible wilder- 
ness," Deut. 8:15. It was deficient in food 
for man, and the supply furnished by their 
flocks and herds and obtained from neigh- 



boring tribes was supplemented by manna 
till they were safe in Canaan, Josh. 5:11, 12. 
It was deficient in permanent water sup- 
plies, and the lack was met by water from 
the, smitten rock, Exod. 17:6; Num. 20:8- 
11; 1 Cor. 10:4. There was some food for 
cattle, for Jethro's flock fed in the valleys 
around Sinai. Er-Rahah is described by a 
traveller in the 16th century as "a vast 
green plain." There was a water supply 
at Kadesh, where they " abode many days," 
Deut. 1:45, 46; this was sometimes inclu- 
ded in "the wilderness of Paran," Num. 
13:26, and a city Paran existed in the wil- 
derness in the early ages of Christianity. 

Towards the close of their 40 years the 
Israelites were again at Kadesh, where 
Miriam died and the murmuring people 
were again supplied with water, Num. 
20:1-13. Being refused a passage through 
Edom, they visited Mount Hor and thence 
journeyed south to the eastern arm of the 
Red Sea, across the Arabah and up on the 
eastern border of Edom to the Jordan val- 
ley. The precise route of their journey- 
ings cannot be determined, but the list of 
the stations mentioned in the Bible is given 
below, and under each name in its place is 
told whatever is known of its site. 



I. FROM EGYPT TO SINAI. 



KXODUS XII. -XIX. 

From Rameses, Exod. 12 : 37. 
Succoth, 12:37. 
Etham, 13 : 20. 
Pi-hahiroth, 14: 2. 
Passage through the Red Sea, 14:22; and 

three days' march into the desert of Shur, 

15 : 22. 
Marah, 15: 23. 
Elim, 15:27. 



8. Desert of Sin, 16:1. 



Rephidim, 17: 1. 
Desert of Sinai, 19: 1. 

II. 



NUMBERS XXXIII. 

From Rameses, verse 3. 
Succoth, ver. 5. 
Etham, ver. 6. 
Pi-hahiroth, ver. 7. 

Passage through the Red Sea. and three days' 
march in the desert of Etham, ver. 8. 

Marah, ver. 8. 
Elim, ver. q. 
By the Red Sea, ver. 10. 
Desert of Sin, ver. 11. 
Dophkah, ver. 12. 
Alush, ver. 13. 
Rephidim, ver. 14. 
Desert of Sinai, ver. 15. 



NUMBERS X.-XX. 

From the desert of Sinai 
Taberah, 11:3; Deut. 9 : 22. 
Kibroth-hattaavah, 11:34. 
Hazeroth, 11 135. 



FROM SINAI TO KADESH THE SECOND TIME. 

NUMBERS XXXIII. 

, From the desert of Sinai, ver. 16. 



17. Kadesh, in the desert of Paran, 12:16; 13:26; 
Deut. 1 :2, 19. Hence they turn back and 
wander for thirty-seven or eight years, 
Num. 14:25-36. 

18. 

19- 
20. 
21. 



Kibroth-hattaavah, ver. 16. 
Hazeroth, ver. 17. 
Rithmah, ver. 18. 



Rimmon-parez, ver. 19. 
Libnah, ver. 20. 
Rissah, ver. 21. 
Kehelathah, ver. 22. 



658 



WAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WAR 



23- 

24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31 
32 

33- 
34- 

35- 



Return to Kadesh, Num. 20: 1. 



Mount Shapher, ver. 23. 
Haradah, ver. 24. 
Makheloth, ver. 25. 
Tahath, ver. 26. 
Tarah, ver. 27. 
Mithcah, ver. 28. 
Hashmonah, ver. 29. 
Moseroth, ver. 30. 
Bene-jaakan, ver. 31. 
Hor-hagidgad, ver. 32. 
Jotbathah, ver. 33. 
Ebronah, ver. 34. 
Ezion-geber, ver. 35. 
Kadesh, ver. 36. 



NUMBERS XX., XXI. ; DEUT. I., II., X. 

From Kadesh, Num. 20:22. 

36. Beeroth Bene-jaakan, Deut. 10:6. 

37. Hount Hor, Num. 20:22: or Mosera, Deut. 

10 : 6 ; where Aaron died. 

38. Gudgodah, Deut. 10:7. 

39. Jotbath, Deut. 10:7. 

40. Way of the Red Sea, Num. 21:4; by Elath 

and Ezion-geber, Deut. 2:8. 



III. FROM KADESH TO THE JORDAN. 

NUMBERS XXXIII. 

From Kadesh, ver. 37. 



Oboth, Num. 21 : 10. 

Ije-abarim, Num. 21 : 11. 

The brook Zered, Num. 21:12; Deut. 2 : 13, 14. 

The brook Arnon, Num. 21 : 13 ; Deut. 2 : 24. 



Beer (well) in the desert, Num. 21 : 16, 18. 

Mattanah, 21 : 18. 

Nahaliel, 21 :ig. 

Bamoth, 21: 19. 

Pisgah, put for the range of Abarim, of which 

Pisgah was part, 21 : 20. 
By the way of Bashan to the plains of Moab 

by Jordan, near Jericho, Num. 21 : 33 ; 22 : 1. 



Mount Hor, ver. 37. 



Zalmonah, ver. 41. 

Punon, ver. 42. 

Oboth, ver. 43. 

Ije-abarim, or Iim, ver. 44, 45. 



Dibon-gad, ver. 45; now Dhiban. 
Almon-diblathaim, ver. 46. 



Mountains of Abarim, near to Nebo, ver. 47. 
Plains of Moab by Jordan, near Jericho, ver. 48. 




SIEGE OF A CITY: FROM THE NIMROUD PALACE, NINEVEH. 



WAR, one of the evil fruits of the fall 
and an appalling manifestation of the de- 
pravity of mankind, Gen. 6 : 1 1-13 ; Isa. 9:5; 
Jas. 4:1, 2, often rendered apparently inev- 
itable by the assaults of enemies, or com- 
manded by God for their punishment. See 
Amalekites and Canaan. By this scourge, 
subsequently to the conquest of Canaan, 



God chastised both his own rebellious peo- 
ple and the corrupt and oppressive idola- 
ters around them. In many cases, more- 
over, the issue was distinctly made between 
the true God and idols ; as with the Philis- 
tines, 1 Sam. 17:43-47; the Syrians, 1 Kin. 
20:23-30; the Assyrians, 2 Kin. 19:10-19, 
35; and the Ammonites, 2 Chr. 20:1-30. 

659 



WAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WAR 



Hence God often raised up champions for 
his people, gave them counsel in war by 
Urim and by prophets, and miraculously 
aided them in battle. He himself at times 
was their Captain, Exod. 15 : 1-3 ; Josh. 5 : 13, 
14; 6:3; comp. Psa. 68. 

Before the period of the kings there 
seems to have been scarcely any regular 
army among the Hebrews, though they 
went up from Egypt equipped for war, 
Exod. 6 : 26 ; 12 : 37, 41 ; 13:18; but, with 
some exceptions, Deut. 20 : 5-8, all who 
were able to bear arms were liable to be 
summoned to the field, Num. 1:3; 26:2; 
1 Sam. 11:7; 2 Chr. 25:5. Saul and David 
organized standing armies, 1 Sam. 13:2; 
14:47-52; 18:5. The vast armies of the 
kings of Judah and Israel usually fought 
on foot, armed with spears, swords, and 
shields ; having large bodies of archers 
and slingers, and comparatively few char- 
iots and horsemen, Judg. 20:16; 1 Chr. 
12:24; 2 Chr. 14:8. See Arms. The forces 
were arranged in suitable divisions, with 
officers of tens, hundreds, thousands, etc., 
Judg. 20 : 10 ; 1 Chr. 13:1; 2 Chr. 25 : 5. The 
Jews were fully equal to the nations around 
them in bravery and the arts of war, but 
were restrained from wars of conquest, and 
when invaders had been repelled the peo- 
ple dispersed to their homes. A campaign 
usually commenced in spring and was ter- 
minated before winter, 2 Sam. 11 : 1 ; 1 Kin. 
20:22. Spies were often sent out 
in advance, Num. 13:17; Josh. 
2:1 ; Judg. 7:10; 1 Sam. 26:4. As 
the Hebrew host approached a 
hostile army the priests cheered 
them by addresses, Deut. 20:2; 
1 Sam. 7:9, 13, and by inspiring 
songs, 2 Chr. 20:21. The favor 
of God was invoked by sacrifices, 

1 Sam. 7:9; 13:8-12, and prayer, 

2 Chr. 14:11; 20:3-12. The sa- 
cred trumpets gave the signal for 
battle, Num. 10:9, 10; 31:6; 2 Chr. 
13:12-15; the archers and sling- 
ers advanced first, but at length 
made way for the charge of the 
heavy-armed spearmen, etc., who 
sought to terrify the enemy ere 
they reached them by their aspect and war- 
cries, Judg. 7 : 18-20; 1 Sam. 17:52; Job 
39:25; Isa. 17:12, 13. War chariots armed 
with scythes were sometimes used and 
wrought great havoc, Josh. 17:16; Judg. 
4 : 3. Ambuscades, rear assaults, night- 
surprises, and false retreats were employ- 
ed, Gen. 14:15; Josh. 8:2, 12; Judg. 20:36- 

660 



39; 2 Sam. 5:23; 2 Kin. 7:12. The comba- 
tants were soon engaged hand to hand ; the 
battle became a series of duels; and the 
victory was gained by the obstinate bra- 
very, the skill, strength, and swiftness of 
individual warriors, 2 Sam. 1:23; 2:18; 

1 Chr. 12:8; Psa. 18:32-37. A general bat- 
tle was sometimes preceded by single com- 
bats, 1 Sam. 17; 2 Sam. 2:14-17. See Paul's 
exhortations to Christian firmness under 
the assaults of spiritual foes, 1 Cor. 16:13; 
Eph. 6:11-18; 1 Thess. 3:8. The battles of 
the ancients were exceedingly sanguinary, 

2 Chr. 13:17; 25:12; 28:6; few were spared 
except those reserved to grace the triumph 
or be sold as slaves, Judg. 1:6; 9 : 45 ; 1 Sam. 
11:2; 2 Sam. 12:31; but the comparatively 
lenient character of the Hebrews was 
known, Deut. 20:10-20; 1 Kin. 20:31; 2 Kin. 
6:20-23; I sa - ][ 6:5- A victorious army on 
returning was welcomed by the whole pop- 
ulation with every demonstration of joy, 

1 Sam. 18:6, 7. The spoils were divided 
after reserving an oblation for the Lord, 
Num. 31:50; Judg. 5:30; trophies were sus- 
pended in public places, eulogies were pro- 
nounced in honor of the most distinguished 
warriors, and lamentations over the dead. 

In besieging a walled city it was the cus- 
tom to surround it with a stockade, mounds, 
and forts, cutting off supplies of water and 
food, and preventing escape, Josh. 6:1; 

2 Kin. 19:32; Isa. 37-33', catapults were 




THE CATAPULT, A MACHINE FOR THROWING HEAVY DARTS. 

prepared for hurling large darts, and ba- 
listae for heavy stones, 2 Chr. 26:15; tow- 
ers were erected for archers and slingers, 
2 Kin. 25:1 ; and mounds and towers were 
pushed to the very walls, that by casting a 
movable bridge across access to the city 
might be gained. The battering-ram was 
also employed to effect a breach in the 



WAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WAT 



wall, 2 Sam. 20:15; Ezek. 4:2; 21:22; and 
the crow, a long spar with iron claws at one 




end and ropes at the other, to pull down 
stones or men from the top of the wall. 
Scaling-ladders were used, and fire was 
sometimes employed, Judg. 9:52. These 
and similar modes of assault the besieged 
resisted by throwing down darts, stones, 
heavy rocks, Judg. 9:53; 2 Sam. 11:21, and 
sometimes boiling oil ; by hanging sacks 
of chaff between the battering-ram and 
the wall ; by strong and sudden sallies, 
capturing and burning the towers and 
enginery of the assailants, and quickly re- 
treating into the city, 2 Chr. 26: 14, 15. The 
modern inventions of gunpowder, rifles, 
bombs, and heavy artillery have changed 
all this. See Battering-ram. 

As the influence of Christianity diffuses 
itself in the world war is becoming less 
excusable and less practicable ; and a great 
advance may be observed from the cus- 
toms and spirit of ancient barbarism to- 
wards the promised universal supremacy 
of the Prince of peace, Psa. 46:9; Isa. 2:4; 
Mic. 4:3. 

" Wars of the Lord " was probably 
the name of an uninspired book, long since 
lost, containing details of the events allu- 
ded to in Num. 21:14, 15. 

WARD, or Guard. To put "in ward" 
was to place under guard or in confine- 
ment, Gen. 40:3; Lev. 24:12. Ward also 
seems to mean a guard-room, Neh. 12:25; 
Isa. 21:8, and the guards themselves, Acts 
12:10, or any small band, 1 Chr 25:8; 
26:16. 

WARE, aware, Acts 14 : 6, on guard 
against, 2 Tim. 4: 15. 

WASH'ING. Of the two principal He- 



brew words translated "wash," one de- 
notes a superficial cleansing, as of a plate, 
the other a through and through purifica- 
tion, as of a soiled garment, Lev. 17:15; 
the latter term is used in Psa. 51:2, 7; 
Jer. 2:22. Various ceremonial washings 
were enjoined in the Mosaic law, both upon 
priests and upon others, Heb. 9: 10. These 
were significant of spiritual purification 
through the Saviour's blood, Tit. 3:5; Rev. 
1:5, as well as of that holiness without 
which none can see God. Aaron received 
ablution of the whole person on assuming 
the priestly office, Exod. 19:10-15; 29:4; 
Lev. 8:6; 16:4; and all priests washed 
before approaching the altar, Exod. 30:17- 
21; Psa. 26:6. Those who had contracted 
ceremonial defilement must wash them- 
selves, Lev. 12 to 15; 16:26; Num. 19:7; 
and those who declared their innocence of 
a crime laid to their charge, Deut. 21:1-9; 
Matt. 27:24. To the Mosaic requirements 
the Jews added other traditional ablutions, 
Mark 7:2-4, and regarded it as an act of 
impiety to neglect them, as Christ frequent- 
ly did, reproving them for the neglect of 
vital duties in their scrupulous care for out- 
ward forms, Matt. 15:2-20; Luke 11:37-44. 
The washing of the hands before and after 
meals, called for by their custom of feeding 
themselves with their fingers, is still prac- 
tised in Syria. See cut in Bed. Where 
there is a servant in attendance, he pours 
water from a pitcher over his master's 
hands, holding also a broad vessel under- 
neath them, 2 Kin. 3:11; Psa. 60:8. The 
washing of a guest's feet on his entering 
the house, to cleanse and refresh them, was 
a common act of hospitality, Gen. 18:4, 
usually performed by servants, 1 Sam. 
25:41, but as a special honor by the host 
himself, 1 Tim. 5:10. Our Saviour's per- 
forming this humble service to his disci- 
ples was a most impressive lesson in mu- 
tual loving service, especially in preserving 
moral purity, and a perpetual reminder of 
our need of his cleansing, John 13:4-14; 
2 Cor. 7:1; Eph. 5:26, 27; Heb. 10:22, 23. 
See Foot and Sandal. 

WATCH, a division of the night hours. 
For military purposes the Hebrews seem 
to have divided the hours between sunset 
and sunrise into three watches, the first 
ending at 10 p. m., and the second at 2 a. 
m., Lam. 2:19; Judg. 7:19; Exod. 14:24; 
1 Sam. 11: 11. After the Greek and Roman 
ascendency the night hours were divided 
into four watches, Matt. 14:25; Mark 13:35; 
Luke 12 : 38. Of the four quaternions of 

661 



WAT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WAT 



soldiers who guarded Peter each would be 
on duty in turn three hours by day and 
three in the night. 

WATCH'ER, Dan. 4:13, 17, 23, a figura- 
tive designation of heavenly beings, ap- 
parently angels, as seen by Nebuchadnez- 
zar in his dream. In Jer. 4:16, besiegers. 

WATCH'MEN are of as early a date as 
cities, robbers, and wars, Exod. 14:24; 
Judg. 7: 19. Jerusalem and other cities had 
regular guards night and day, Psa. 127 : 1 ; 
Song 3:1-3 ; 5:7, to whose hourly cries Isa- 
iah refers in illustration of the vigilance 
required by God in his ministers, Isa. 21 :8, 
11, 12; 62:6. At this day the watchmen of 
Jerusalem " keep not silence," nor do they 
"hold their peace day nor night;" espe- 
cially at night and when danger is appre- 
hended they are required to call to each 
other every few minutes, and the cry passes 
from one to another entirely around the 
city walls. Those of Sidon also do the 
same. Watchmen always had a station at 
each gate of a city and in the adjacent 
tower, 2 Sam. 18:24-27; 2 Kin. 9:27; also 
on hill-tops overlooking a large circuit of 



terraced vineyards, whence they could " see 
eye to eye" and "lift up the voice" of 
warning or of cheer, Isa. 52:7, 8; and their 
responsible office, requiring so much vigi- 
lance and fidelity, illustrates that of proph- 
ets and ministers, Jer. 6:17; Ezek. 33:1-9; 
Heb. 13:17. In 2 Kin. 18:8, "from the 
tower of the watchmen," in the remote 
vineyard, " to the fenced city," seems to 
mean "the whole land." 

WA'TER. See Cisterns and Wells. 
In Isa. 35:7 the Hebrew word for "parched 
ground " or " glowing sand " that shall be- 
come a pool of water, is the same with the 
Arabic term for the mirage. The blessings 
of the gospel are no alluring mockery, but 
real waters of everlasting life, Isa. 55:1; 
John 4:14; Rev. 22:1. Comp. Isa. 29:8; 
Jer. 15:18. See Parched Ground. The 
"rivers" or "streams" of waters in Psa. 
1:3 may mean the artificial conduits by 
which water was conveyed through parks 
and gardens, Ezek. 31 : 4. And the " water- 
ing with the foot" alluded to in Deut. 
naoas a custom peculiar to Egypt, may 
refer to the turning of these little canals by 




WATERING. 



closing one passage and opening another I the use of the feet in the treadmill process 
with the foot, 2 Kin. 19:24; Prov. 21:1, or | by which water for irrigation is raised by 
662 



WAT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WEI 



revolving buckets from a river to a higher 
level, as in the Egyptian shaduf. 

Water was used by the Hebrews to sym- 
bolize spiritual cleansing, John 3:5, and 
was much employed in the temple ceremo- 
nies and in private life, Mark j:t>; John 
2:6. See Washing. In the Feast of Tab- 
ernacles water was brought from the Pool 
of Siloam and poured out before the Lord. 
Comp. 1 Sam. 7:6; Isa. 12:3; John 7:2,37; 
Rev. 22: 17. 

"Waters" denote tears in Jer. 9:1, and 
troubles in Psa. 69:1 ; Lam. 3:54. "Stolen 
waters," Prov. 9:17, are adulterous pleas- 
ures. 

WA'TER OF JEAL'OUSY, or " BITTER- 
NESS," Num. 5:11-31, a test permitted in 
the case of a woman suspected of adultery. 
Being presented unveiled before the altar 
by her husband, who brought an offering 
of barley, a handful of which was cast upon 
the burning coals, she drank water into 
which dust from the floor was thrown, and 
responded "Amen" to the priest's denun- 
ciation of disease and death if she were 
guilty. The water could do no harm un- 
less " by visitation of God ;" and the delay 
thus secured would prevent swift and un- 
just violence by the husband. By some 
heathen tribes in our own day fatally poi- 
sonous drinks are employed in like cases. 

WA'TER OF PURIFICATION. See PU- 
RIFICATIONS. 

WA'TER-§POUTS are well-known phe- 
nomena in the Levant, and are supposed 
to be produced by whirlwinds. A dense, 
black, funnel-shaped cloud is seen depend- 
ing from the sky, and sometimes moving 
rapidly over the sea, from which at times a 
similar cone ascends to meet the upper one. 
Where they unite the column may be 3 or 
4 feet thick, and when they break torrents 
of water descend. The word occurs in 
Psa. 42:7, where, however, the Psalmist 
probably alludes to cataracts of water. 

WAVE'-OFFERING. See OFFERING. 

WAVES, Psa. 93:3, tumult or " roaring." 

WAX, to grow or become, Gen. 19:13; 
Exod. 22:24; Lev. 25:39; Isa. 50:9; Luke 
13:19. 

WAY. The word very often means a 
mode or form of religious life, as that of 
the heathen, Jer. 10:2; Amos 8:14, or that 
required by God, Psa. 67:2; Jer. 5:5. In 
the New Testament it often means the new 
system of faith and practice taught by 
Christ, Acts 9:2; 19:9,23; 22:4; 24:14,22. 
" Go your ways," Luke 10:3, depart. Com- 
pare Gen. 19:2; John 11:46; Jas. 1:24. 



WEALTH often means welfare or pros- 
perity, Ezra 9:12; Esth. 10:3; Psa. 112:3; 
Eccl. 5:19; 6:2; Acts 19:25; 1 Cor. 10:24. 

WEALTH'Y, Psa. 66:12, abundant; in 
Jer. 49:31 tranquil. 

WEA'SEL, one of the unclean animals, 
Lev. 11:29. Several varieties of weasels 
are found in Palestine, including the com- 
mon weasel and the polecat ; also the short- 
legged ichneumon. 

WEAVING, an art very early practised 
by all nations, exhibited on the ancient 
monuments of Egypt, Gen. 41 :42, and prac- 
tised by the Israelites in the desert, Exod. 
26:1,7; 28:4,39; Lev. 13:47, 48. See Flax. 
It is usually performed by women, 2 Kin. 
23:7; Prov. 31:13, 19. The distaff, the 
shuttle, and the weaver's beam and pin 
are mentioned, judg. 16:14; 1 Sam. 17:7; 
2 Sam. 21:19; Job 7:6; Prov. 31:19; Isa. 
38: 12. The Jews say that the high-priest's 
tunic was made without a needle, being 
" woven from the top throughout ;" thus 
also "the High-Priest of our profession" 
was clothed, John 19:23. 

WED'DING. See Marriage. 

WED'DING-GAR'MENT. See GAR- 
MENTS. 

WEEKS, or successive periods of seven 
days each — partially coinciding in length 
with the four changes of the moon — were 
known from the earliest times among na- 
tions remote from each other in Europe, 
Asia, and Africa, Gen. 8:10; 29:27; 50:10. 
See Sabbath. The Hebrews had only nu- 
meral names for the days of the week, 
excepting the Sabbath, the names now 
current among us being borrowed from 
Saxon mythology. The Jews called Sun- 
day " one of the Sabbath," that is, the first 
day of the week. Monday was " two of the 
Sabbath." A prophetic week and a week 
of years were each 7 years ; and a week 
of sabbatical years, or 49 years, brought 
round the year of jubilee. In John 20:26 
the disciples are said to have met again 
after " eight days," that is, evidently after 
a week, or the eighth day after our Lord's 
resurrection. See Three. 

For the " Feast of Weeks " see Pente- 
cost. 

WEEP'ING. See Funeral. 

WEIGHTS. The ancient Hebrews 
weighed all the gold and silver they used in 
trade. The shekel, the half-shekel, the ma- 
neh, the talent, are not only denominations 
of money, of certain values in gold and sil- 
ver, but primarily of certain weights. The 
weight " of the sanctuary " or weight of the 

663 



WEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WEL 



temple, Exod. 30:13, 24; Lev. 5:15; Num. 
3:50; 7:19; 18:16, was perhaps the stand- 
ard weight, preserved in some apartment 
of the temple, and not a different weight 
from the common shekel ; for though Mo- 
ses appointed that all things valued by 
their price in silver should be rated by the 
weight of the sanctuary, Lev. 27:25, he 
makes no difference between this shekel 
of 20 gerahs and the common shekel. Eze- 
kiel, 45 : 12, speaking of the ordinary weights 
and measures used in traffic among the 
Jews, says that the shekel weighed 20 ge- 
rahs ; it was therefore equal to the weight 
of the sanctuary. See Measures and the 
Tables of Weights and Measures at 
the end of the volume. The divine judg- 
ment on Belshazzar, "thou art weighed in 
the balances and art found wanting," may 
be illustrated from the Egyptian monu- 
ments, on which the dead are depicted as 
appearing before Osiris, and the balances 
in which their good and evil deeds are 
weighed decide their doom. 

WELLS and SPRINGS. The word 
"wells " is often used in the Bible where a 
spring or fountain is intended ; comp. Gen. 
16:7,14. So in Gen. 24:13-45; 49:22; Exod. 
15:27; Josh. 18:15; 2 Kin. 3:19, 25; Psa. 
84:6; Prov. 10:11; Isa. 12:3; John 4:14; 
2 Pet. 2:17. In other places a cistern is 
meant, 2 Sam. 3:26; 23:15, 16; 1 Chr. 11:17, 
18; 2 Chr. 26:10; Neh. 9:25. By those liv- 
ing '.in a temperate climate, where the well 
or the aqueduct furnishes to every house a 
supply of water practically inexhaustible, 
no idea can be formed of the extreme dis- 
tress caused by thirst, and of the luxury of 
relieving it by drinking pure water — a lux- 
ury which is said to excel all other pleas- 
ures of sense. One must reside or travel 
in a Syrian climate to realize the beauty 
and force of the allusions of Scripture to 
"water out of the wells of salvation," "cold 
water to a thirsty soul," " the fountain of 
living waters," and many others. The dig- 
ging of a permanent well or the discovery 
of a spring was a public benefaction, and 
its possession was a matter of great im- 
portance. Its existence at a given spot de- 
cided the nightly resting-place of caravans, 
the encampment of armies, and the loca- 
tion of towns, 1 Sam. 29:1; 2 Sam. 2:13. 
Hence Beer, the Hebrew name for a well, 
forms a part of many names of places, as 
Beeroth, Beer-sheba. See also En. So val- 
uable was a supply of water that a field 
containing a spring was a princely dowry, 
Judg. 1:13-15, and a well was a matter of 
664 



strife and negotiation between different 
tribes. Thus we read that Abraham, in 
making a treaty with king Abimelech, 
" reproved him because of a well. of water 
which Abimelech's servants had violently 
taken away," and the ownership of the 
well was sealed to Abraham by a special 
oath and covenant, Gen. 21:25-31. A sim- 
ilar transaction occurred during the life of 
Isaac, Gen. 26:14-33. In negotiating with 
the king of Edom for a passage through 
his territory, the Israelites said, " If I and 
my cattle drink of thy water, then I will 
pay for it," Num. 20:17-19. Still stronger 
is the expression in Lam. 5:4, "We have 
drunk our own water for money;" that is, 
we bought it of our foreign rulers, though 
we are the natural proprietors of the wells 
that furnished it. The custom of demand- 
ing pay for water from the traveller is still 
found in some parts of the East ; while in 
many other towns a place is provided where 
cold water and sometimes bread are offered 
gratuitously to the stranger at the expense 
of the village, or as an act of charity by the 
benevolent, Mark 9:41. In case of a hos- 
tile invasion, nothing could more effectu- 
ally harass an advanciag army or the be- 
siegers of a city than to fill with stones the 
wells on which they relied, 2 Kin. 3:25; 
2 Chr. 32:3. 

Wells are sometimes found in Palestine 
furnished with a well-sweep and bucket or 
a windlass ; and in some cases there were 
steps leading down to the water, Gen. 24:15, 
16; but usually the water is drawn with 
pitchers and ropes, and the stone curbs of 
ancient wells, John 4:6, 11, 12, bear the 
marks of long use. They were often covered 
with a large fiat stone, comp. 2 Sam. 17:19, 
to exclude the flying sand and secure the 
water to its owners, and also lest stran- 
gers should fall into them unawares — a mis- 
chance which often occurs in modern Syria, 
and against which the beneficent law of 
Moses made provision, Exod. 21:33, 34. 
This stone was removed about sunset, when 
the females of the vicinity drew their sup- 
ply of water for domestic use and the flocks 
and herds drank from the stone troughs 
which are still found beside almost every 
well. At this hour the well was a favorite 
place of resort, and presented a scene of 
life and gayety greatly in contrast with its 
ordinary loneliness, Gen. 24:11-28; 29:1- 
10; Exod. 2:16-19; 1 Sam. 9:11. Wells, 
however, were sometimes infested by rob- 
bers, Exod. 2:16, 17; Judg. 5:11; and Dr. 
Shaw mentions a beautiful spring in Bar- 



WEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WHA 



bary, the Arabic name of which means, well be inscribed over even the best springs 
" Drink and away !" a motto which may I of earthly delight. See Cisterns. 







THE WELL OR FOUNTAIN AT NAZARETH. 



" The Fountain of the Virgin " at Naza- 
reth is so called from the strong probabil- 
ity that the mother of our Lord was wont 
to draw water from it, as the women of 
Nazareth do at this day. It is a copious 
spring, just out of the village, and the 
path that leads to it is well worn, as by the 
feet of many generations. All travellers 
in Palestine mention the throngs of females 
that resort to it, with their pitchers or goat- 
skins on the shoulder or head, loitering 
to gossip or gayly returning in companies 
of two or three. Every day witnesses 
there what might almost be described in 
the very words of Gen. 24:11: "And he 
made his camels to kneel down without 
the city, by a well of water, at the time of 
the evening, even the time that women go 
out to draw water. And behold, Rebek- 
ah came out, with her pitcher upon her 
shoulder ; and she went down to the well 
and filled her pitcher, and came up." It is 
an uncommon sight to see " a man bearing 
a pitcher of water," Mark 14:13. 

Jacob's well, at the eastern entrance of 
the charming valley of Shechem, is still in 
existence, though now not used and often 
nearly dry. It is covered by a vaulted 
roof, with a narrow entrance closed by a 
heavy rock. Around it is a platform and 
the remains of a church built over the spot 
by the empress Helena. Close at hand is 
Mount Gerizim, which the woman of Sy- 



char no doubt glanced at as she said, " Our 
fathers worshipped in this mountain." On 
the west is the broad and fertile plain of 
Mukhna, where the fields were " white al- 
ready to the harvest." The woman intima- 
ted that the well was deep. Actual meas- 
urement shows it to be still 75 feet deep 
and about 9 feet in diameter. Dr. Wilson, 
in 1842, sent down with ropes a Jew named 
Jacob to explore the well and recover a 
Bible dropped into it by Rev. Mr. Bonar 
three years before. This was found almost 
destroyed by lying in water. As the trav- 
eller stands by this venerated well and 
thinks of the long series of men of a hun- 
dred nations and generations who have 
drunk of its waters, thirsted again, and 
died, he is most forcibly affected by the 
truth of Christ's words to the Samaritan 
woman, and made to feel his own perish- 
ing need of the water " springing up into 
everlasting life," John 4. 

WENCH, 2 Sam. 17:17, a girl of humble 
birth. 

WEST, literally either the sea, as in Gen. 
12:8; 13:14, etc., i. e., the Mediterranean, 
lying west of the Bible lands, or sunset- 
ting, as in Psa. 7 5: 6; 103:12. In Hos. 11:10, 
the people on the Mediterranean coast. 

WHALE, the largest known inhabitant 
of the sea, put in the A. V. for tannin, a 
Hebrew word including all the huge "sea- 
monsters," as in Gen. 1 :2i ; Job 7:12, R. V. 

665 



WHE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WIC 



In Ezek. 32:2, referring to Egypt and the 
Nile, the kindred word tannim doubtless 
means the crocodile; as also in Psa. 74:13; 
Isa. 27:1; 51:9; Ezek. 29:3, etc., where it 
is translated " dragon," which see. The 
" great fish " that swallowed Jonah can- 
not be named with certainty, the Greek 
word in Matt. 12:40 being also indetermi- 
nate. Whales, however, are still found in 
the Mediterranean, and sharks of the lar- 
gest size, the Carcharias vulgaris, quite 
able to swallow a man whole. 




TRITICUM COMPOSITUM. 

WHEAT is the principal and most valu- 
able kind of grain for the service of man, 
and is produced in almost every part of 
the world, Matt. 13:25; 1 Cor. 15:37. Egypt 
was famous for its wheat, also Mesopota- 
mia, Gen. 30:14, Minnith, Ezek. 27:17, and 
Palestine itself, Deut. 8:8; Judg. 6:11 ; Psa. 
81 : 16 ; 147 : 14. The common wheat of Pal- 
estine will sometimes yield 100 grains to 
the ear, as in Christ's parable, Matt. 13:8; 
comp. Gen. 26:12. Wheat was sown late in 
the year, both broadcast — being trampled 
in by cattle, Isa. 32:20 — and also planted 
in rows, Isa. 28:25, R - V. It ripened in 
May, but earlier or later according to its 
situation. It sprouted and ripened later 
than barley. Wheat is often intended in 
the Bible where the word " corn " is used, 
Gen. 41:49. See Corn. " Parched corn," 
i. e., wheat, is often mentioned, Lev. 23:14; 
Josh. 5:11 ; Ruth 2:14; 1 Sam. 17:17; 25:18; 
2 Sam. 17:28; and the Arabs often prepare 
666 



it now of fresh wheat, laying a few sheaves 
on a brush-wood fire till the stalks are 
burned and the heads lightly charred, when 
they are tossed off on a cloth, winnowed by 
the wind, and eaten while warm. The 
Egyptian wheat, Triticum Compositum, 
has 6 or 7 ears on one head ; so that it pre- 
sented its usual appearance in this respect 
in Pharaoh's dream, Gen. 41:5-7, 22. The 
"meat-offerings," R. V. "meal-offerings," 
of the Mosaic service, Lev. 2, were all 
made of wheaten flour. 

WHEEL, Psa. 83:13, translated "rolling 
thing" in Isa. 17:13. Dr. Thomson, for 
many years a missionary in Syria, thinks 
the wild artichoke may here be referred 
to. This plant sends out numerous stalks 
or branches of equal length in all direc- 
tions, forming a globe a foot in diameter. 
These globes become rigid and light as a 
feather in autumn, and thousands of them 
fly rolling and boundingltver the plains, 
the sport of every wind. This " rolling 
thing " furnishes the modern Arabs with a 
current proverb and a curse. 

WHIRL'WINDS. The Hebrew words so 
translated denote tempestuous winds or 
hurricanes, not necessarily tornadoes re- 
volving on their axes, 2 Kin. 2:1, 11; Job 
38:1; 40:6; Isa. 40:24; 41:16; Jer. 23:19; 
2 5 : 3 2 J 3 o:2 3 i Ezek. 1:4; Dan. 11:40; Zech. 
9: 14. Yet whirlwinds were frequent in the 
deserts of Arabia and on the southern bor- 
der of Palestine. Most of them are not 
formidable, Isa. 17:13; but one now and 
then occurs, sudden, swift, and awful in its 
devastating course ; houses and trees are 
no obstruction in its way, and the traveller 
is buried alive under the pillar of sand it 
raises and bears along, like a water-spout 
at sea, Job 1:19; Isa. 21:1. The sudden 
and resistless judgments of God are well 
compared to whirlwinds, Psa. 58:9; Prov. 
1:27; Isa. 66:15. See Winds. 

WHIS'PERER, Prov. 16:28; Rom. 1:29; 
2 Cor. 12:20, a secret informer and slan- 
derer. 

WHITE, a symbol of purity, joy, and vic- 
tory, 2 Chr. 5:12; Esth. 8:15; Eccl. 9:8; 
Rev. 3:4, 5, 18; 7-9, J 3- "White" in Rev. 
15:6; 19:8 means "resplendent;" in the 
R. V. "bright." 

WICK'ED. The Hebrew and Greek 
words so translated have various shades 
of meaning: most frequently "wrong," as 
in Gen. 18:23; Deut. 9:27; often "evil," as 
in Gen. 13:13; 39:9; sometimes "worth- 
less," as in Job 11: 11; 22:15; Psa. 101:3; 
"perverse," as in 2 Sam. 7:10; Job 18:21; 



WID 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WIL 



"unkind," as in Lev. 20:17; "lawless," as 
in Acts 2:23; 2 Thess. 2:8; "malignant," 
as in Matt. 13:19, 38, 49; 22:18; 2 Thess. 
3:2; 1 John 5:19; mortally "sick," as in 
Jer. 17:9, R. V. 

WID'OW. A custom was prevalent in 
patriarchal times, Gen. 38, and was after- 
wards confirmed by the Mosaic law, Deut. 
25:5-10, that a widow without children, in 
order to preserve the family name and in- 
heritance, should marry the brother of her 
deceased husband ; or, he failing, his near- 
est kinsman, Ruth 3:12, 13; 4:1-11; Matt. 
22:23-30. The high-priest was forbidden 
to marry a widow, Lev. 21:14. The hu- 
manity and justice of true religion are 
shown in the Bible, as might be expected, 
by numerous indications that God and the 
friends of God sympathize with the sor- 
rows, supply the wants, and defend the 
rights of the widow, Exod. 22:22-24; Deut. 
14:29; 16:11; 24:17, 19; Psa. 68:5; Isa. 
1:17; 10:2; Jet. 22:3; Matt. 23:14: The 



apostolic church was not negligent in pro- 
viding for widows, Acts 6 : 1-3 ; 1 Tim. 5:16; 
and James makes this duty an essential 
part of true piety, Jas. 1:27. Heathenism, 
on the contrary, makes those who have 
been slaves to a husband's caprices during 
his life either victims upon the funeral 
pile at his death or forlorn and hopeless 
sufferers under destitution and contempt. 
Some of the duties specially appropriate for 
Christian widows are specified in 1 Tim. 
5:3-16. 

WILD BEASTS OF THE ISLANDS, Isa. 
13:22; 34:14; Jer. 50:39, hyenas, or as in 
the R. V., " wolves." 

WIL'DERNESS. See Desert and Wan- 
derings. 

WILD GOATS. See Goats. 

WILL, as a verb, often means simply 
"pleases" or "wishes," Prov. 21:1; Dan. 
4:17; 1 Cor. 7:36. In other passages it ex- 
presses a fixed determination, John 7:17; 
1 Tim. 6:9. 




WIL'LOW, a very common tree, which 
grows in marshy places and on the banks 
of rivers, Job 40:22; Isa. 44:4; Ezek. 17:5, 
with a leaf much like that of the olive. 



God commanded the Hebrews to take 
branches of the handsomest trees, particu- 
larly of the willows of the brook, and to 
bear them in their hands before the Lord, 

667 



WIM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WIN 



as a token of rejoicing, at the Feast of Tab- 
ernacles, Lev. 23:40. The " weeping wil- 
low," memorable in connection with the 
mourning Hebrew captives, Psa. 137:2, is 
a native of Babylonia, and hence is named 
Salix Babylonica. Since the Captivity it 
has become a symbol of sorrow and mourn- 
ing. There are several varieties of willow 
in Palestine. The "brook of the willows," 
Isa. 15:7, on the southern border of Moab, 
now Wady el-Aksa, flows into the south- 
east extremity of the Dead Sea. 

WIM'PLE, a veil or hood ; but the He- 
brew signifies properly a large mantle or 
shawl. See Veil. Thus, in Ruth 3:15, 
Boaz gives Ruth 6 measures of barley, 
which she carries away in her mantle, 
rather than veil, as in the A. V. So in Isa. 
3:22. 

WIN'DOW, Gen. 6: 16; 1 Kin. 6:4; 7:4,5, 
an aperture in a wall, protected in ancient 
times by lattice-work instead of glass, Eccl. 
12:3. Windows usually opened on the in- 
ner court of the house, but often one or 
two opened on the street, and a person 
approaching could be seen, Judg. 5:28; 
2 Sam. 6:16; Prov. 7:6; Song 2:9. When 
the casement was open one might readily 
fall out, 2 King. 1:2; Acts 20:9. Through 
the windows of dwellings abutting on city 
walls the spies escaped at Jericho and Paul 
at Damascus, Josh. 2:15; 2 Cor. 11:33. See 
House. 

WINDS. "The four winds," or four 
quarters of the earth, are put for the whole 
world, Jer. 49:36; Ezek. 37:9; Dan. 8:8; 
Matt. 24:31. The north wind brought cold, 
Job 37:9; Song 4:16; the west and north- 
west, from the sea, were refreshing and 
brought rain, 1 Kin. 18:44, 45; Prov. 25:23, 
R. V. ; Luke 12:54. The prevalent winds 
in Palestine during the warm season are 
from the west. Sudden squalls from the 
north are often encountered on the Sea of 
Galilee, as on other lakes amid heights, 
Mark 4:37; Luke 8:23. For the wind Eu- 
raquilo which overtook Paul, see Euroc- 

LYDON. 

The wind most frequently mentioned in 
the Bible is the "east wind," which is rep- 
resented as blasting and drying up the 
fruits, Gen. 41:6, 23; Ezek. 17:10; 19:12, 
and also as blowing with great violence, 
Job 27:21; Psa. 48:7; Isa. 27:8; Ezek. 
27:26; Jon. 4:8. It is also the "horrible 
tempest," literally the " glow-wind," of Psa. 
11:6. This is a sultry and oppressive wind 
blowing from the southeast, and prevailing 
only in the hot and dry months of sum- 
668 



mer. Coming thus from the vast Arabian 
desert, devoid of ozone, it seems to in- 
crease the heat and drought of the season, 
and produces universal languor and de- 
bility. Dr. Eli Smith, at Beirut, describes 
it as possessing the same qualities as the 
Sirocco, which he had felt at Malta, and 
which also prevails in Sicily and Italy, ex- 
cept that the Sirocco, in passing over the 
sea, acquires great dampness. This " wind 
of the wilderness," Job 1:19; 27:21; Jer. 
13:24, is called by the Arabs the Simoom, 
by the Turks the Samiel, and by the Egyp- 
tians the Khamsin. It is oppressively hot 
and dry, rapidly evaporating the water in 
the ordinary skin-bottles, stopping the per- 
spiration of travellers, drying up the palate 
and the air passages, and producing great 
restlessness and exhaustion. Sometimes 
the sky is covered with clouds, and pale 
lightnings play through the air ; but there 
is no rain, thunder, or wind ; the heat, how- 
ever, is intolerable ; every traveller seeks 
a refuge, the birds hide themselves in the 
thickest shades, the fowls pant under the 
walls with open mouths, and no living 
thing is in motion. But it often blows with 
a terrible roaring and violence, and carries 
dust and fine sand high up into the air, so 
that the whole atmosphere is lurid and 
seems in a state of combustion, and the 
sun is shorn of his beams and looks like a 
globe of dull, smouldering fire. Both men 
and animals are greatly annoyed by the 
dust, and seek any practicable shelter or 
covering. The camels turn their backs 
and hide their heads from it in the ground. 
It is often accompanied by local whirl- 
winds, which form pillars of sand and dust, 
rising high above the ground and moving 
with swiftness over the plain. Such a tem- 
pest may have suggested some features in 
the prophetic descriptions of the day of 
God's power: "wonders in the heavens 
and in the earth, blood and fire and pillars 
of smoke: the sun shall be turned into 
darkness and the moon into blood," Joel 
2:30, 31 ; Acts 2:19, 20. 

Wind is a Biblical symbol for turgid 
folly, Job 15:2; Hos. 12:1; for swiftness, 
Psa. 104:4, R. V., "He maketh winds his 
messengers;" and for transitoriness, Job 
y.j; Psa. 78:39. The Holy Spirit was 
breathed upon men like the wind, John 
3:8; 20:22 ; Acts 2:2. 

WINE. The vine being natural to the 
soil of Canaan and its vicinity, wine was 
much used as a beverage, especially at fes- 
tivals, Esth. 1:7; 5:6; Dan. 5:1-4; John 



WIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WIN 



2:3. As one of the staple products of the 
Holy Land, it was employed for drink-of- 
ferings in the temple service, Exod. 29:40; 
Lev. 23:13; Num. 15:4-10; tithes of it were 
required among the "first-fruits," Deut. 
12:17, 18; J 8 : 4 , an d it was used in the cel- 
ebration of the Passover, and subsequently 
of the Lord's Supper, Matt. 26 : 27-29. 
"Corn and wine," Gen. 27:28, 37; Deut. 
33:28; Psa. 4:7, and " corn, wine, and oil," 
or the products of the field, the vineyard, 
and the olive-orchard, Deut. 11:14; 12:17; 
28:51 ; 2 Chr. 31:5, are put for all the fruits 
of the soil. Wine is spoken of as a bless- 
ing, Gen. 49:11, 12; Deut. 14:24-26; 32:14; 
Judg.9:i3; Psa. 104:15: Prov. 31:6; Eccl. 
9:7; Hos. 2:8; Joel 2:19, 24; Amos 4:19; 
and is made a symbol of spiritual bless- 
ings, Isa. 55:1. Our Saviour used it, Luke 
7:33, 34, and miraculously made it, John 
2:1-10. 

The word "wine" in our Bible is the 
translation of as many as 10 different He- 
brew words and 2 Greek words, most of 
which occur in but a few instances. The 
two most frequently used, yayin and its 
Greek equivalent oinos, are general terms 
for all sorts of wine, Neh. 5: 18, usually fer- 
mented, but often with but a small per- 
centage of alcohol. Another Hebrew word 
frequently used, tirosh, translated " wine " 
and "new wine," is thought by some to 
mean vintage-fruits in general, including 
not only new wine, but grape-syrup and 
grapes — fresh, dried, pressed, etc.; Isa. 
62:8, 9; Joel 1:10; Mic. 6:15, R. V., "vint- 
age." From Hos. 4:11; Acts 2:13 — when 
the "new wine" was eight months old — it 
is inferred that in some cases tirosh was 
intoxicating. Without minute details on 
this subject, we may observe that the fol- 
lowing substances are referred to : 

1. Usually the pure juice of the grape, 
fermented, and therefore more or less in- 
toxicating, but free from drugs of any kind, 
and not strengthened by distilled liquors. ' 

2. Must, the fresh juice of the grape, un- 
fermented or in process of fermentation. 

3. Honey of wine, made by boiling down 
must to one-fourth of its bulk. This com- 
monly goes in the Old Testament by the 
name debhash, " honey," in modern Arabic 
dibs, and only the context can enable us to 
determine whether honey of grapes or of 
bees is to be understood, Num. 18: 12 ; Prov. 
9 ; 2, 5. See Honey. 

4. Spiced wine, made stronger and more 
inviting to the taste by the admixture of 
spices and other drugs, Prov. 23:30. 



5. " Strong drink," Heb. shechar. This 
word sometimes denotes pure strong wine, 
as in Num. 28:7; or drugged wine, as in 
Psa. 75:8; Isa. 5:22; but more commonly 
wine made from dates, honey, pomegran- 
ates, etc., Song 8:2, and generally made 
more inebriating by being mingled with 
drugs. 

See also Flagon, Myrrh, and Vine- 
gar. 

The " wine of Helbon " was made in the 
vicinity of Damascus, and sent from that 
city to Tyre, Ezek. 27:18. It resembled 
the " wine of Lebanon," famous for its ex- 
cellence and fragrance, Hos. 14:7, See 
Helbon. 

Great efforts have been made to distin- 
guish the harmless from the intoxicating 
wines of Scripture, and to show that inspi- 
ration has in all cases approved the former 
alone and condemned the latter, directly 
or indirectly. It is not necessary, however, 
to do this in order to demonstrate that so 
far as the use of wine leads to inebriation 
it is pointedly condemned by the Word of 
God. Sin and shame are connected with 
the first mention of wine in the Bible and 
with many subsequent cases, Gen. 9:21; 
19 : 3 r -3 6 ; 1 Sam. 25.36, 37; 2 Sam. 13:28; 
1 Kin. 20:12-21 , Esth. 1:10, n : Dan. 5:23; 
Rev. 17:2. It is characterized as a deceitful 
mocker, Prov. 20:1 ; as fruitful in miseries, 
Prov. 23:29-35; in woes, Isa. 5-22; in er- 
rors, Isa. 28:1-7 ; and in impious folly, Isa. 
5 -ii, 12; 56:12; Hos. 4:11; 7:5. The use 
of it is in some cases expressly forbidden, 
Lev. 10 9; Num. 6:3 ; and in other cases is 
mentioned as characteristic of the wicked, 
Joel y.^; Amos 6:6. Numerous cautions 
to beware of it are given, 1 Sam. 1:14. 
Prov. 23:31, 31:4-6; 1 Tim. y.y, and to 
tempt others to use it is in one passage 
made the occasion of a bitter curse, Hab. 
2:15, 16. Whatever approval was given in 
Palestine to the moderate use of wine can 
hardly apply to a country where wine is 
an imported or manufactured article, often 
containing not a drop of the juice of the 
grape, or if genuine and not compounded 
with drugs, still enforced with distilled 
spirits. The whole state of the case, more- 
over, is greatly modified in our days by the 
discovery of the process of distilling alco- 
hol, and by the prevalence of appalling 
evils now inseparable from the general use 
of any intoxicating drinks. Daniel and the 
Rechabites saw good reason for total absti- 
nence from wine, Jer. 35:14 ; Dan. 1:8; and 
the sentiment of Paul on a matter involving 

669 



WIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WIT 



permanent Christian principles is divinely 
commended to universal adoption, Rom. 
14:21; 1 Cor. 8:13. See Timothy. The 
wine used at the Passover, the rabbins in- 
form us, was diluted with water ; and in 
celebrating the Lord's Supper the unfer- 
mented " fruit of the vine " would seem to 
be far preferable to the so-called wine of 
our day. 

WINE-PRESS. See Press and Vine. 

WINGS, used figuratively of the winds, 
Psa. 18:10, and of sunbeams, Mai. 4:2. 
They are a symbol of divine protection, 
Psa. 17:8; 36:7; Matt. 23:37; and of the 
spread of an invading army, Isa. 8 : 8. 
God's loving care of his people is beauti- 
fully illustrated by that of the eagle for her 
young, Exod. 19:4; Deut. 32:11. 

WINDOWING. See Fan and Thresh- 
ing. 

WIN'TER, Song 2:11; Matt. 24:20, in 
Palestine from November to February, a 
season marked by copious rains and hail, 
with northerly winds at times, and occa- 
sionally frost and snow, lingering on the 
mountains, Gen, 8:22; Psa. 74:17; 147:16, 
17; Jer, 36:22; Zech. 14:8. See Canaan 
and Snow. 

WIS'DOM and WISE in Scripture have 
a great variety of meanings, usually indi- 
cated by the context. They may denote 
mere cunning, like that of Jonadab and 
Joab, 2 Sam. 13 and 14; practical skill, as in 
Exod. 31 : 3, 6 ; sagacity in affairs, as in Job 
12:2, 12; discernment and learning, like 
Solomon's, 1 Kin. 3:28; 4:29-34; prudent 
concern for one's own interest, as in Prov. 
14:8; magical science, as in Gen. 41:8; 
Dan. 2:2; atheistic learning and philoso- 
phy, as in 1 Cor. 1 : 20 ; 3 : 19-21 ; 2 Cor. 1:12; 
or a knowledge of the truth, as in Acts 
6:10; Eph. 1:17; Col. 1:9, 28; 2 Tim. 3:15. 
But the only true wisdom begins with giv- 
ing God the supreme place in the mind, 
heart, and life, Prov. 9.10; Eccl. 12:11; and 
even a simple child who has learned to 
love God with all his heart and his neighbor 
as himself is more truly wise than the most 
learned and sagacious unrenewed man, Jas. 
1:3; 3:i3-i7- 

In the eighth chapter of Proverbs divine 
Wisdom is personified and nobly described, 
and many of the passages might well ap- 
ply to Christ, the Creator of the world, 
Heb. 1:2, 10; and "the wisdom of God," 
1 Cor. 1:24. 

The apocryphal " Book of Wisdom," or 
" Wisdom of Solomon," the work of some 
Hellenistic Jew of Alexandria, a century or 
670 



more before Christ, comes down to us in 
the original Greek and in various transla- 
tions, but never was in Hebrew nor formed 
a part of the Jewish Scriptures— though 
adopted by the Church of Rome. It extols 
divine wisdom for its inherent qualities 
and its excellent fruits in the past, and has 
many noble thoughts, but also many pas- 
sages not in harmony with the inspired 
Scriptures. 

WISE, way or manner, Matt. 1:18, Luke 
13:11; Acts 7:6; Rom. 3.9; 10:6; Heb. 
4:4. "In any wise," Lev. 19:17, in the 
R. V. "surely." 

WISE MEN. See Magi and Star. 

WIST, knew ; the past tense, from an 
obsolete present wis, Exod. 16:15; Mark 
9:6; Luke 2:49; Acts 23:5. "Wot" and 
" wotteth," meaning know and knoweth, 
Gen. 21:26; 39:8, and 'to wit," meaning 
to know, Gen. 24:21, are also from the 
same Saxon root. '* Do you to wit," 2 Cor. 
8:1, means, make you to know or inform 
you. "To wit," in 2 Cor. 5:19, means, 
"that is to say." 

WIT, Psa. 107:27, wisdom. See Wist. 

WITCH, Exod. 22:18, in the R. V. "sor- 
ceress," the masculine form of the Hebrew 
word being elsewhere rendered "sorcer- 
er," Exod. 7. 11; Jer. 27:9; Dan. 2:2; Mai 
3:5, as in Deut. 18:10, R. V. See also Isa. 
47:9, 12, and WIZ'ARD, Lev. 19:31; 20:6, 
27; Deut. 18:11; 1 Sam. 28:3, 9; 2 Kin. 
23:24; 2 Chr. 33:6; Isa. 8:19; 19:3. 

Our best exposition of these terms as 
found in the Bible is in the narrative of the 
witch of En-dor. She was widely known 
as "one that had a familiar spirit" or an 
attendant demon, and was thereby pro- 
fessedly able to summon departed souls 
from the spirit world and converse with 
them. From this it appears that the essen- 
tial character of witchcraft was a pretended 
commerce with demons and the spirits of 
the departed. In this respect it is identi- 
cal with modern witchcraft and with spir- 
itualism; and all the condemnation pro- 
nounced against witchcraft in the Bible 
falls equally on these and every similar 
system of professed converse with ghosts 
and demons. 

To this practice the ancient witches and 
wizards joined the arts of fortune-telling 
and divining, and a professed knowledge 
and control of the secret powers of the ele- 
ments, heavenly bodies, etc. In order to 
give color and concealment to their pre- 
tended communion with spirits, they made 
use of drugs, fumigations, chemical arts, 



WIT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WOL 



incantations, and every mysterious device 
to awe and impose upon a superstitious 
people. Their unlawful arts were near 
akin to the others forbidden in Deut. 18: 10, 
ii : " There shall not be found among you 
any one that maketh his son or his daugh- 
ter to pass through the fire, or that useth 
divination, or an observer of times or an 
enchanter or a witch (R. V. "sorcerer") 
or a charmer or a consulter with familiar 
spirits or a wizard or a necromancer." It 
would appear from this catalogue that all 
forms of superstition were as prevalent 
in the East in the days of Moses as they 
now are. Those familiar with the Syria 
and Arabia of our days inform us that old 
and young of all sects universally believe 
in the potency of " the evil eye," of incan- 
tations, charms, amulets, serpent-charm- 
ing, and exorcism, and that these supersti- 
tions exert a prodigious influence on Ori- 
ental life. Even modern mesmerism has 
its counterpart among the pretended magic 
arts of the East, practised, like many other 
superstitions, from time immemorial. 

Such follies and knaveries are all strictly 
forbidden in the Bible, and many of them 
in the Jewish dispensation were punisha- 
ble with death. They are all idolatrous — 
ignoring the only true God and seeking* 
help from foreign sources. They are sure 
to prevail in proportion as men lose a calm 
trust in the Almighty and an intelligent 
loving obedience to his will. He that fears 
God need fear nothing else ; while he that, 
like king Saul, departs from God, finds help 
and comfort nowhere. See En-dor and 
Sorcerer. 

WITHE, Judg. 16:7, a band made by 
plaiting together willow or some other pli- 
able twigs or stalks. 

WIT'NESS, one who testifies to any fact 
from his own personal knowledge. Under 
the Mosaic law two witnesses under oath 
were necessary to convict a person charged 
with a capital crime, Num. 35:30; John 
8:17; 1 Tim. 5:19; and if the criminal was 
stoned, the witnesses were bound to cast 
the first stones, Deut. 17:6, 7; Acts 7:58. 
The Greek word for witness is martyr, 
which see. The apostles were witnesses 
in proclaiming to the world the facts of the 
gospel, Acts 1:8, 22; 2:32; 2 Pet. 1:12, 16- 
18; and Christ is a "faithful witness" in 
testifying to men of heavenly things, John 
3:12; Rev. 1:5. In Heb. 12:1, "so great a 
■cloud of witnesses," i. e., spectators, is an 
allusion to the Grecian games and the vast 
■crowds that eagerly watched them. 



As witnesses of important transactions, 
symbolical acts were performed, as in Deut. 
24:1, 3; 25:9, 10; Ruth 4:7, 8; Isa. 8:16; 
Jer. 32:10-16; and durable monuments 
erected, Deut. 19:14, as in the cases of Ja- 
cob and Laban, Gen. 21:30; 31:47, 52; and 
of Joshua and the two tribes beyond Jor- 
dan, Josh. 22:10, 26, 34; 24:26, 27; Isa. 
19:19, 20. 

WIT'TY, Prov. 8 : 12, ingenious, wise. 
The R. V. has " knowledge and discre- 
tion" instead of "knowledge of witty in- 
ventions." 

WIZ'ARD. See Witch. 

WOE is sometimes used in our Bibles 
where a softer expression would be at least . 
equally proper : " Woe to such a one !" is 
a threat or imprecation of some calamity, 
natural or judicial, to befall a person ; but 
this is not always the meaning of the word 
in Scripture. We find the expression, 
"Woe is me!" that is, Alas for my suffer- 
ings ! and, " Woe to the women with child 
and those who give suck !" that is, Alas for 
their redoubled sufferings in times of dis- 
tress ! If in the denunciatory language of 
Christ we should read, " Alas for thee, Cho- 
razin ! Alas for thee, Bethsaida !" we should 
do no injustice to the general sentiments 
of the passage. 

Yet in many cases the word woe is used 
in a fuller and more awful sense, express- 
ing an inspired denunciation and foreshad- 
owing of God's wrath upon sinners ; as 
when we read, Woe to those who build 
houses by unrighteousness and cities by 
blood ; woe to those who are " rebellious 
against God," etc., in numerous passages, 
especially of the Old Testament, Hab. 2:6, 
9,12, 15, 19; Zeph. 3:1. 




AN EGYPTIAN WOLF. 

WOLF, a ferocious wild animal, emblem 
of the tribe of Benjamin, Gen. 49:27, the 
Canis Lupus of Linnaeus, belonging to the 
dog genus and closely resembling the dog. 

671 



WOM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WON 



Wolves never bark, but only howl. They 
are cruel but cowardly animals, and fly 
from man except when impelled by hunger, 
in which case they prowl by night in great 
droves through villages, and destroy any 
persons they meet, Jer. 5:6; Ezek. 22:27; 
Hab. 1:8. They are swift of foot, strong 
enough to carry off a sheep at full speed, 
and an overmatch for ordinary dogs. In 
severe winters wolves assemble in large 
troops, join in dreadful howlings, and make 
terrible devastations, Zeph. 3 : 3. They prey 
upon all the domestic animals, and are the 
peculiar object of terror to shepherds, as the 
defencelessness and timidity of the sheep 
render it an easy prey, Luke 10:3; John 
10:12. So persecutors and false teachers 
have been "grievous wolves " to the flock 
of Christ, Matt. 10:16; Acts 20:29. The 
transforming power of the gospel on hu- 
man nature will be as great as if the wolf 
should become the playmate of the lamb, 
Isa. 11:6; 65:25. The wolf inhabits the 
continents of Europe, Asia, Africa, and 
America. Driven in general from the pop- 
ulous parts of the country, he is yet every- 
where found in large forests and moun- 
tainous regions. The Syrian wolf is larger 
than the Egyptian and of a grayish and 
pale fawn-color. It was formerly more 
common in Palestine than now. 

WO'MAN is spoken of in Scripture as 
the beloved and honored companion and 
helpmeet, not the servant, of man, Gen. 
2:23, 24, created as the necessary comple- 
tion of man, Gen. 2: 18-23, and though sub- 
ordinate in sphere, Gen. 3:16; 1 Cor. 11:3, 
8,9; 14:34.35; 1 Tim. 2:11-14, yet special- 
ly qualified for that sphere, and as neces- 
sary in it as man in his. In Hebrew the 
words for man and woman, ish and ishshah, 
are the same, the latter having the femi- 
nine termination. Man and woman are 
indeed essentially one, the natural quali- 
ties of each so responding to those of the 
other as to lay the foundation of the most 
tender and abiding unity. The Bible thus 
raised the Jewish woman high above the 
women of heathenism, and the Old Testa- 
ment contains some of the finest portrait- 
ures of female character. But still great- 
er is the contrast between the women of 
heathenism and those of Christianity: the 
former with mind and soul undeveloped, 
secluded, degraded, the mere toys and 
slaves of their husbands; the latter educa- 
ted, refined, ennobled, cheering and bless- 
ing the world. Christianity forbids a man 
to have more than one wife, or to divorce 
672 



her for any cause but one, Matt. 5:32; 
19:3-9; declares that bond and free, male 
and female, are all one in Christ, Gal. 3:28; 
that the wife must be loved and cherished 
by the husband, Eph. 5:28-33; and that in 
heaven they are no more given in marriage, 
but are as the angels of God, Matt. 22:30. 
If woman was first in the Fall, she was 
honored in the exclusive parentage of the 
Saviour of mankind ; and women were the 
truest friends of Christ while on earth. 
Mark 15:40, 41; 16:1, 2; John 11. In his 
addressing his mother as " woman," John 
2:4; 19:26, no reproach or disrespect is im- 
plied. See also John 20: 13, 15. The primal 
curse falls with heaviest weight on woman; 
but the larger proportion of women in our 
churches may indicate that it was the pur- 
pose of God to make his grace to man " yet 
more abound " to her who was the first in 
sinning and suffering. The New Testa- 
ment foreshadows the activity of woman in 
Christian service, Luke 23:55, 56; 24:1; 
Acts 16:15; Rom. 16:1-3,6, 12; Phil. 4:3; 
1 Tim. 5 : 10. In Psa. 68 : 1 1 the R. V. reads, 
" The Lord giveth the word ; the women 
that publish the tidings are a great host." 

In the East women have usually lived in 
comparative seclusion, not appearing in 
public unless closely veiled, not mingling 
in general society nor seeing the men who 
visit their husbands and brothers, nor even 
taking their meals with the men of their 
own family. Their seclusion was less in the 
rural districts than in towns, and among 
the Jews than among most other nations. 
Hebrew women sat at the table with the 
men, Ruth 2:14; 1 Sam. 1:7-9; Job 1:4; 
John 2:3; 12:2; they are often mentioned as 
interested in national affairs, Judg. 11:34; 
21:21; 1 Sam. 2; 18:6, 7; 1 Kin. 18:13; 
21:25; sometimes in places of authority, 
Judg. 4:4; 5; 2 Kin. 11:3; sometimes as 
prophetesses, Exod. 15 : 20, 21 ; 2 Kin. 22 : 14 ; 
Neh. 6:14; Luke 2: 36; but they were chief- 
ly engaged in domestic duties, Prov. 31; 
among which were grinding flour, baking 
bread, making cloth, needlework, etc., Gen. 
18:6; 2 Sam. 13:8; Acts 9:39. The poor 
gleaned the remnants of the harvest ; the 
daughters of the patriarchs joined in tend- 
ing their fathers' flocks, Gen. 29:9; Exod. 
2:16; and females of all classes were ac- 
customed to draw water for family use, 
bearing it in earthern pitchers on their 
shoulders often for a considerable distance, 
Gen. 24:15-20; John 4:28. 

WON'DER. An appropriate name for 
many of the miracles recorded in Scripture, 



WOR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WOR 



Exod. 15:11; Deut. 6:22; Psa. 136:4; Joel 
2:30; Heb. 2:4. See Miracle and Sign. 

WOOL, Psa. 147:16, the chief material in 
the manufacture of cloths, was highly val- 
ued among the Hebrews, Lev. 13:47; Job 
31:20; Prov. 31:13; Ezek. 34:3; Hos. 2:5. 
It was a part of Mesha's tribute, 2 Kin. 3:4, 
and was one of the articles bought by Tyre 
from Damascus, Ezek. 27 : 18. It was among 
the first-fruits given to the priests, Deut. 
18:4; was used in an ancient miracle, Judg. 
6:37; and its pure whiteness symbolized 
the perfection of God's pardoning grace, 
Isa. 1 : 18. Garments of mixed fibres of 
wool and flax were forbidden to the He- 
brews, Lev. 19:19; Deut. 22:11, probably 
as involving some entanglement with idol- 
atry. 

WORD, in Greek Log'os, one of the titles 
of the second person of the Trinity, indica- 
ting that by his acts and teachings God is 
revealed somewhat as thought is bywords, 
1 John 1:1; 5:7; Rev. 19:13. " The word 
of the Lord" was a common phrase in the 
Old Testament, always denoting some rev- 
elation of Jehovah, Gen. 15:1, 4; 1 Sam. 
3:1 ; 1 Kin. 6:11 ; 16:1, 7, 12, 34; 18:1, 31 ; 
1 Chr. 17:3; Jer. 1:2, etc.; Dan. 9:2. In 
the account of the creation the action of 
Jehovah is expressed by his speaking, Gen. 
1:3, and this work is elsewhere ascribed 
to his "word," Psa. 33:6, 9. See also Psa. 
107:20; 147:15, 18; Isa. 55:11; Heb. 4:12, 
13. Long before the coming of Christ the 
Jewish paraphrasts of the Bible used " the 
Word of the Lord" where Jehovah 
occurred in the original; and to show its 
true meaning and its application to our 
Saviour was of great importance to John, 
the last of the inspired writers, in whose 
later years certain errors as to the person 
of Christ, borrowed from Eastern philoso- 
phy, had begun to creep into the Christian 
church. He describes " the Word " as a 
personal and divine Being, self-existent, 
and coexistent from eternity with the Fa- 
ther, yet distinguished from him as the 
Son, the creator of all created things, the 
source of all life and light to men, and in 
the fulness of time incarnate among men, 
John 1 : 1-3, 14. John's Gospel is full and 
clear respecting the divinity of Christ, John 
'20:31. 

WORKS. Great importance is attached 
in Scripture to right actions— inspired by 
supreme love to God and genuine love to 
man, Mark 12:29-31 — as necessary eviden- 
ces of a true spirit of faith and obedience, 
Matt. 7:21-23; 21:28-31; 25:31-46; John 
43 



8:39; 1 Cor. 3:13-15; Eph. 2:10; Jas. 2:14- 
26 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 17. But the " good works " of 
unrenewed men lack that element of holi- 
ness, Rom. 3:20-22, and the best works of 
renewed men are no meritorious ground 
of salvation, but only fruits and evidences 
of grace, Tit. 3:5. 

For "works" and "mighty works," 
John 5:20; y.2>\ I 5 :2 4, see Miracle. 

WORLD, the earth on which we dwell, 
1 Sam. 2:8; 2 Sam. 22:16; Luke 1:70; its 
inhabitants, John 3:16, or a large number 
of them, John 12:19; Rev. 13:3; in some 
passages the universe, 1 Cor. 4:9; Heb. 
11:3; Jas. 3:6; in several places it is equiv- 
alent to " land," and denotes the Roman 
Empire, Acts 17:6, or Judaea and its vicin- 
ity, Luke 2:1; 4:5; Acts 1 1 : 28. It is some- 
times a translation of the Hebrew olam, 
Isa. 45:17; 64:4, in R. V. "of old;" Eccl. 
3:11, R. V., margin, "eternity ;" and often 
of the corresponding Greek word, aion, 
meaning sometimes a future unlimited pe- 
riod, Heb. 6:5, R. V. "age," and rendered 
" age " in the R. V. margin of Mark 10:30; 
Luke 18:30; 20:35; and often meaning this 
dispensation or passing epoch, translated 
"age" in the R. V. in 1 Cor. 10:11; Heb. 
9:26; and in many passages in the margin, 
as in Matt. 12:32; 13:22, 39, 40, 49; 24:3; 
28:20; Luke 16:8; 20:34; Rom. 12:2; Gal. 
1:4; Eph. 1:21; 1 Tim. 6:17; Tit. 2:12; 
Heb. 1:2; 11:3. It often signifies the ob- 
jects and interests of time and sense, Mark 
4:19; 8:36; Gal. 6:14, and the riches, hon- 
ors, and pleasures of this life, which are 
supremely loved by mankind, and whose 
pursuit is so generally full of sin that "the 
world " is justly spoken of as the enemy of 
God, Matt. 16:26; John 7: 7; 15:18,19; Rom. 
12:2; 2 Tim. 4:10; Jas. 4:4; 1 John : 15-17; 
3:1, 13. Satan is "the god of this world," 
John 12:31; 14:30; 2 Cor. 4:4. 

WORMS, not the common earth-worms, 
but usually the larvae of various insects : 
in Isa. 51 : 8 the moth that feeds on woollen 
cloth; in Deut. 28:39; Jonah 4:7 the larvae 
of some insect destructive to vines ; in Exod. 
16:20 those of some species bred in decay- 
ing matter, or of beetles infesting dead bod- 
ies buried in the shallow Eastern graves," 
Job 19:26; 21:26, metaphorically used by 
our Lord to illustrate the future remorse 
and anguish of the lost, Mark 9:44-48; in 
Job 25:6; Psa. 22:6; Isa. 41:14; Acts 12:23, 
such as ma) r breed in human ulcers. In 
Mic. 7 : 17 some reptile is intended, or 
" creeping things," as in the R. V. 
WORM' WOOD, Lam. 3 : 15, 19, an intense- 
673 



WOR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WRI 



1)- bitter, unpalatable plant, a symbol for 
whatever is nauseous and destructive, 
Deut. 29:18; Jer. 9:15; 23:15. The fruits 
of vicious indulgence are "bitter as worm- 
wood," Prov. 5:4; and injustice and oppres- 
sion are like wormwood and gall, Amos 
5:7; 6:12. The Chaldee paraphrase calls 
it " the wormwood of death." The modern 
use of absinthe, or wormwood in brandy, 
embitters and destroys many lives in France 
and Switzerland. Several species of Arte- 
misia grow^ in Palestine. In Amos 6: 12 the 
A. V. calls it ''hemlock." In Rev. 8:10, it, 
" the star called Wormwood " seems to de- 
note a mighty prince or power of the air, the 
instrument in its fall of sore judgments on 
large numbers of the wicked. Comp. Isa. 
14: 12. 

WOR'SHIP (z. <?., worth-ship or worthi- 
ness), in old English, the honor manifested 
to one deemed worthy, or the homage of 
subjects to kings, Josh. 5:14; Matt. 9:18; 
Luke 14:10; Acts 10:25. It was rendered 
in various ways and degrees, e. g., by fall- 
ing prostrate on the ground, bending the 
knee or the head and body, kissing the 




hand, the feet, or the ground, or touching 
the forehead to the ground once or more, 
Gen. 33:3; Matt. 18:26. See Salutation. 
WOR'SHIP of God. That supreme rev- 
erence of the soul which is due to him alone, 
Exod. 20:3, 4; John 4:20-24; Heb. 1:6; 
Rev. 21:9, and which it is idolatry to offer 
to any other, Exod. 34:14; 2 Kin. 10:20-23; 
Dan. 3:5-28; Acts 7:43; 2 Thess. 2:4; Rev. 
13:4-15. It includes adoration, praise, and 
thanksgiving, confession of sin, imploring 
his grace, and the study of his will ; and 
the rendering of this service habitually and 
with all the heart— both spiritually and vis- 
ibly, in public and in private, by individu- 
als, -by families, and by communities — is 
not only a self-evident duty for all who be- 
lieve in God, but is abundantly command- 
ed in his Word. See Prayer. The stated 
assembling of all people for united worship 
on the Sabbath, in continuance of the tem- 
ple and synagogue services enjoined by 
God and practised by Christ, is a most 
manifest duty. The very name " church," 
674 



meaning assembly, implies it ; and the 
preaching of the gospel, the great means 
for promoting Christianity, requires it. The 
directions of Paul, not to forsake the "as- 
sembling of ourselves together," to read 
his epistles " in all the churches," and to 
join in "psalms and hymns and spiritual 
songs," and his rules for securing the high- 
est spiritual edification of all when they 
come together in the church, all indicate 
the established law of Christianity. 

Public worship is taught in many of the 
Psalms, as Psa. 42; 63; 84; also 27:4; 
95:6; 96:8, 9; Joel 2:15-17; Matt. 18:19, 20. 
In Old Testament times it included "holy 
convocations" on the Sabbath, Lev. 23:3, 
with the reading of Scripture, Acts 15:21, 
and no doubt religious instruction, with 
songs of praise, Psa. 42:4; 92; 118:24. 
Double sacrifices were then offered in the 
temple, Num. 28:9, 10, the show-bread was 
renewed, Lev. 24:8, and prophets were con- 
sulted, 2 Kin. 4:23. Our Lord himself ha- 
bitually practised it, Luke 4:16. Family 
worship is implied in numerous passages, 
Gen. 12:5,8; 35:2,3,7, Josh. 24:15; 2 Sam. 
6:20; Job 1:5; Dan. 6:10; Acts 1:13, 14; 
10:2; Rom. 16:5; 1 Cor. 16:19; Col. 4:15; 
Phile. 2. The terms of our Lord's prayer 
show that it was for use every day and by 
several persons in company. Private and 
secret worship is essential to the believer's 
spiritual life and walk with God, and is en- 
joined in many ways in the word, Psa. 4:4; 
5 : 3 ; 55 : l 7 J 141:1,2; Dan. 6:10; by the ex- 
press direction of Christ, Matt. 6:5, 6; as 
well as by his example, Matt. 14:23; Mark 
1:35; Luke 5:16; 6:12; 9 : 18, 29, and that of 
the apostles, Acts 10:9. 

"Will-worship," Col. 2:23, is a term de- 
scriptive of such forms of adoration and 
service as are not prescribed in God's 
Word, but are offensive in his sight. Such 
are the masses and penances of popery. 

WORTH, Ezek. 30:2, from a Saxon verb 
weorthan, to be : " woe be to the day." 

WOT. See Wist. 

WOULD GOD, Num. 11:29; i4 :2 ; 20:3; 
Deut. 28:67; 2 Sam. 18:33; 2 Kin. 5:3, and 
"Would to God," Exod. 16:3; Josh. 7:7; 
Judg. 9:29; 1 Cor. 4:8; 2 Cor. 11:1, might 
better be translated " Oh that," as in Job 
6:8. In the original there is no mention of 
God. 

WOUND, in Obad. 7 should be rendered, 
asnare; in Prov. 18:8 a dainty morsel. 

WRI'TING was doubtless of very early 
origin, and would naturally at first be ideo- 
graphic—consisting of rude pictures of nat- 



YAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



YES 



ural objects and symbols of natural process- 
es — numbers, movements, and thoughts ; 
and subsequently phonetic — by letters and 
syllables representing the sound of spoken 
\vords. The Egyptian hieroglyphics exem- 
plify the transition from the former to the 
latter method ; and the 22 letters of the an- 
cient Hebrew alphabet, as well as those of 
the still older Phoenician, are significant of 
the same transition and of a pastoral ori- 
gin — aleph meaning ox, beth a dwelling, 
and gimel a camel, etc. The earliest Scrip- 
ture mention of writing is in Exod. 17:14, 
as of an art long and well known. The ten 
commandments were inscribed on stone 
tablets, and Moses wrote down all the laws 
and statutes prescribed by God, Exod. 24:4, 
7, 12; 32:32, 23- Written chronicles were 
kept, Num. 21:14; 2 Sam. 1:18. The peo- 
ple were required thus to familiarize them- 
selves with the law, Deut. 6:6-9, and many 
copies of it were made, Jer. 8:8. Writing 
was used in legal and business transac- 
tions, Num. 5:23; Josh. 18:9, and in corre- 
spondence, 2 Sam. 11 :i4; Ezra 4: 8, 11 ; 5:6; 
Neh. 6:17; Jer. 29:1, and recorders and 
scribes are often mentioned, 2 Sam. 8:17; 
20:24, 25; Jer. 36. Letters and books took 
the form of cylindrical rolls, Psa. 40:7; Isa. 
34:4; Zech. 5:1, and the writing on papy- 
rus, 2 John 12, or parchment, 2 Tim. 4:13, 
was without capitals and punctuation 
marks, or any separation between words 
or sentences. Inscriptions were made on 
lead, brass, clay tiles, wax tablets, plaster, 
stone, and gems, Exod. 39:14, 30; and the 
letters were formed by hand, with the reed 
pen or hair-pencil and ink, the metallic 
stylus, and graving tools. See Book, Ink, 
and Pen. 

In Jud. 5:14, for "pen of the writer," the 
R. V. has " marshal's staff." 

Y. 

YARN, Linen, i Kin. 10:28, in the R. V. 
•droves of horses. 

YEAR. The Hebrews always had years 
of 12 months. But at the beginning, as 
some suppose, they were solar years of 12 
months, each month having 30 days, ex- 
cepting the twelfth, which had 35 days. It 
is supposed that they had an intercalary 
month at the end of 120 years, at which 
time the beginning of their year would be 
out of its place full 30 days. Subsequently, 
however, and throughout the history of the 
Jews, the year was lunar, having alternate- 
ly a full month of 30 days and a defective 



month of 29 days, thus completing their 
year in 354 days. To accommodate this 
lunar year to the solar year (365 days, 5 
hours, 48 minutes, and 48.7 seconds), or the 
period of the revolution of the earth around 
the sun, and to the return of the seasons, 
they added a whole month after Adar about 
7 times in 19 years. This intercalary month 
they called Ve-adar. See Month. 

From several passages it appears that the 
year was sometimes reckoned as 360 days, 
or 12 months of 30 days each. This may 
have been a common mode of speech for 
the sake of round numbers, and as such 
used by Daniel, 7 : 25 ; 12:7, where " a time " 
evidently denotes a year; and "a time, 
times, and a half" means three and a half 
prophetic years or 1,260 prophetic days or 
natural years. Compare the 42 months and 
the 1,260 days of Rev. 11 : 2, 3 ; 12:6. 

The Hebrew year commenced with the 
new moon of the month Abib or Nisan 
nearest to the vernal equinox, usually after 
the equinox and never long before it, for 
the first-fruits of the barley harvest were 
to be offered on the 16th of that month. 

The ancient Hebrews appear to have had 
no formal and established era, but to have 
dated from the most memorable events in 
their history; as from the exodus out of 
Egypt, Exod. 19:1 ; Num. 33:38; 1 Kin. 6:1; 
from the erection of Solomon's temple, 
1 Kin. 8:1; 9:10; and from the Babylonish 
Captivity, Ezek. 33:21 ; 40:1. See Sabbat- 
ical Year and Jubilee. 

The phrase "from two years old and 
under," Matt. 2 : 16, that is, " from a child of 
two years and under," is thought by some 
to include all the male children who had 
not entered their second year ; and by oth- 
ers all who were near the beginning of 
their second year, within a few months be- 
fore or after. 

The cardinal and ordinal numbers are 
often used indiscriminately. Thus in Gen. 
7:6, ii, Noah is 600 years old, and soon 
after in his 600th year; Christ rose from 
the dead "three days after," Matt. 27:63, 
and "on the third day," Matt. 16:21; cir- 
cumcision took place when the child was 
" eight days old," Gen. 17:12, and " on the 
eighth day," Lev. 12:3. Comp. Luke 1:59; 
2:21. Many slight discrepancies in chro- 
nology may be thus accounted for. 

YES'TERDAY and TO-DAY, in Heb. 13:8, 
are used in a general sense for time past 
and present. Christ is eternally the same. 
The life and knowledge of man are com- 
paratively only " of yesterday," Job 8:9. 

675 



YES 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZAC 



YES'TER-NIGHT, Gen. 31:29, last night. 

YOKE, a symbol of subjection and servi- 
tude, 1 Kin. 12:4; an iron yoke, of severe 
oppression, Deut. 28:48. The ceremonial 
law was a yoke, a burdensome restriction, 
Acts 15:10; Gal. 5:1. The withdrawing or 
breaking of a yoke denoted a temporary or 
an unlimited emancipation from bondage, 
Isa. 58:6; Jer. 2:20, and sometimes the dis- 
owning of rightful authority, Jer. 5:5. The 
iron yoke imposed by our sins none but 
God can remove, Lam. 1:14; but the yoke 
of Christ's service is easy and light, Matt. 
11:29, 30. The word yoke also denotes a 
pair of oxen, 1 Kin. 19:19, 21; Job 1:3; 
Luke 14:19. See Acre. 

YOKE'-FELLOW, Phil. 4:3, comrade, 
fellow-laborer. 



ZAANA'IM, removals, the plain of, 
rather the " oak "or " terebinth " of Zaana- 
im, a notable tree or grove near which He- 
ber the Kenite was encamped when Sisera 
fled to his tent and was slain, Judg. 4:11. 
It was near Kedesh in Naphtali, which the 
Palestine Exploration party found on the 
west shore -of the Sea of Galilee, 2 miles 
above the outlet of the Jordan. Zaanaim, 
now Bessum, would thus be 6 or 7 miles 
northeast of Mount Tabor. 

ZA' AH AH, place of flocks, Mic. 1:11, sup- 
posed to be the same as Zenan, Josh. 15:37, 
a town in the plain country of Judah, 6 
miles northwest of Gath, where the name 
lingers as Zeidan. 

ZAANAN'NIM, Josh. 19:33, the same as 
Zaanaim. 

ZA'AVAN, disquieted, a Horite chief, 
grandson of Esau, Gen. 36:27, called Za- 
van in 1 Chr. 1:42, A. V. 

ZA'BAD, a gift. I. One of David's war- 
riors, 1 Chr. 2:36, t>7 ', 11:41. 

II. An Ephraimite, 1 Chr. 7:21. 

III. The son of an Ammonitess, who with 
Jehozabad, son of a Moabitess, assassina- 
ted king Joash in his bed, 2 Chr. 24:25, 26; 
called Jozachar in 2 Kin. 12:21. The mur- 
derers were put to death later by Amaziah, 
2 Kin. 14:5, 6; 2 Chr. 25:3, 4: but their 
children were spared. Comp. Deut. 24:16. 

IV. Three Hebrews who divorced their 
foreign wives in Ezra's day, Ezra 10:27, 

33, A3- 

ZAB'DI, my gift. Four of this name are 
mentioned, Josh. 7:1, 17, 18; 1 Chr. 8:19; 
27:27; Neh. 11 : 17. 

ZAB'DIEL, gift of God. I. The father of 
676 



Jashobeam, captain of one of David's hosts,. 
1 Chr. 27:2. 

II. A leading priest in Nehemiah's day, 
Neh. 11 :i4. 

ZA'BUD, given, a. priest, in the A. V. 
"principal officer," or king's friend, a son 
of Nathan the prophet and the confidential 
friend and adviser of king Solomon, prob- 
ably having shared with him the instruc- 
tions of the venerable prophet, 1 Kin. 4:5. 
Such a position in an Eastern court often 
implies more influence with the king than 
is enjoyed by his legal advisers. Comp. 
Hushai. 

ZAB'ULON, the Greek form of Zebulun,. 
used in the A. V. in Matt. 4:13, 15; Rev. 
7:8. 

ZAC'CAI, pure, Ezra 2:9; Neh. 7:14, the 
ancestor of 760 Hebrews who returned from 
the Captivity. 

Z ACCHJE' US, pure, the Greek form of the 
Hebrew Zaccai, Luke 19:1,-10. He was a 
Jew and yet a wealthy superintendent of 
tax-gatherers at Jericho. In order to see 
Christ he took a position in a sycamore- 
tree, by which He was about to pass. The 
Saviour drawing near and knowing his 
heart, called to him to come down, and pro- 
posed to make a brief stay at his house. 
As he held office under the Romans he was 
called " a sinner " by the Jews. He showed, 
sincere penitence and faith in the Saviour, 
who in turn promised him salvation as "a. 
son of Abraham " by faith, Gal. 3:7, as well 
as by birth. True conversion will evince 
itself by the making of all practicable rep- 
aration for any wrongs done. There is some 
obscurity as to the relation of this interview 
with the healing of the blind men. Possi- 
bly the house of Zacchaeus was on the west 
of Jericho and the healing occurred be- 
tween it and Jericho, the blind men having 
followed him through the village. The 
" house of Zacchaeus " now shown on the 
plain of Jericho is probably the remnant of 
a fort built in the 10th century, or even 
more recently. 

ZAC CUR, mifidfjil, the name of 7 Israel- 
ites mentioned in Nura 13:4; 1 Chr. 4:26; 
24:27; 25:2,10; Neh. 3:2; 10:12; 13:13. 

ZACHARI'AH, properly Zechariah, the 
14th king of Israel and the last of the line 
of Jehu. He succeeded his father Jerobo- 
am II., 773 B. C, and reigned 6 months. 
He did evil in the sight of the Lord, and 
Shallum son of Jabesh conspired against 
him, killed him in public, and reigned in 
his stead. Thus was fulfilled what the 
Lord had foretold to Jehu, that his children 



ZAC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZAP 



should sit on the throne of Israel to the 4th 
.generation, 2 Kin. 14:29; 15:8-11. 

ZACHARI'AS, the Greek form of Zecha- 
riah, remembered by Jehovah. I. An Old 
Testament martyr, slain in the temple court 
between the altar and the Holy Place, Matt. 
23:35; Luke 11:51; probably the son of the 



high-priest Jehoiada, who was stoned to 
death by order of king Joash, 2 Chr. 24:20- 
22. See Zechariah, IV. Our Lord calls 
the martyr he refers to " the son of Bara- 
chiah ;" but " son " may mean grandson or 
descendant. Some suppose the prophet 
Zechariah to be intended, but history gives 
no account of his death. 

II. A priest belonging to the 8th course 
or class, called that of Abia, 1 Chr. 24:10, 
the husband of Elisabeth and father of 
John the Baptist. His residence when not 
on duty was in the hill-country south of 
Jerusalem. Each class ministered in turn 
■one week in the temple, and the service of 
offering incense was a high honor, allowed 
only once to any one priest. He is known 
to us by his pious and blameless life, his 
vision of Gabriel in the temple promising 
him a son in his old age, his hesitancy in 
believing, for which he was visited by a 
temporary dumbness, his miraculous res- 
toration at the circumcision of his son, and 
his noble and prophetic song of praise, 
Luke 1:5-25, 57-79- 

ZA'DOK, righteous, I., the son of Ahitub 
and father of Ahimaaz, a high-priest to- 
gether with Abiathar in the reigns of David 
and Solomon. He was of the house of Ele- 
azar, the son of Aaron, 1 Chr. 24:3, and was 
a " seer " as well as a priest, 2 Sam. 15:27. 
It is thought that he was the Zadok men- 
tioned in 1 Chr. 12:27, 2 § as giving in his 
allegiance to David after Saul's death, and 
he continued faithful to his king, 1 Chr. 
27: 17. He fled from Jerusalem with David 
when Absalom rebelled, but was sent back 
and communicated between David and Hu- 
shai, 2 Sam. 15-17. He and Abiathar led 
the elders of Judah to recall the king, 2 Sam. 
19:11; he remained faithful to him and 
Solomon when Abiathar fell away ; whence 
the king deposed Abiathar and made Za- 
dok the sole high-priest, 1 Kin. 1:7, 8. 26, 
32-39; 2:27, 35; 4:4; 1 Chr. 29:22. 

II. The father-in-law of king Uzziah, 
2 Kin. 15:33; 2 Chr. 27:1. 

III. The son of another Ahitub, and high- 
priest, 1 Chr. 6:12; 9:11. 

IV. A repairer of the wall of Jerusalem 
and sealer of the covenant, Neh. 3:4; 10:21. 

V. The son of Immer, a priest, 1 Chr. 



24:14, who returned from the Captivity, 
Ezra 2:37, and aided in repairing the city 
wall, Neh. 3:29. 

VI. A priest at Jerusalem, Neh. 11: 11. 

VII. A scribe and treasurer under Nehe- 
miah, Neh. 13:13. 

ZA'HAM, fatness, a son of Rehoboam, 
2 Chr. 11 :i9. 

ZA'IR, small, 2 Kin. 8:21, a spot where 
Joram's army attacking the Edomites was 
surrounded and fought its way out. Its 
site is unknown, though some would iden- 
tify it with Zoar. 

ZAL'MON, shady, I., an Ahohite, a hero 
of David, 2 Sam. 23 : 28 ; called Ilai in 
1 Chr. 11 :29. 

II. A wooded height in Samaria, 3 or 4 
miles south - southwest of Shechem, with 
wood from which Abimelech burned the 
Shechemites out of their citadel, Judg. 9 : 48. 
In Psa. 68:14 its aspect, when snow is fly- 
ing over it, seems to illustrate God's easy 
scattering of his enemies. 

ZALMO'NAH, shady, the 41st station of 
the Israelites in the desert, reached after 
leaving Mount Hor and passing the south 
border of Idumaea, Num. 33 : 41 . Perhaps in 
wady el-Amran, 6 miles northeast of Elath. 

ZALMUN'NA, unprotected. See Zebah. 

ZAMZUM'MIM, or ZU'ZIM, a race of 
Rephaim or giants east of the Jordan, prob- 
ably near Rabbath Ammon, defeated by 
Chedorlaomer, Gen. 14:5, and extermina- 
ted by the Ammonites, who possessed their 
territory until themselves subdued by Is- 
rael, Deut. 2:20, 21. See Ammonites and 
Zuzim. 

ZANO'AH, marsh, I., a town in the She- 
phelah or lowland of Judah, near Zorah 
and Jarmuth, Josh. 15:34. Its inhabitants 
after the Captivity, Neh. 11:30, aided in 
repairing the wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3:13. 
Its site is traced at Zanu'a, just north of 
Yarmuk, and 13 miles west of Bethlehem. 

II. A town in the hill-country of Judah, 
grouped with Maon, Carmel, and Ziph. 
Josh. 15:56; now Ghanaim, 5 miles south 
\>y west of Hebron. 

ZAPH'NATH-PAANE'AH, preserver of 
the age, an Egyptian name given by Pha- 
raoh to Joseph in commemoration of the 
salvation wrought through him, Gen. 41 :45. 

ZA'PHON, north, a town in Gad, near 
Succoth, Josh. 13:27, apparently in the Jor- 
dan valley, ver. 17-21, and near the Sea of 
Galilee ; probably Amathus, now Amateh, 
in wady Regib. In Judg. 12:1, for "north- 
ward " the R. V. has in the margin, "to 
Zaphon." 

677 



ZAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZEB 



ZA'RA, Matt. 1:3, A. V., and ZA'RAH, 
Gen. 38:30; 46:12. See Zerah. 

ZA'REAH. See Zorah. 

ZA'RED. See Zered. 

ZAR'EPHATH, smelting-place, Obad. 20, 
a Phoenician seaport on the Mediterranean 
between Tyre and Zidon, usually subject 
to Tyre. During part of a long drought 
and famine in Israel the prophet Elijah 
resided here with a widow, whose cruse of 
oil and barrel of flour were supplied and 
whose child was restored to life by mira- 
cle. Her noble faith in God is worthy of 
everlasting remembrance, and her gener- 
ous self-forgetfulness of universal imita- 
tion, 1 Kin. 17:9-24. The place was called 
by the Greeks Sarepta, Luke 4:26, and its 
ruins are found on the seashore, a mile dis- 
tant from Surafend, a large village on the 
adjacent hills. 

ZAR'ETAN, Josh. 3:16; ZARTA'NAH, 
I Kin. 4:12; and ZAR'THAN, 1 Kin. 7:46; 
all in the R. V. ZAR' ETHAN, splendor, a 
place in the Jordan valley, and apparently 
a region bordering the Jordan, on the west, 
extending to the south from Beth-shean, and 
belonging to the tribe of Manasseh. It was 
reached by the retroceding waters of the 
Jordan when the Israelites miraculously 
crossed the river, and gave its name to one 
of Solomon's commissariat districts. In it 
were the clay-pits where brass castings 
were made for king Solomon. In a paral- 
lel passage this latter place is named ZE- 
RED'ATHAH, 2 Chr. 4:16, 17, which again 
would seem to be the same as ZERE'RATH, 
in the R. V. ZERE'RAH, Judg. 7:22. The 
name Zahrah now marks a portion of the 
Jordan valley. 

ZA'RETH (rather ZE'RETHVSHA'HAR, 
splendor of the dawn, a town of Reuben, 
on a height overlooking the Jordan or Dead 
Sea valley, Josh. 13:19. Its site may be 
marked by the ruins called Zara, near the 
mouth of wady Zerka Nain. 

ZAR'HITE, a descendant of Zerah, the 
son of Judah, Num. 26:20; Josh. 7:17; 
1 Chr. 27:11, 13. 

ZARTA'NAH, cooling? 1 Kin. 4:12. See 
Zaretan. 

ZAR'THAN, i Kin. 7:46, in 2 Chr. 4:17, 
called Zeredathah. See Zaretan. 

ZEBADI'AH, Heb. Zebad'vah, gift of 
Jehovah, the name of 9 Israelites, 1 Chr. 
8:15; 8:17; 12:7; 26:2 ; 27:7; 2 Chr. 17:8; 
19:11 ; Ezra 8:8; 10:20. 

ZE'BAH, sacrifice, one of two Midianite 
kings who oppressed Israel, and when Gid- 
eon raised an army and defeated them, 
678 



escaped over the Jordan by a ford near 
Beth-shean. Gideon pursued and captured 
them at Karkor, and taking them back to 
his home at Ophrah slew them, to avenge 
their slaying of his brothers, Judg. 8 : 18. 
Comp. Psa. 83:11, 12. 

ZEBA'IM, gazelles, an unknown home of 
some of Solomon's bondmen, Ezra 2:57; 
Neh. 7:59. 

ZEB'EDEE, gift of Jehovah, the husband 
of Salome and father of James and John 
the apostles. He was a fisherman in com- 
fortable circumstances, owning his boat 
and having men in his employ, Mark 1 : 19, 
20, at or near Bethsaida, on the west shore 
of the Sea of Galilee, and readily spared 
his two sons at the call of the Saviour, Matt. 
4:21. His wife also attended Christ and 
ministered to him of her substance, Matt. 
27:55, 56; Mark 15:40; 16:1. See Salome. 
His son John was personally known to the 
high-priest, and was charged by the dying 
Saviour with the care of His mother, John 
18:15, J 6; 19:26, 27. 

ZEBO'IM; in Gen. 14:2, 8; Deut. 29:23, 
ZEBOI'IM, gazelles. I. One of the four cit- 
ies of the " plain " or " circle " of the Jordan 
and Dead Sea depression—" in the vale of 
Siddim, which is the Salt Sea," Gen. 10:19 ; 
14:2, 8 — which were destroyed by fire from 
heaven. Its king was named Shemeber. 
It is always associated with Admah, Deut. 
29:23 ; Hos. 11:8. Its location is unknown, 
whether at the southern end of the sea or 
the northern. 

II. A valley, and perhaps an adjacent 
town, Neh. 11:34, of the Benjamites, 1 Sam. 
13 : 18. A wild gorge, running up from Jer- 
icho to Michmash, is called Shuk-ed-Dub- 
ba, which has the same meaning as this 
Zebo'im, hyena-ravine. 

ZEBU'DAH, given, wife of king Josiah 
and mother of Jehoiakim, 2 Kin. 23:36. 

ZE'BUL, a dwelling, a governor of the 
city of Shechem, who labored adroitly to 
preserve the city for Abimelech his master, 
the son of Gideon, Judg. 9:28-41. 

ZEB'ULUN, in the A. V., Rev. 7:8, ZAB'- 
ULON, a habitation. I. The tenth son of 
Jacob and sixth and last of Leah, born in 
Mesopotamia, Gen. 30:20; 49: 13, and father 
of three sons, the heads of the tribe, Gen. 
46:14. 

II. The tribe of Zebulun numbered 57,400 
at Sinai, and 60,500 at the next census, 
Num. 1:30, 31; 26:26, 27; it encamped on 
the east of the tabernacle, and marched 
with Issachar under the standard of Judah, 
Num. 2:7, 8; 10:14-16. It stood on Mount 



ZEC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZEC 



Ebal when the blessings and curses were 
pronounced, Deut. 27:13. Its portion in 
the Holy Land accorded with the predic- 
tion of Jacob, Gen. 49:13, extending from 
the Mediterranean Sea at Carmel to the 
Sea of Gennesaret, between Issachar on the 
south and Naphtali and Asher on the north 
and northwest, Josh. 19:10-16. The tribe 
occupied one of the richest portions of 
Western Palestine, and " offered the sacri- 
fices of righteousness " from its abundant 
flocks; rejoicing in its "goings out" to- 
wards the sea at Acre, and sucking " of the 
abundance of the sea " at the harbor of 
Haifa, and of " treasures hid in the sands," 
possibly in allusion to the glass first made 
on that coast. Zebulun's posterity are often 
mentioned in connection with those of Issa- 
char, his nearest brother, Deut. 33:18, 19. 
They were entangled with the Phoenicians 
on the west and did not entirely expel the 
Canaanites, though holding them in sub- 
jection, Judg. 1 : 30. In process of time they 
and their successors became much foreign- 
ized in customs, language, and even reli- 
gion, 2 Chr. 30:10, n, 18, and were con- 
temned by the Judahites, Isa. 9:1; Matt. 
4:16; 26:73. But in their earlier period 
they took part with Barak and Gideon in 
the defence of the country against its op- 
pressors, Judg. 4:6, 10; 5:14, 18; 6:35. 
Elon, one of the judges of Israel, was a 
Zebulunite, Judg. 12:11, 12, and the proph- 
et Jonah. Fifty thousand of them joined 
their brethren of the other tribes in ma- 
king David king and contributing supplies, 
1 Chr. 12:33, 4°-' an d their princes are hon- 
orably mentioned in Psa. 68 : 27. They pen- 
itently heeded the call of Hezekiah and 
were among those who abandoned their 
idolatry and celebrated the Passover with 
renewed zeal, 2 Chr. 30:10, n, 18. But 
they relapsed into idolatry and were car- 
ried into captivity, 2 Kin. 17:13. Zebulun 
and Naphtali were especially included by 
Isaiah in his prediction of the Messiah's 
illumining the national darkness, Isa. 9:1, 
2, and Matt. 4:12-16 records its partial ful- 
filment. The inhabitants of this region in 
the time of Christ were highly favored by 
his instructions— Nazareth and Cana, Ca- 
pernaum, Magdala, and Tiberias being all 
in these limits. 

III. A city in the southern border of 
Asher, but probably belonging to Zebulun, 
Josh. 19:27. 

ZECHARI'AH, God remembers, I., son of 
Berechiah and grandson of Iddo the priest : 
called the son of Iddo in Ezra 5:1; 6:14, and 



his successor in the priesthood, Neh. 12:4, 
16, perhaps because Berechiah was then 
dead. Zechariah is the nth of the minor 
prophets. He was born in Babylon, and 
returned with Zerubbabel and Joshua the 
high-priest, and began to prophesy while 
yet young, Zech. 2:4, in the 2d year of Da- 
rius son of Hystaspes, B. C. 520, in the 8th 
month of the holy year, and 2 months after 
Haggai. These two prophets, with united 
zeal, encouraged the people to resume the 
work of the temple, which had been discon- 
tinued for some years, Ezra 5:1. Its foun- 
dations had been laid in the time of Cyrus ; 
but during the reigns of Cambyses and 
the pseudo-Smerdis the work was arrested 
through the hostility of the Samaritans. 
The favor of Darius encouraged the re- 
sumption of the work, and it was vigorous- 
ly prosecuted, Ezra 6:14, to the end of the 
16th year after the return of the first band 
of Israelites from exile. 

Zechariah's prophecies concerning the 
Messiah are more particular and express 
than those of most other prophets (see 
Zech. 3:8; 6:12; 9:9; 11:12; 12:10; 13:1, 
6, 7), and many of them, like those of Dan- 
iel, are couched in symbols. The book 
opens with a brief warning introduction ; 
after which six chapters contain a series of 
visions, setting forth the fitness of that time 
for the promised restoration of Israel, the 
destruction of the enemies of God's people, 
the conversion of heathen nations, the ad- 
vent of Messiah the Branch, the outpouring 
and blessed influences of the Holy Spirit, 
and the importance and safety of faithfully 
adhering to the service of their covenant 
God. Two years later, chs. 7 and 8, a dep- 
utation of Jews came to the temple to in- 
quire whether the fast days of the Captiv- 
ity were to be observed now that they had 
returned, and were taught that God loves 
mercy and truth more than fasting and 
sackcloth, and that their days of mourning 
should be turned to days of joy. * Chs. 9-1 1 
predict the prosperity of Judah during the 
times of the Maccabees, together with the 
fate of Damascus, the Palestine coast, and 
other adjacent regions. The remaining 
three chapters describe, in a style befitting 
the grandeur of the themes, the future des- 
tiny of the Jews, the siege of Jerusalem, the 
triumphs of Messiah, and the glories of the 
latter day when "Holiness to the Lord" 
shall be inscribed on all things. 

II. A wise and faithful prophetic coun- 
sellor of king Uzziah in the early part of 
his reign, whose death was the beginning 

679 



ZED 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZEL 



of calamities to Judah, 2 Chr. 26:5, 16. He 
was wise because he " had understanding 
in the visions," or the fear, " of God." Comp. 
Dan. 1 : 17. Perhaps the same who was the 
father-in-law of Ahaz, 2 Chr. 28 : 27 ; 29 : 1 . 

III. A son of Jeberechiah, associated 
with Urijah the high-priest by Isaiah as a 
" faithful witness," Isa. 8:1,2; 2 Chr. 29:13. 

IV. A son of the high-priest Jehoiada in 
the reign of Joash, 2 Chr. 24:20. Having 
probably succeeded his father in office, he 
was stoned in the very house of God, ver. 
21, for faithfully rebuking the king, court, 
and people for their growing idolatry and 
corruptions. This impious crime, aggrava- 
ted by the fact that Zechariah was not only 
a holy man of God but also the king's own 
cousin, 2 Chr. 22:11, was long remembered, 
and is supposed to have been referred to 
in Matt. 23:35; Luke 11:51 — the " Zachari- 
as, the son of Barachias," " slain between 
the temple and the altar," being so called 
for some unknown reason. The dying cry 
of Zechariah was not like that of Stephen, 
Acts 7:60. 

A number of other men of this name are 
mentioned in I. and II. Chronicles, Ezra, 
and Nehemiah ; but little of interest is said 
of them. 

ZE'DAD, side or slope, a place on the 
northern border of the Holy Land, Num. 
34:8; Ezek. 47:15. Identified by some with 
a remote town east of the north end of 
Anti-Lebanon, about 50 miles east-north- 
east of Baalbek. 

ZEDEKI'AH, righteousness of Jehovah, 
I., the 19th and last king of Judah, son of 
Josiah and Hamutal, full brother of Jehoa- 
haz, 2 Kin. 23:31 ; 24:18, and uncle to Jeco- 
niah his predecessor, 2 Kin. 24:17, 19; 
1 Chr. 3:15; Jer. 52:1. When Nebuchadnez- 
zar took Jerusalem he carried Jeconiah to 
Babylon, with his wives, children, officers, 
and the best artificers in Judsea, and put in 
his place his uncle Mattaniah, whose name 
he changed to Zedekiah, and made him 
promise with an oath that he would main- 
tain fidelity to him. He was 21 years old 
when he began to reign at Jerusalem, and 
he reigned there 11 years. He did evil in 
the sight of the Lord, committing the same 
crimes as Jehoiakim, 2 Kin. 24:18-20; 2 Chr. 
36:11-13. Comp. Jer. 29:16-19; 34; 38:5; 
Ezek. 17:12, 14, 18. In the 9th year of his 
reign he revolted against Nebuchadnezzar, 
trusting to the support of Pharaoh-hophra 
king'of Egypt, which proved ineffectual, and 
weakly despising the faithful remonstran- 
ces of Jeremiah, Jer. 37:2, 5, 7-10. In con- 
680 



sequence of this Nebuchadnezzar marched 
his army into Judtea and took all the forti- 
fied places, Jer. 34 7. In the nth year of 
his reign, on the 9th day of the 4th month 
(July), Jerusalem was taken, 588 B. C. The 
king and his people endeavored to escape 
by favor of the night ; but the Chaldaean 
troops pursuing them, they were overtaken 
in the plain of Jericho. Zedekiah was ta- 
ken and carried to Nebuchadnezzar, then 
at Riblah, in Syria, who reproached him 
with his perfidy, caused his children to be 
slain before his face and his own eyes to be 
put out ; and then loading him with chains 
of brass, he ordered him to be sent to Bab- 
ylon, where he was put "in prison," that 
is, " in the house of visitations or punish- 
ments," probably at penal labor, as was 
Samson, Judg. 16:21; 2 Kin. 25; Jer. 39; 
52 ; Ezek. 19. All these events remarka- 
bly fulfilled the predictions of Jeremiah and 
Ezekiel in the chapters previously referred 
to. See also other prophecies of Jeremiah 
during this period : chs. 21, 24, 27-29, 32-34, 
and Ezek. 26:11-2:, Compare also, with 
respect to Zedekiah's blindness, Jer. 32:4; 
34:3; Ezek. 12:13. 

II. One who was consulted as head of 
the false prophets, at the court of idola- 
trous Ahab, on the success or failure of 
Ahab's war with Ramoth-gilead, 1 Kin. 22; 
2 Chr. 18. Comp. 1 Kin. 18:19, 22, 40. His 
buffalo horns were the emblem of the tribe 
of Ephraim, Deut. 33:17. In his anger he 
struck and tainted Micaiah the prophet, 
who had foretold the true result of the 
campaign, and received a solemn premo- 
nition of his own doom, 1 Kin. 22:25. 

III. Son of Hananiah, a prince of Judah, 
present in the palace royal when the read- 
ing of Jeremiah's predictions to the people 
was announced, Jer. 36:12. 

IV. A false prophet at Babylon, son of 
Maaseiah, denounced by Jeremiah for 
buoying up the people with false hopes, 
Jer. 29:21, 22. 

ZE'EB, wolf, Judg. 7:19-25; 8 ; 3; p sa. 
83:11, a Midianite prince, defeated by Gid- 
eon and slain at a ford of the Jordan to 
which he gave a name. See Oreb. 

ZE'LAH, a rib, a town in the south of 
Benjamin, Josh. 18:28, where was the fam- 
ily tomb of Kish, 2 Sam. 21:14, in which 
the remains of Saul, Jonathan, and others 
were laid, ver. 13. Probably the same as 
Zelzah. 

ZE'LEK, a fissure, one of David's guard, 
an Ammonite. 2 Sam. 23:37; 1 Chr. 11:39- 

ZELOPH'EHAD, first rupture? a de- 



ZEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZEP 



scendant of Joseph by Manasseh, Machir, 
Gilead, and Hepher, Josh. 17:3, 4; 1 Chr. 
7:15, who took no part in Korah's rebel- 
lion, but whose death in the wilderness, 
Num. 14:35; 27:3, leaving 5 daughters and 
no sons, led to the establishment of a law 
that in such cases daughters should inherit 
the patrimony of their father ; but they 
were not to marry out of their tribe, Num. 
26:33; 27:1-11; 36. 

ZELO'TES, full of zeal. In several pas- 
sages the Greek word is used in a favora- 
ble sense, 1 Cor. 14:12; Tit. 2:14, especially 
of those zealous in Jewish law, Acts 21:21 ; 
22:3; Gal. 1:14. In other passages it de- 
notes a zealot, one passionately and fanat- 
ically ardent in his zeal. After the time of 
Christ the name Zelotae was commonly ap- 
plied to an association of private individu- 
als who without authority or law sought to 
enforce their own views of right. In their 
opinion it was a high crime to pay tribute 
to the Romans, and rebellion was the duty 
of every patriotic Jew. Beginning with 
moderation, they became more and more 
violent; and during the siege of Jerusalem 
by Titus their crimes under the pretext of 
.zeal for the Lord are described by Jose- 
phus as truly appalling; so that they ac- 
quired the appropriate name of Sicarii, or 
assassins. As the germ of this body seems 
to have existed in our Lord's day, some 
suppose that the apostle Simon Zelotes was 
so called from his having once belonged to 
it, Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13. His name Ca- 
naanite,or more properly Cananaean, from 
the Syriac kanectn, has the same meaning 
with Zelotes, Matt. 10:4; Mark 3:18. Little 
more is known respecting Simon. 

ZEL'ZAH, shadow, 1 Sam. 10:2, a place 
on the southern border of Benjamin, con- 
jectured to be at Beit Jala, half a mile west 
of Rachel's sepulchre, on the north of Beth- 
lehem. 

ZEMARA'IM, double fleece ofzvool, I., an 
ancient town of Canaan, allotted to the 
tribe of Benjamin, Josh. 18:22; it lay in 
the Jordan valley, or on the adjacent rising 
grounds towards Bethel ; probably at Kh. 
es-Sumrah, 4 miles north of er-Riha. 

II. An eminence in Mount Ephraim, 
2 Chr. 13:4; probably Ras es-Zeimerah, 
yA miles east-northeast of Bethel. 

ZEM'ARITES, the name of a Hamitic 
tribe, akin to the Hittites and Amorites 
and called "sons of Canaan," Gen. 10:18; 
1 Chr. 1:16. The name is perhaps pre- 
served in the ruins called Samra, near the 
mouth of the river Eleutherus. 



ZE'NAN, pointed, or pasture-ground, a 
town in the southwest of Judah, Josh. 15:37; 
located at Kh. Zeidan, 4 miles south of La- 
chish. 

ZE'N AS, Jove-given, a pious lawyer, and 
apparently also a preacher, a friend of 
Paul, who, writing from Nicopolis during 
the last year of his life, commends him and 
Apollos, then at Crete on a journey, to the 
kind offices of Titus, Tit. 3:13. His name 
is Greek, and his profession may have been 
Greek or Roman civil law, rather than 
Jewish law. 

ZEPHANI'AH, hidden by Jehovah, I., a 
Kohathite Levite, in the 7th generation 
from Levi ; ancestor of Samuel and He- 
man, 1 Chr. 6:36; called Uriel in ver. 24. 

II. AsonofCushi; the 9th of the 12 minor 
prophets, a great-grandson of " Hizkiah," 
possibly king Hezekiah, Zeph. 1:1. He 
began to prophesy about B. C. 630, in the 
early part of king Josiah's reign, before the 
reforms of that good king were completed, 
2 Chr. 34:3 ; Zeph. 1:4, 5. The destruction 
of Nineveh, foretold in Zeph. 2 : 13-15, prob- 
ably occurred about B. C. 606 ; and the 
threats against the Baalites, Chemarim, 
etc., Zeph. 1:4-6, were fulfilled by Josiah, 
2 Kin. 23:4, 5. His prophecy contains two 
oracles, in three chapters, directed against 
idolaters in Judah, against surrounding 
idolatrous nations — Moab, Ammon, Ethio- 
pia, and Nineveh — and against wicked ru- 
lers, priests, and prophets. In ch. 2 : 1-3 he 
calls the nation to repentance. In ch. 3 : 1-7 
he warns Jerusalem of coming judgments, 
but closes with cheering promises of gos- 
pel blessings. His style and manner are 
like those of Jeremiah, during whose early 
years they were contemporary. His sub- 
sequent history is unknown. 

ZEPH'ATH, watch-tower, a Canaanitish 
city, called Hormah after its destruction at 
the Conquest, Num. 21:3; Judg. 1:17, but 
afterwards rebuilt, 1 Sam. 30:30; one of the 
" uttermost cities of Judah southwards," 
afterwards assigned to Simeon, Josh. 12: 14; 
15:30; 19:4. Robinson affixed this name 
to the long and rough pass es-Sufa, lead- 
ing up from the Arabah border into the 
hill-country of Judah. But of late Row- 
lands, Palmer, Trumbull, and others trace 
Zephath at the extensive ruins called Se- 
bata, nearly midway between Bir-es-Saba 
and 'Ain Kadeis. It was at Zephath that 
the Israelites were repulsed in attempting 
to ascend from Kadesh, Num. 14:40-45; 
Deut. 1 :44. 

ZEPHA'THAH, watch -tower, a valley 
681 



ZEP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZER 



near Mareshah, where Asa defeated Zerah 
the Cushite, 2 Chr. 14 : 10. Four miles north- 
west of Mareshah is now a place called Zei- 
ta, in a ravine opening into a broad valley, 
which runs up northwest to Ashdod. Zeita 
is 25 miles west-southwest from Jerusalem. 

ZEPH'ON, or ZIPH'ION, Gen. 46:16; 
Num. 26:15, a son of Gad. 

ZE'RAH, a rising, I., an Edomite prince, 
son of Reuel and grandson of Esau, Gen. 
36:13, 17,33; 1 Chr. 1:37, 44. 

II. Twin brother of Pharez, son of Judah 
and Tamar, Gen. 38:30; 1 Chr. 2:4, 6; 
called 'Zara in Matt. 1:3, A. V. His pos- 
terity were called Zarhites, Num. 26:20; 
Josh. 7: 17. 

III. Son of Simeon and father of a fam- 
ily called Zarhites, Num. 26:13; 1 Chr. 
4:24; called Zohar in Gen. 46:10. 

IV. A Gershonite Levite, 1 Chr. 6:21,41. 

V. A Cushite king who invaded Judah 
in the reign of Asa with an immense army 
of 1,000,000 men, Lubim and Cushites, and 
300 chariots, and was defeated by the spe- 
cial power of God, and retreated by the 
way of Gerar, 2 Chr. 14:9-13. Asa's sol- 
emn appeal to God is put on record to en- 
courage our trust in the Hearer of prayer. 
Mareshah lay on the border of the hill- 
country of Judah, on the route from Egypt 
to Jerusalem. See Zephathah. Zerah 
has usually been identified with Usarken 
or Osorchon I., son of Shishak. or with 
Usarken II., but seems rather to have been 
an Ethiopian who was able to secure a 
passage through Egypt. 

ZE'RED, or ZA'RED, e#ubera?ice,a.broo'k 
between Edom and Moab. emptying into 
the Dead Sea at its southeast corner, and 
mentioned as the terminus of Israel's so- 
journ in the wilderness. Num. 21:12; Deut. 
2:13, 14; perhaps the "brook of the wil- 
lows," Isa. 15:7, and the "river of the Ara- 
bah," R. V., Amos 6:14. It is usually iden- 
tified with wady el-Ahsy. 

ZERE'DA, the fortress, a town in Mount 
Ephraim where Jeroboam was born, 1 Kin. 
11:26. Probably Surdah, 2^ miles north- 
west of Beitin or Bethel. 

ZERED'ATHAH, the place of Solomon's 
brass-foundry, 2 Chr. 4 : 17, or Zaretan, 
1 Kin. 7:46. 

ZERE'RAH, or ZERE'RATH, A. V., Judg. 
7:22. See Zaretan. 

ZE'RESH. gold, the wife of Haman the 
Agagite, haughty and revengeful like him, 
and destined, as she foreboded, to see him 
and his ten sons hung on the gallows she 
had designed for Mordecai the servant of 
682 



God, Esth. 5:10-14; 6:13; 7:10; 9:13. 
Comp. Isa. 54:17. 

ZERUB'BABEL, in Greek ZOROB'ABEL, 
begotten in Babylon, the son of Salathiel or 
Shealtiel, of the royal race of David ; called 
by his Chaldaean name " Sheshbazzar, the 
prince of Judah," in Ezra 1:8; and "the 
son of Pedaiah," Salathiel's brother, in 
1 Chr. 3:17-19, perhaps as being his legal 
heir. Zerubbabel held an official position 
at Babylon, and was the leader of the first 
colony of Jews which returned from the 
Babylonish Captivity, 536 B. C. Cyrus 
committed to his care the sacred vessels of 
the temple, with which he returned to Je- 
rusalem, with valuable gifts of gold and 
silver, goods and beasts, and with Joshua 
the high-priest and many Levites, priests, 
Nethinim, and princes, and perhaps with 
the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, Ezra 
1:11; he had also a royal order for the 
timber and stones needed in rebuilding 
the temple. He is always named first, as 
being chief of the Jews that returned to 
their own country, Ezra 2:2; 3:8; 5:2; 
Hag. 1:1; 2:1-9, 21-23. He laid the foun- 
dations of the temple, Ezra 3:8, 9; Zech. 
4:9, and restored the worship of the Lord 
and the usual sacrifices. When the Sa- 
maritans offered to assist in rebuilding the 
temple Zerubbabel and the principal men 
of Judah refused them this honor, since 
Cvrus had granted his commission to the 
Jews only, Ezra 4:2, 3. They procured 
from the Persian court an order that the 
work should cease ; and it was not resumed 
until 16 years later, in the second year of 
Darius the son of Hystaspes, B. C. 521. It 
may be that he was too easily daunted by 
opposition, and turned aside with the rest 
to private enterprises, Hag. .1:2-11, but 
was roused and greatly cheered by the 
stirring appeals of the prophets, Hag. 1 : 13, 
14; 2:4-9, 21-23; Zech. 4:6-10; 8:3-9, 18- 
23. He completed the temple 4 years later, 
Ezra 5:2, restored the courses and main- 
tenance of the priests and Levites, Ezra 
6:18; Neh. 12:47, and secured a registra- 
tion of the returned Jews, Neh. 7:5, and 
the observance of the Passover, Ezra 6:22. 
The genealogy of both Joseph and Mary is 
traced to him, Matt. 1:13; Luke 3 : 27. 

ZERUI'AH, cleft, the sister or half-sister 
of David, and mother of his famous gener- 
als Joab, Abishai, and Asahel, 1 Sam. 26:6; 
2 Sam. 2:18. Probably Abigail and she 
were daughters of Nahash and of a woman 
who afterwards married Jesse, 2 Sam. 
17:25; 1 Chr. 2:13-17. 



ZET 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZIM 



ZE'THAR, a star, one of the 7 eunuchs of 
Ahasuerus, Esth. 1 : 10. 

ZI'BA, a statue, a servant or freedman 
of Saul, who became his steward and had 
15 sons and 20 servants, and whom Da- 
vid charged with the same office towards 
Mephibosheth, son of Jonathan, 2 Sam. 9; 
19:17, 24-30. By a false representation 
David was induced to transfer to Ziba the 
lands he had given to Mephibosheth, but 
afterwards divided them between the two, 
being convinced that he had acted hastily, 
and unable to decide with certainty for 
either, 2 Sam. 16:1-4; 19:24-30. 

ZIB'EON, dyed, the grandfather of Esau's 
wife Aholibamah, Gen. 36:2, a Hivite, but 
classed as a Horite in Gen. 36:20, 24, 29; 
1 Chr. 1:38, 40. 

ZICH'RI, memorable, 2 Chr. 28:7, a val- 
iant Ephraimite prince, general of Pekah 
king of Israel in the war with Ahaz. He is 
perhaps the man called " TabeaFs son," 
Isa. 7:6, whom Rezin and Pekah proposed 
to make king of Judah. Eleven others of 
this name are mentioned, in Exod. 6:21 
(sometimes printed Zithri in the A. V.), 

1 Chr. 8:19, 23, 27; 9:15; 26:25; 27:16; 

2 Chr. 17:16; 23:1; Neh. 11:9; 12:17. 
ZID'DIM, the declivities, Josh. 19:35, a 

fortified town of Naphtali ; conjecturally 
traced at Jisr es-Sidd, a mile or so south- 
west of the outlet of the Jordan from the 
Sea of Galilee. 

ZIDKI' 'J AH, justice of Jehovah, Neh. 10:1, 
one who joined in the solemn covenant with 
Nehemiah. 

ZI'DON, fish-town, the proper spelling of 
the Hebrew Tzidon, and the form used 
throughout the Old Testament in the R. V. 
See Sidon. 

ZIDO'NIANS, the people of Zidon, inclu- 
ding sometimes all the other Phoenicians, 
2 Kin. 23:13; Ezra 3:7; Ezek. 32:30. See 
Sidon. 

ZIF, bloom, the ancient name of the 2d 
Hebrew month, Iyar, of the sacred year, 
nearly corresponding to our May, 1 Kin. 
6:1,37. In the R. V. Ziv. 

ZI'HA, parched, the name of two Nethi- 
nim, I., Ezra 2:43; Neh. 7:46. — II. Neh. 
11 :2i. 

ZIK'LAG, winding, a city of Simeon, first 
assigned to Judah, Josh. 15:31; 19:5, near 
the border of Philistia, and sometimes held 
by the Philistines ; bestowed by Achish 
king of Gath on David, who occupied it a 
year and four months. Hither many other 
refugees from Judah resorted, and David 
was thus enabled to aid Achish and to chas- 



tise the Amalekites who had sacked Zik- 
lag during his absence, 1 Sam. 27:1-7; 30. 
After Saul's death, 2 Sam. 1:1; 4: 10, David 
removed to Hebron, 2 Sam. 2:1. Ziklag 
was repeopled after the Captivity, Neh. 
11:28. The English engineers locate it at 
the ruins called Kh. Zuheilikah, on 3 small 
hills in a plain 11 miles east-southeast of 
Gaza. 

ZIL'LAH, shade, one of the Cainite La- 
mech's wives, addressed in the poetical 
fragment, Gen. 4:19, 22, 23; the mother of 
Tubal-cain and Naamah. See Lamech. 

ZIL'PAH, distillation, a Syrian young 
woman, given as a maid by Laban to his 
daughter Leah, Gen. 29:24, and by her to 
Jacob as a secondary wife ; the mother of 
Gad and Asher, Gen. 35:26; 37:2; 46:18. 

ZIL'THAI, shady, I., of the tribe of Ben- 
jamin, 1 Chr. 8:20. 

II. A captain of the tribe of Manasseh, 
1 Chr. 12:20. 

ZIM'MAH, purpose, I., a Gershonite Le- 
vite, 1 Chr. 6:20, 42. 

II. Ancestor of another Gershonite, 2 Chr. 
29:12. 

ZIM'RAN, celebrated, a son of Abraham 
and Keturah, Gen. 25:2; 1 Chr. 1:32. 

ZIM'RI, celebrated, I., a grandson of Ju- 
dah, 1 Chr. 2:6. 

II. A prince of the tribe of Simeon, slain 
by Phinehas for his public and heaven- 
daring crime on the plains of Moab with 
the Midianite princess Cozbi, Num. 25:6-8, 
14, 15. The Heb. word translated "tent" 
in ver. 8 indicates that it was not of the 
ordinary form and use. 

III. A descendant of king Saul, 1 Chr. 
8:36; 9:42. 

IV. The fifth king of the Northern king- 
dom, B. C. 930. He was general of half the 
cavalry of Elah king of Israel, but rebelled 
against his master, killed him while in a 
drunken revel at his capital, Tirzah, and 
usurped his kingdom. He slew Elah's 
whole family , not sparing any of his relatives 
or friends ; whereby w r as fulfilled the word 
of the Lord denounced to Baasha the father 
of Elah by the prophet Jehu. Zimri reigned 
but 7 days ; for the army of Israel, then be- 
sieging Gibbethon, a city of the Philistines, 
made their general, Omri, king, and came 
and besieged Zimri in the city of Tirzah. 
Zimri, seeing the city on the point of be- 
ing taken, burned himself in the palace 
with all its riches, 1 Kin. 16:1-20; 2 Kin. 

9:31- 

V. An Oriental people, mentioned in Jer. 
25:25 with other children of the East. 

683 



ZIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZIO 



ZIN, a low palm-tree, or coolness, a wil- 
derness on the south border of Canaan, 
Josh. 15:1-3, and on the west border of 
Edom, Num. 34:1-4. In it was Kadesh- 
barnea, memorable for the death of Miriam, 
the mission of the 12 spies into Canaan, the 
murmuring of the Israelites, the rock flow- 
ing with water, and the unholy passion of 
Moses, Num. 13:21; 20:1-13; 27.14; Deut. 
32:51. The southern border of Canaan, 



running south from the Dead Sea, and 
then turning to the southwest by ''the as- 
cent of Akrabbim," passed through wady 
el-Fikreh, wady el Murrah, to 'Ain Kadeis 
or Kadesh, and thence northwest by wady 
el-Arish or '.' the river of Egypt," etc., to 
the Mediterranean. The wilderness of 
Zin, the northeastern part of the wilder- 
ness of Paran, was a wild and dreary moun- 
tain region, sloping to the Ghor. 




MOUNT ZION FROM THE SOUTHEAST; WITH THE MOSQUE OF DAVID, PART OF THE SOUTH WALL 
OF THE CITY, AND THE VALLEY OF HINNOM. 

5:5-9; i Kin. 8:1; 2 Chr. 5:2. He seems 
to have greatly delighted in its beauty and 
strength and to have loved it as a type of 



ZI'ON, in the New Testament, A. V., 
SI'ON, Hebrew TZI'ON, sunny, the highest 
and largest of the mounts in Jerusalem, ri- 
sing 2,593 f eet above the Mediterranean and 
100 feet above Mount Moriah. It formed 
the southwestern part of the city and had 
a level tract of about 500 yards by 250, fall- 
ing off at first gradually and then abruptly 
into the. valleys around it. That on the 
north is now nearly obliterated; on the 
east is the Tyropoeon valley, on the south 
that of Hinnom, on the west that of Gihon. 
These were all much deeper in olden times 
than now, having been filled up in part by 
the ruins of many wars and overturnings ; 
but Zion is still 300 feet above the valley 
on the southwest and 500 feet above en- 
Rogel. It was a position of great military 
strength, and the Jebusites, who held it at 
the time of the Conquest and long after, 
scornfully defied assault. But it was cap- 
tured by David, and thenceforward was- 
often called " the city of David," 2 Sam. 
684 



the church of the Messiah : " Beautiful for 
situation, the joy of the whole earth, is 
Mount Zion, on the sides of the north, the 
city of the great King." " Walk about Zion 
and go round about her ; tell the towers 
thereof; mark ye well her bulwarks, con- 
sider her palaces, that ye may tell it to the 
generation following." "The kings were 
assembled, they passed by together; they 
saw it, and so they marvelled ; they were 
troubled, and hasted away," Psa. 48:2, 12, 
13. A mosque near its southern brow now 
covers the "tomb of David," so called, 
where he and 14 of his successors were 
buried ; it is most jealously guarded by the 
Mohammedans, 1 Kin. 2:10; 11:43; 22:50. 
This mount, together with Moriah and 
Ophel, "the holy mountains," Psa. 87:1, 2, 
was inclosed by the first wall and fortified by 
citadels, 1 Chr. 11:5. Upon it were erected 



ZIO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZIP 



the magnificent palaces of Solomon and 
long afterwards of Herod. It was called 
by Josephus " the Upper City," and on its 



northern brow stood 3 great towers — Hip- 
picus, Phasaelus, and Mariamne — in a wall 
extending from the Joppa gate eastward, 




passing the royal palace and the Xystus, 
to the temple area; and so strongly was 
it fortified at the time of its capture by 
the Romans that the emperor exclaimed, 
" Surely we have had God for our aid in 
the war ; for what could human hands or 
machines do against these towers ?" Great 
changes have occurred on its surface, and 
a considerable portion of it lies outside of 
the modern wall on the south, and is oc- 
cupied by cemeteries or "ploughed as a 
field," according to Jer. 26:18; Mic. 3:12. 
Two rabbis, we are told, approaching Je- 
rusalem, observed a fox running upon the 
hill of Zion, and Rabbi Joshua wept, but 
Rabbi Eliezer laughed. " Wherefore dost 
thou laugh?" said he who wept. "Nay, 
wherefore dost thou weep?" demanded 
Eliezer. " I weep," replied the Rabbi Josh- 
ua, " because I see what is written in the 
Lamentations fulfilled; because of the 
Mount of Zion, which is desolate, the foxes 
walk upon it." " And therefore," said Rab- 
bi Eliezer, "do I laugh; for when I see 
with my own eyes that God has fulfilled 
his threatenin^s to the very letter, I have 
thereby a pledge that not one of his prom- 
ises shall fail , for he is ever more ready to 
show mercy than judgment." 



" Zion " and " the daughter of Zion " are 
sometimes used to denote the whole city, 
including especially Moriah and the tem- 
ple, Psa. 2:6; 9:11; 48 : 2 ; 74 : 2 ; Isa. 1 : 8 ; 
8:18; 10:24; 30:19; Joel 2:23, and some- 
times figuratively for the seat of the true 
church on earth and in heaven, Jer. 8:19; 
Heb. 12 : 22 ; Rev. 14 : 1. See Jerusa- 
lem. 

ZI'OR, smallness, Josh. 15:54, now Sair, 
4 or 5 miles north-northeast of Hebron. 

ZIPH, battlement. I. A Judahite, 1 Chr. 
4: 16. 

II. A town in Simeon, Josh. 15:24. It 
may perhaps be associated with the pass 
es-Sufa. See Zephath. • 

III. A town in Southern Judah nearCar- 
mel and Juttah, notable as the scene of 
David's perils and escapes from Saul, 
1 Sam. 23: 14, 15, 24; 26:2. Its people are 
called Ziphim in Psa. 54, title, A. V., Ziph- 
ites in R. V. and in 1 Sam. 23:19; 26:1. It 
was founded by Mesha son of Caleb, 1 Chr. 
2 : 42, and fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 
11:8. Traced at Tel es-Zif, 4 miles south- 
southeast of Hebron, where is a rounded 
hill, with considerable ruins half a mile on 
the east. 

ZIPH'RON, fragrance, a place on the 
685 



ZIP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZOA 



north border of Naphtali, Num. 34:9; prob- 
ably in the Lebanon valley. 

ZIP'POR, sparrow, the father of Balak 
king of Moab, always mentioned with Ba- 
lak, Num. 22:2, 4, 10, 16; 23:18 ; Josh. 24:9; 
Judg. 11:25. Perhaps the king referred to 
in Num. 21 : 26. 

ZIP'PORAH, rather ZIPPO'RAH, the fem- 
inine of Zippor, a sparrow ; the daughter 
of Jethro, Exod. 2:15-22, wife of Moses and 
mother of Gershom and Eliezer. Her an- 
gry reluctance against the circumcision of 
Gershom led to her temporary return to 
her father, by whom she was afterwards 
restored to Moses, Exod. 4:18, 20, 24-26; 
18 : 1-12. It is not certain whether the 
" Cushite " wife of Moses, of whom Aaron 
and Miriam complained, Num. 12:1, 2, was 
Zipporah herself or a second wife. In 
Hab. 3 : 7 Cushan and Midian are named 
together. 

ZITH'RI, Hebrew SITH'RI, protection of 
Jehovah, a grandson of Kohath, Exod. 6:22. 
In ver. 21 the correct reading is Zichri. 

ZIZ, with the article, HAZ'ZIZ, the projec- 
tion, the pass by which the Moabites, Am- 
monites, and Maonites came up from the 
shore of the Dead Sea, having followed the 
southwestern coast to this point, and going 
northwest towards Tekoa against Jehosha- 
phat, 2 Chr. 20: 16; comp. ver. 20 : no doubt 
the pass 'Ain Jidy, very precipitous, but still 
traversed by marauding Arabs. A level 
tract, "the wilderness of Jeruel" and of 
Tekoa, lies between the cliff and Tekua. 
See En-gedi, and map on page 687. 

ZI'ZA, abundance, or shining. I. Son of 
Rehoboam and Maachah, 2 Chr. 11 :2c 

II. A Simeonite chief in the time of Hez- 
ekiah, who led a raid against the peacea- 
ble men of Gedor, 1 Chr. 4:37-41. 

ZI'ZAH, or ZI'NA, a Gershonite Levite, 
1 Chr. 23 : 10, 11. 

ZO'AN, place of departure, a very ancient 
city of Lower or Northern Egypt, near its 
eastern border, founded soon after He- 
bron, Num. 13:22, on the east side of the 
Tanitic arm of the Nile, and called by the 
Greeks Tanis, now San. It was a royal 
city, and the 21st dynasty was that of the 
Tanites, as well as the 23d, ending with 
Sethos ; comp. Isa. 19:11, 13. It gave its 
name to the level country around it, "the 
field of Zoan," which extended some 30 
miles eastward to Pelusium, and in which 
were wrought the first mighty works of 
God by Moses, Psa. 78 : 12, 43. Ambassa- 
dors from Judah met Egyptian officials here, 
seeking alliance, Isa. 30:4, and its capture 
686 



and burning by Nebuchadnezzar were fore- 
told, Ezek. 30:10-14. In the time of Christ 
it was again a large z\Xy, but now lies in 
ruins, fever-haunted and infested by beasts 
and reptiles, the home of a few fishermen ; 
while the region east of it, once exceed- 
ingly fertile, is now desolate and sparsely 
inhabited, being overflowed in part by Lake 
Menzaleh. Huge mounds of ruins attest 
the ancient grandeur of the city, where 
many interesting monuments have recent- 
ly been found, two fine colossal statues of 
Menesha, of the 13th dynasty, and many 
memorials of Rameses II., who embellished 
the great temple of Set, the Egyptian Baal, 
the inclosure of which measures 500 yards 
by 400. 

ZO'AR, smallness, a city in the Jordan 
and Dead Sea valley, called Bela in the 
days of Abraham, and associated with the 
cities of " the plain of Jordan," Sodom, Go- 
morrah, Admah, and Zeboim, in the battle 
with invading Assyrian tribes in which Lot 
was captured, Gen. 13:10; 14:28. Its name 
Zoar was given to it when at the interces- 
sion of Lot it was spared to be his place of 
refuge against the destruction impending 
over it and its neighbors, Sodom, etc., Gen. 
19 : 17-25. It was evidently near Sodom, 
and apparently at the foot of the mountains 
of Moab, comp; Isa. 15:5; Jer. 48:33, 34, in 
which Lot afterwards dwelt, Gen. 19:30. 
Moses on Mount Pisgah saw the valley from 
Jericho to Zoar, Deut. 34:3. It is believed 
to have been in wady Kerak, the ordinary 
passage from the south of the Dead Sea to 
the eastern highlands. De Saulcy places 
Zoar in the wady Zuweirah, leading up 
from the Dead Sea to Hebron ; and others 
in or around the plain at the north end of 
the sea. See cut on page 518. 

ZO'BA and ZO'BAH, station, 2 Sam. 10:6- 
8 ; 23:36, a powerful Syrian kingdom in the 
time of the first Hebrew monarchs, lying 
east of Lebanon— an arid plain with moun- 
tain ranges and many well-watered and 
fertile valleys— stretching towards the Eu- 
phrates, 1 Chr. 18:3, 9; !9:6, and perhaps 
west into the Lebanon valley, for Hamath 
is sometimes called Hamath-zobah, 2 Chr. 
8:3. Its kings suffered in war with Saul, 
1 Sam. 14:47. Its king Hadadezer was a 
man of power, 2 Sam. 8: 10, but was defeat- 
ed by David, 2 Sam. 10:16-19; 1 Chr. 18:3- 
8:19: 16-19. Zobah, however, gave great 
trouble to Israel in after years, 1 Kin. 
11:23-25; 2 Chr. 8:3. The Assyrian in- 
scriptions of later date speak of it as a sub- 
ject country sending tributes, and as lying 



ZOH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZUZ 



in the line of their armies on the way to 
Hamath. 

ZO'HAR, a Hittite, Gen. 23:8. Also a 
son of Simeon, Gen. 38:30, and a descend- 
ant of Judah, 1 Chr. 4:7. 

ZO'HELETH, creeping, the stone in the 
valley of Jehoshaphat near which Adonijah 
slew sheep, oxen, and fat cattle for his cor- 
onation feast or sacrifices, 1 Kin. 1:9; found 
in ez-Zehweile, a rocky plateau on the edge 
of the village of Silwan. Solomon was 
crowned in the valley of Gihon. 

ZO'PHAR, a sparrow, one of Job's three 
friends, a native of Naamah. He appears 
but twice in the dialogue, once less than 
his two associates, whose general senti- 
ments he shares, with perhaps more sever- 
ity of judgment against Job, Job 2:11 ; 11; 
20; 42:9. 

ZO'PHIM, watchers, a level place on the 
height of Pisgah, whence Balaam had his 
second view of the host of Israel, Num. 
23 : 14. Mount Nebo being recognized as 
Jebel Neba, near Hesban, Jebel Siaghah, a 
height a little to the west, might well rep- 
resent Zophim. 

ZO'RAH, a hornet, or ZA'REAH, Neh. 
11:29, a city of the Danites within the bor- 
ders of Judah, Josh. 19:41 ; called also ZO'- 
REAH, Josh. 15:33. It was the home of 
Manoah and Samson, Judg. 13:2, 25; 16:31, 
and the starting-point of the Danite expe- 
dition to Laish, Judg. 18:2, 8, 11. It was 
fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:10, and 
occupied after the Captivity, Neh. 1 1 : 29. Its 
people were called Zorites and Zorathites, 
1 Chr. 2:54; 4: 2. It is now recognized in 
a secluded mountain village called Sur'ah, 
on the edge of the hills 2 miles north of Beth- 
shemesh overlooking the valley of Sor'ak, 
15 miles west of Jerusalem. The region was 
famous for its wines, which Samson was 
forbidden to use. The road followed by 
Samson in going to Timnath leads down 



through rocky gorges, very likely to be 
haunted by wild beasts. It was here that 
he slew the lion without the help of any 
weapon, Judg. 14:5-7. 

ZOROB'ABEL. See ZERUBBABEL. 

ZU'AR, littleness, a descendant of Issa- 
char at the time of the exodus, Num. 1:8; 
2:5; 7:18, 23; 10:15. 

ZUPH, honey-comb, or moist. I. An an- 
cestor of Samuel, 1 Chr. 6 135; an Ephraim- 
ite, not " Ephrathite," as in 1 Sam. 1:1, 
A. V. 

II. A district south of Benjamin, in a 
city of which Saul met Samuel, apparent- 
ly near Bethlehem, 1 Sam. 9:5-10; 10:2. 
The name appears in the ancestry of Sam- 
uel, in his native place Ramathaim- zo- 
phim, in Mizpah, Zephathah, etc. Possibly 
the region immediately south of Bethlehem. 

ZUR, a rock, Heb. Tzur, the name of 
Tyre. I. The father of Cozbi, the Midian- 
ite princess slain with Zimri by Phinehas, 
Num. 25:6-8, 14, 15, 18. He himself, with 
four other "kings" of Midian, afterwards 
perished with Balaam in battle with the 
Israelites, Num. 31:8. He is associated 
with Sihon king of the Amorites in Josh. 
13:21. 

II. A son of Jehiel and Maachah, 1 Chr. 
8:30; 9:36. 

ZU'RIEL, my rock is God, Num. 3:35, 
chief of the Merarite Levites at the time 
of the exodus. 

ZURISHAD'DAI, my rock is the Almighty, 
a Simeonite at the time of the exodus, 
Num. 1:6; 2:12; 7:36,41; 10:19. 

ZU'ZIM, taken by the Chaldee and Sep- 
tuagint versions as an appellative for stout 
and valiant men. They dwelt east of the 
Jordan in the time of Abraham, when they 
were subdued by Chedorlaomer and his 
allies, Gen. 14:5, and are supposed to have 
been the same race«of giants called Zam- 
zummim in Deut. 2:20. 

687 



PHYSICAL FEATURES OF PALESTINE. 

SHOWING THE PROGRESS OF THE SEASONS, THE PREVAILING WINDS AND 
WEATHER FOR EACH MONTH IN THE YEAR. 





PROGRESS OF THE SEASONS. 


1 

WIND. 


WEATHER. 


<— 1 
p 
p 


Country verdant with young grain, groves 
and meadows adorned with many flow- 
ers. Oranges begin to ripen. 


N. W., N., N. E. 


Heavy rains ; thunder- 
storms. Occasionally 
snow, and thin ice; ground 
never frozen. 




Almond-tree and peach-tree in blossom : 
in the lower and warmer parts, orange- 
tree laden with ripening fruit. 


N. W., N.,N. E. 


Heavy rains, etc., in January 
and February, called by 
the Arabs the "fathers of 
rain." 


p 
o 


All trees in full leaf, many in bloom. In 
the lowlands, orange and lemon trees 
laden with fruit. Palm-tree blossoms : 
barley ripening. 


W. 


Rain, hurricanes, sometimes 
snow; rivers much swol- 
len. 


> 


Fruits of oleaster and white mulberry ri- 
pen. Barley harvest. Wheat harvest 
beginning. 


S. 


Occasionally rain ; some- 
times Sirocco from the 
southeast. 


p 


Principal harvest month, especially 
of wheat. Apricots and apples ripen. 
(In Jordan valley vegetation withered 
and burnt up.) 


s. 


Rain very seldom. From 
this to September no rain 
occurs. 


«— i 
to 


Almonds ripe. (Beyrouk honey of the 
Jordan valley collected in May, June, 
and July.) Grapes begin to ripen. 


E. 


Frequent hot winds (Si- 
mooms) ; air motionless. 




Various fruits : apples, pears, plums, etc. 
Grapes fully ripe. Pumpkins. Harvest 
of grain in the higher mountains. 


E. 


Greatest heat in general; 
sky serene. 


> 
orq 


Principal fruit month. Grapes, figs, 
etc. : in the plains, walnut and olive. 


E. 


Dews begin to fall ; at times 
large and dense clouds 
(Nile clouds). 


w 

to 

r-t 


Commencement of vintage. Harvest 
of the dourra and maize. Cotton and 
pomegranate begin. 


N. E. 


Much lightning without thun- 
der ; very rarely rain. 


c 

n 


End of vintage. Gathering of cotton. 
Ploughing and sowing commence, Pis- 
tachio-nuts ripen. 


N. E. 


Dews very heavy ; autumnal 
rains begin. 


2 
o 
< 


Month of ploughing and sowing. 
Rice harvest. Fig-tree laden with fruit. 
Orange and citron-tree in bloom. 


N. W., N., N. E. 


Rainy month. Thunder 
storms. Rains from the 
west or southwest. 



re 
p 


Trees lose their leaves. The brown and 
desolate plains and deserts become 
green pastures. 


N. W., N., N. E. 


Rainy, etc. In December, 
January, and February, 
greatest amount of rain in 
the year. 



688 



Chronological Index to the Bible. 



COMPILED BY JOSEPH ANGUS, D. D. 



PERIOD I. 

FROM THE CREATION, B. C. 4004, TO THE DEATH OF NOAH, 2006 YEARS. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 

4004. 



4004. 
Eden. 



Eden. 

4003-2, 

Near Eden. 

3875. 

3875. 

3875-3504, 

Nod. 

3874, 
Near Eden. 

3769- 

3°74- 
2468. 



2468. 

2348. 

2347, 
Armenia, or Ar- 
arat, Gen. 8:4. 
Togarmah, 
Ezek. 27 : 14. 
2247, A. M. 

1757- 
B. C. 2233. 

Shinar, or Irak 

Arabi. 

1998. 

44 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



The creation 

Institution of the Sabbath 

Creation of Adam and Eve, briefly described in chap. 

1, recapitulated 

The fall of man 

Connection of the first sin with man's subsequent 

state 

First promise of a Saviour ; expulsion from Eden _ 
Birth of Cain and Abel 

Sacrifice first mentioned; Abel's accepted 

Cain's crime and curse 

Cain builds Enoch ; his descendants ; Lamech's 

speech, etc. 

Birth of Seth and of Enos ; world and church distin- 
guished 

Genealogy from Adam to Noah ; the line of the Mes- 
siah 

Adam dies, aged 930 years 

Wickedness of the world ; God determines to de- 
stroy it after a respite of 120 years ; Noah preaches 

(2 Pet. 2:5) 

Covenant renewed with him ; he builds an ark as 

God commanded 

Noah enters the ark ; the Deluge, A. M. 1656 

The waters abate; Noah leaves the ark 

God's covenant renewed with Noah 

Noah and his sons ; his prediction concerning 
them 

Babel; confusion of tongues ; dispersion 

Genealogies of Noah's sons ; Nimrod founds the Bab- 
ylonian or Assyrian empire 

Genealogy from Shem to Terah ; the line of the Mes- 
siah 

Death of Noah 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Gen. 1 ; 2:4-7. 
Gen. 2:1-3. 

Gen. 2:8-25 
Gen. 3:1-13. 
Rom. 5:14. 
1 Cor. 15. 
Gen. 3:14-24. 
Gen. 4:1, 2. 

Gen. 4:3-7. 
Gen. 4:8-15. 

Gen. 4:16-24. 

Gen. 4:25, 26. 

Gen. 5. 
Gen. 5:5. 

Gen. 6. 

Gen. 6:18. 
Gen. 7. 
Gen. 8. 
Gen. 9:1-17. 

Gen. 9:18-27. 

Gen. 11:1-9. 

Gen. 10. 

Gen. 11:10-28. 
Gen. 9:28, 29. 

689" 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD II. 

FROM THE DEATH OF NOAH TO THE BIRTH OF MOSES, 417 YEARS. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 

Uz, in Eastern 
Idumaea. 



1996, 

Ur, Or/a. 

1922, 

Haran, Charros, 

Harran. 

1921, Canaan. 

1921. 



1920. 

1918. 

1917, Hebron. 

1913, Siddim, 

El Ghor. 

1912, Hebron. 
1910. 

1897. 



1896, Gerar. 
Land of Moab. 



1872, Moriah (site 

of the temple). 

Machpelah, near 

Hebron. 

1856, 

Beersheba. 

1850. 

1836, Lahai-roi, 

1821, Beersheba. 



1804, Lahai-roi. 

1804. 
1804, Beersheba. 

1796, 

1773. 

1760, Beersheba. 

1760, 

Padan-aram. 

1760, Arabia. 

690 



II. ABRAHAM. 
Birth of Abraham ; marries Sarai ; leaves Ur and his 

idolatrous kindred (Josh. 24:2) 

Terah, Lot, and Sarai; death of Terah 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



I. JOB. 

The exact date of Job is not known. There is good 

reason, however, for placing his history before that 

of Abraham. Chapters 19:25-27; 32:23-28 are di 

rect references to the work of the Messiah 



Leaves Haran at God's command with Sarai and Lot 

\ 

Great blessings promised him 

Visits Egypt; dissimulates 

Returns to Canaan ; Lot in Sodom 

Promises renewed; goes to Mamre 

Chedorlaomer; Lot taken and rescued 

Melchizedek blesses Abram 

Covenant of God with Abram 

Hagar; Ishmael born 

Covenant renewed; names changed ; circumcision.. _ 

Abraham entertains angels, one of whom is the ( 

Angel of the covenant ; Sodom ; Lot's wife ; Lot's < 

incest ( 

Abraham leaves Hebron ; dissembles with Abimelech 

at Gerar 

Moab and Ben-ammi born 

Isaac born ; Ishmael sent away ; covenant with Abim- 
elech 

Trial of Abraham's faith 

Death and burial of Sarah 

Account of Nahor's family _* 

Abraham sends his servant to Haran ; Laban receives 

him; marriage of Isaac 

Abraham marries Keturah ; children by her 

Birth of Esau and Jacob; their character 

Abraham dies; Isaac and Ishmael bury him in the 
cave of Machpelah 

III. ISAAC AND JACOB. 
Esau sells Jacob his birthright ; Isaac leaves Canaan 

Covenant confirmed to Isaac at Gerar 

Isaac dissembles; covenant with Abimelech 

Esau marries two Hittite women 

Death of Ishmael; descendants 

Jacob obtains his father's blessing and flees from Esau 
Jacob's vision at Luz; the promises continued to 

him; stays with Laban his uncle 

Esau marries a daughter of Ishmael 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Job 1-42. 



Gen. 11 : 27-32. 
See Acts 7:2-4. 



Gen 
Get 

See 



12:1-9. 
:n. 12:1-9. 



Acts 3:25. 

4- 
3:16. 
12:10-20. 

13:1-13- 
Gen. 13:14- ' 
Gen. 14. 



Rom. 
Gal. 
Gen. 
Gen. 



~0' 

1-18. 



Gen. 14. 
Gen. 15. 
Gen. 16. 
Gen. 17. 
Gen. 18: 



19: 1- 



36; 19:4-11, 
30-36. 

Gen. 20. 
Gen. 19:37,38. 

Gen, 21:1-34. 
Gen. 22 .1-19. 

Gen. 23. 
Gen. 22:20-24. 

Gen. 24. 
Gen. 25:1-6. 
Gen. 25:19-28. 

Gen. 25:7-11. 



Gen. 25:29-35. 
Gen. 26:1-5. 
Gen. 26:6-33. 
Gen. 26:34, 35. 
Gen. 25:12-18. 
Gen. 27; 28:1-5. 
Gen. 28 : 10-22; 

29:1-14. 
Gen. 28:6-9. 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD II.— CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 

1753- 

I752-I745- 

Padan-aram, 

Al Jezirah. 



1745- 
1739, Galeed. 

1739, Succoth. 

See Josh. 13:27. 

1736, Shechem. 

1732. 

Bethel, Luz, 
Beit-in. 



1729, Hebron. 
1729. 



1728, Dothan. 

1726, Timnath. 

1719, Egypt. 

1718. 

1716. 

I7I5- 

1712, 1711. 
1708. 
1707. 

1706. 

1706. 

1704-1701. 

1689, Egypt. 

1689. 

Machpelah. 

1689. 
1635, Egypt. 

1577, Egypt. 

1573- 



Jacob marries Leah and Rachel 

Jacob's children: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah, ") 
by Leah ; Dan and Naphtali, by Bilhah, Rachel's 
maid; Gad and Asher, by Zilpah, Leah's maid; \ 
Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah, by Leah ; Joseph, j 
by Rachel j 

Jacob's bargain with Laban; he becomes rich 

Jacob, returning to Canaan, is pursued by Laban ; 
their covenant 

Jacob's vision at Mahanaim; wrestles with the Angel 
at Penuel ; reconciled to Esau; settles at Succoth__ 

Jacob removes to Shalem, Gen. 33:18-20; birth of 
sons of Judah 

Dinah defiled by Shechem ; slaughter of Shechemites 
by Simeon and Levi 

Jacob removes ; purges his household of idols ; the 
promises renewed to him ; his name changed to Is- 
rael 

Rachel dies on the birth of Benjamin 

Sin of Reuben; Jacob abides with Isaac 

Esau's descendants 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



IV. JOSEPH, ETC. 
Joseph's two dreams; envy of his brethren; sold to 

the Ishmaelites and to Potiphar in Egypt 

Er and Onan slain by God; incest of Judah and Ta- 

mar ; Pharez, a progenitor of Messiah, born 

Joseph advanced, tempted, falsely accused, and im- 
prisoned 

Pharaoh's butler and baker imprisoned ; Joseph in- 
terprets their dreams 

Death of Isaac at Mamre 

Joseph interprets Pharaoh's dreams; his elevation __ 
Birth of Joseph's two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim__ 

Commencement of the seven years' famine 

Joseph's ten brethren come to buy corn ; Simeon a 

pledge 

They come again to buy corn ; Joseph makes himself 

known to them ; sends for his father 

Jacob and his family arrive ; settle in Goshen ; Ja 

cob meets Pharaoh 

Joseph, by giving corn to the Egyptians, increases 
the wealth of the king 

Jacob blesses Ephraim and Manasseh 



Jacob's predictions concerning his sons and Judah 
his death 

Joseph and his brethren bury their father 

Joseph shows kindness to his brethren 

Joseph predicts the return to Canaan ; charges them 

to carry up his bones there; his death 

The Israelites multiply ; a new king oppresses j 

them ( 

Pharaoh orders the male children to be cast into the 

river 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Gen. 29:15-30. 

Gen. 29:31-35; 
30:1-24. 

Gen. 30:25-43. 
Gen 31. 

Gen. 32; 33:1-17. 
Gen. 38:1-5. 
Gen. 34. 



Gen. 35:1-15. 
Gen. 35:16-20. 
Gen. 35:21-27. 
Gen. 36. 



Gen. 37. 

Gen. 38:6-30. 

Gen. 39. 

Gen. 40. 
Gen. 35:28, 29. 
Gen. 41 : 1-49. 
Gen. 41:50-52. 
Gen. 4i:53-57- 

Gen. 42. 

Gen. 43-45. 
Gen. 46:8-25; 
47:1-12. 

Gen. 47:13-26. 
Gen. 47 : 27-31 

48. 

Gen. 49. 
Gen. 50:1-13. 
Gen. 50:14-21. 

Gen. 50:22-26. 
Exod. 1:1-21 ; 

15-21. 

Exod. 1:22. 



691 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 
PERIOD III. 

FROM THE BIRTH OF MOSES, B. C. 1571, TO HIS DEATH, 120 YEARS. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



B. C. 

1571-1532. 
1531, Midian. 



i53i> Egypt. 
Rameses II. 
1491, Horeb 
(Acts 7:31). 
1491, Egypt 
(Acts 7:31). 
Menephtha III. 

1491. 
1491. 

1491. 



1491. 

1491. 

1491. 
1491. 



1491. 



1491, Rameses. 



1491, Succoth, 
Eccl. year 1. 

1 month, 1 day. 
Etham. 

1491, Pihahiroth; 
that is, mouth 
of pass. 
Marah. 

Elim, Wady 

Ghurundel. 

Red Sea. 

2 mon., 15 days. 

Desert of Sin. 

Dophkah. 

Alush. 
Rephidim. 



3 mon., 15 days 

Sinai. 

692 



I. TO THE EXODE. 

Birth, exposure, rescue, and early life of Moses 

Moses, having killed an Egyptian, flees ; marries Zip 
porah, daughter of Jethro; Gershom born 

The Israelites groan for their bondage 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



God appears to Moses in a burning bush ; appoints 
him and Aaron to bring the Israelites out of Egypt 

Moses leaves Midian ; meets Aaron ; they deliver 
their message 

Moses and Aaron demand the release of the Israel- 
ites; Pharaoh refuses 

God renews his promise by his name Jehovah 

Descendants of Reuben, Simeon, and of Levi, from 

whom came Moses and Aaron 

Moses and Aaron again sent; confirm their mes- 
sage by a miracle; magicians imitate them 

Pharaoh refuses to let Israel go; eight plagues 

The Passover instituted 

The ninth plague, three days darkness 

Israelites bidden to ask gold of the Egyptians; 
Pharaoh threatened with the death of the first- 
born 

The Passover eaten the same day of the same month 
on which Christ our Passover was sacrificed for us; 
the firstborn slain 

The exodus of Israel from Egypt, A. M. 2513--- 

II. JOURNEYS OF THE ISRAELITES. 

First journey. Passover reinforced. Firstborn 1 
commanded to be set apart. Joseph's bones re- "j 
moved [ 

Second journey. Israel guided by a pillar of cloud j 
and fire i 

Third journey. Pharaoh pursues { 

Fourth journey. Passage of the Red Sea. See f 



1 Cor. 10:1, 2. 
Song of Moses. 

Fifth journey 



Destruction of Pharaoh's army. -j 
The bitter waters sweetened--- I 



Sixth journey -- 

Seventh journey. People murmur for Bread. Quails 
and manna. Directions on manna. See John 

6:31, 49; Rev. 2:17 

Eighth journey 

Ninth journey 

Tenth journey. Water given from the rock in 
Horeb (1 Cor. 10:4). Joshua defeats Amalek, 

while Moses prays __ 

Eleventh journey. Preparation for giving of the 
law 



Exod. 2:1-10. 

Exod. 2:11-22. 
Exod. 2 : 23-25 
Psa. 88. 



Exod. 3 ; 4:1-17. 

Exod. 4:18-31. 

Exod. 5. 
Exod. 6:1-13. 

Exod. 6:14-27. 
Exod. 6 : 28-30 ; 

7:1-13. 
Exod. 7 : 14-25 ; 

8; 9; jo: 1-20. 
Exod. 12:1-20. 
Exod. 10:21-27. 
Exod. 11:1-8; 

10 : 28, 29 ; 

11:9, 10. 



Exod. 12:21-30. 

Exod. 12:31-36, 

and 40 to 42. 

Exod. 12:37-39, 
43-5i; 13:1- 
19; 

Num. 33:1-5- 

Exod. 13:20-22; 

Num. 33:6. 

Exod. 14:1-9; 

Num. 33:7. 

Exod. 14:10; 
15:26. 

Num. 33:8. 

Exod. 17:27; 

Num. 33:9. 

Num. 33:10. 

Exod. 16:1-36; 
Num. 33:11. 

Num. 33:12. 
Num. 33:13- 
Exod. 17:1-16. 
Num. 33:14- 
Exod.. 19: 1-25; 
Num. 33:15- 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD III.— CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 

1491. 

3 raon., 15 days. 

Sinai. 



Eccl. year 1. 
6 months, Sinai. 



1491. 



1490. 

Eccl. year 2. 

1 month, 1 day. 

1490. 

Eccl. year 2. 

1 month, 1 day. 

1 month, 8 days. 



1 month, 14 days. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



2 months, 1 day 



1490. 
2 mo., 20 days. 
Wilderness of 
Par an, Et Tyh. 



Moral law given. Divers laws (chiefly judicial) en- 
joined. The angel promised as a guide to the 
Israelites 

The people promise obedience ; the blood of the cov- 
enant sprinkled on them. Moses and others have 
a vision of God's glory. Moses remains forty days 
and forty nights in the mount 

Ceremonial law given. The tabernacle and its furni- 
ture, the priests and their garments, etc. The Sab- 
bath again enjoined. Daily sacrifice and incense, 
Rom. 8:3 ; Rev. 8:3, 4. Tables of the law given to 
Moses 

Idolatry of the calf; the tables broken; the people 
punished; the tabernacle removed out of the camp. 
Moses intercedes for the people and asks to see 
God's glory 

The tables renewed ; the name of the Lord proclaim- 
ed ; God makes a covenant with Israel. Moses 
stays on the mount forty days and forty nights ; his 
face shines 

Offerings of the people for the tabernacle. Bezaleel 
and others prepare the tabernacle and its furniture 

Moses commanded to rear the tabernacle and to ' 
anoint it, and to sanctify Aaron and his sons 

The tabernacle set up. The glory of the Lord fills it. 

The Israelites directed by the cloud 

Laws on various sacrifices and offerings 

Consecration of Aaron and his sons as priests 

The offerings of Aaron. Fire consumes the sacrifice 

The offerings of the princes accepted 

Destruction of Nadab and Abihu 

Of the great day of atonement, and of the scape- f 

goat ( 

The second Passover celebrated. Some allowed to 

observe it in the second month 

Laws on meats and purifications 

Miscellaneous laws, moral, ceremonial, and judicial. 

Shelomith's son stoned for blasphemy 

Laws concerning festivals, etc 

Prophetic promises and threatenings 

Laws of vows, devotions, and tithes 

The tribes numbered; their order 

The Levites appointed to the service of the taberna- 
cle instead of the firstborn; their duties 

Institution of various ceremonies. The law of the 

Nazarites. The form of blessing 

Consecration of the Levites ; their age and period of 

service 

Use of the silver trumpets 

Manner in which the cloud guided the people 

Arrival of Jethro with Moses' wife and sons. He ad- 
vises Moses to appoint judges to assist 

Twelfth journey. Order of the march \ 

Moses entreats Hobab to accompany Israel ; Jethro j 
returns to Midian j 

Form of blessing on the removal and resting of the ark 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Exod. 20-23. 



Exod. 24. 



Exod. 25-31. 



Exod. 32 ; 33. 



Exod. 34. 

Exod. 35-39- 
Exod. 40:1-16; 
(John 1 : 14 ; 
2:19-31. 
Col. 2:9). 

Exod. 40:17-38. 
Lev. 1-7. 
Lev. 8. 
Lev. 9. 
Num. 7. 
Lev. 10. 
Lev. 16; see 
Heb. 9; 5:1. 

Num. 9:1-14. 
Lev. 11-15. 

Lev. 17-22 ; 24. 
Lev. 23 ; 24. 
Lev. 26. 
Lev. 27. 
Num. 1 ; 2. 

Num. 3 ; 4. 

Num. 5; 6. 

Num. 8. 
Num. 10: 1-10. 
Num. 9:15-23. 

Exod. 18:1-26. 
Num. 10: 11, 12; 

(33:16), 28. 

Num. 10:29-32; 

Exod. 18:27. 

Num. 10:33-36. 

693 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD III.— CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



Hazeroth. 

5 raon. to 7 raon. 

Kadesh Barnea, 

or En Mishpat. 

1490. 

Eccl. year 2. 

7 mon. 6 days. 



1490-1452. 
Eccl. year 2-40. 



1452. 

Eccl. year 40. 

1 month. 

1452, Kadesh. 

Mount Hor. 

Zalmonah. 



Punon, Oboth 

Iim. 

Dibon-gad. 



Almon-dibla- 
thaim. 

Abarim. 



Plains of Moab 
by Jordan. 



H5i- 

Eccl. year 40. 

694 



The burning at Taberah. People murmur for flesh ; 
Moses complains of his charge ; seventy elders ap- 
pointed as a council to assist him ; quails given in 
wrath 

Thirteenth journey. Miriam smitten with leprosy f 

for sedition { 

Fourteenth journey. Spies sent to search the land ; ^ 
ten of them bring an evil report ; Caleb and > 

Joshua faithful J 

Israel murmurs at the report of the spies ; God ~) 
threatens ; Moses intercedes ; condemned to wan- >- 

der forty years J 

The people, going up against the will of God, are 

discomfited 

Laws of offerings; the sabbath-breaker stoned 

The rebellion of Korah, etc. ; earthquake, fire, and 
plague inflicted; Aaron approved as high priest by 

the budding of his rod - 

The charge and portion of the priests and Levites ___ 

Water of purification; how to be made and used 

The next seventeen journeys (15th to 31st) of the 
Israelites, being their wandering in the wilderness 
nearly thirty-eight years 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Num. 11:1-34. 
Num. 11 : 35 ; 
(33:17), 12:45. 

Num. 13 1(33: 18). 

Num. 14 : 1-39; 
Psa. 90. 



Num. 14:40-45. 
Num. 15. 



Thirty-second journey; death of Miriam j 

The people murmur for water ; Moses and Aaron 

transgressing, not to enter Canaan 

Edom refuses a passage to the Israelites 

Thirty-third journey ; Aaron dies; Arad attacks f 
Israel and is defeated I 

Thirty-fourth journey ; the people murmur ; fiery J 
serpents are sent; the brazen serpent set up j 

Thirty-fifth, thirty-sixth, and thirty-seventh jour- j 

Thirty-eighth journey _ 

The Israelites stop at Zared, Arnon, and Beer 

Sihon the Amorite opposes their passage ; defeated, 

and his land occupied 

Og of Bashan attacks them ; defeated 

Thirty-ninth journey 



Fortieth journey 



Forty-first journey ; account of Balaam and Balak _ 

I 
Forty-second journey; idolatry of Baal-peor ; zeal ( 

of Phinehas 1 

Third numbering of the people 



The danghters of Zelophehad ; laws of inheritance 



Law of offerings, vows, etc 

The slaughter of Midian ; Balaam slain 

Territories given to Reuben, Gad, and part of Manas- 
seh, on the east of Jordan 



Num. 16 
Num. 18. 
Num. 19. 



Num. ss : 19-35. 
Num. 20 : 1 ; 
33:36. 

Num. 20:2-13. 
Num. 20:14-21. 
Num. 20 : 22 to 

21:3; 33 : 37-40- 
(See John 3:14); 

Num. 21 :4~9; 

(33:4i)- 
Num. 21: 10, 11 ; 

33:42-44. 
Num. 33:45. 
Num. 21:12-18. 

Num. 21:21-32. 
Num. 21:33-35. 
Num. 33:46. 

Num. 21 : 18-20; 

33:47- 
(Luke 1:78; 

Rev. 22: 16: 

1 Cor. 15:25); 

Num. 22:1-41 ; 

(33:48); 23; 

24. 
Num. 25 : 1-18 ; 

(33:49)- 
Num. 26. 
Num. 27 : i-ii ; 

36 - o 

Num. 28-30. 
Num. 31. 

Num. 22. 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD III.— CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 
H5I- 



Eccl. year 40. 
ii mon., 1 day. 



Plains of Moab 
by Jordan. 



Eccl. year 40. 
11 months. 



i45i- 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



Directions for the Israelites on their entering Ca- 1 
naan ; borders of the land described ; forty-eight [ 
cities for the Levites, of which six are to be cities [ 
of refuge ; the laws on murder J 

III. THE REVIEW AND CLOSING CHARGE 

OF MOSES. 
Moses reviews the history of the Israelites, introdu- 
cing some new particulars 

The moral law repeated and enforced j 

The ceremonial law repeated, with injunctions j 
against idolatry, etc. _ — . — { 

The judicial law repeated and explained. Christ ] 
foretold as the Prophet to whom they are to > 
hearken J 

Moses directs Israel, after entering Canaan, to write 
the law on stones, and to recite its blessings and 
curses upon Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal 

Prophetic promises and curses 

Concluding appeal to the Israelites 

IV. JOSHUA'S APPOINTMENT— DEATH OF 
MOSES. 

Joshua appointed to succeed Moses 

Moses encourages the people and Joshua; charges 
the priests to read the law publicly every seventh 
year 

God's charge to Joshua ; Moses writes a song of wit- 
ness ; completes the writing of the law and delivers 
it to the Levites, with a prediction of the disobedi- 
ence of Israel 

Moses recites his song and exhorts Israel to set f 
their hearts upon it { 

Moses ascends Mount Nebo to view the land of Ca- 
naan and to die 

Moses prophetically blesses the tribes 

Moses views the promised land; his death, burial, 
and character 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Num. 33 : 50-56; 
34; 35- . 



Deut. 1:4. 
Deut. 5:9; 10:1- 

5, 10-22 ; 11. 
Deut. 12-16; 

17:1. 

Deut. 17:2-20; 
18-26. 



Deut. 27. 
Deut. 28. 
Deut. 29; 30. 



Num. 27:12-23. 
Deut. 31:1-13. 



Deut. 31:14-29. 
Deut. 31:30; 
32:1-47. 

Deut. 32:48-52. 
Deut. 33. 



Deut. 34. 



PERIOD IV. 

FROM THE ENTRANCE INTO CANAAN TO THE DEATH OF SOLOMON, 

475 YEARS. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B.C. 

1451- 
Eccl. year 41. 
1 month, 1 day. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



I. CONQUEST OF CANAAN, 7 YEARS. 

(TO THE JUDGES, 25 YEARS.) 

God's charge to Joshua 

Spies sent to Jericho; Rahab receives them 

Joshua reminds Reuben, etc., of their engagement] 
(cf. Num. 22) ; they promise obedience. The | 
Israelites directed concerning the passage of the f 
Jordan. God encourages Joshua j 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Josh. 1:1-9. 
Josh. 2. 

Josh. 1 : 10-18: 
3:i-i3- 

695 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD IV.— CONTINUED. 



■ DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 

i45i- 

1 month, 10 days. 

1451, Gilgal. 



Gilgal. 

I450-I445- 

1444, Ebal and 

Gerizim. 



1444. 



Hebron, Kirjath 

Arba, 

Josh. 21:11. 

1444, Shiloh. 



1427, Shechera, 
Sychar, N. T. 
1426, Shechem. 



1425, Bochim. 
H13- 



1406, Gibeah, 
Jeba. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Passage of the Jordan (A. M. 2551); a memorial f 

erected; the Canaanites alarmed | 

Circumcision renewed; the Passover; manna ceases 
The Captain of the Lord's host appears to Joshua ; 
miraculous capture of Jericho; a curse on the re- 
builder of it 

The Israelites discomfited through Achan's sin ; he is 

destroyed 

Capture of Ai by stratagem 

The Gibeonites obtain a league with Joshua 

Conquest of several kings in succession 

The rest of the conquests 

The law written on a stone altar (cf. Deut. 27), and 

proclaimed to all the people 

Reuben, etc., return to their land on the eastern side 
of Jordan; they erect an altar of memorial ; Israel 
offended, ask an explanation 



Josh. 3:14-17; 4 

5=1- 

Josh. 5:2-12. 

Josh. 5:13-15; 
6:1-27. 

Josh. 7. 
Josh. 8:1-29. 
Josh. 9. 
Josh. 10. 
Josh. 11. 

Josh. 8:30:35. 
Josh. 22. 



II. GENERAL DIVISION OF THE LAND. 

Enumeration of conquests 

Land not yet conquered 

Joshua divides the land ; the nine tribes and a halLl 
receive their portions by lot ; the Levites not to \ 

receive land J 

Inheritance of Reuben, etc., on the eastern side of 
Jordan 

Inheritance of Caleb j 

Lot of Judah___ j 

Lot of Ephraim and half of Manasseh 

The tabernacle set up - 

Lots of the other tribes; Joshua's inheritance \ 

Cities of refuge appointed 

Levitical cities 



Josh. 
Josh. 

Josh. 

14: 



12. 
13:1-6. 

13:7-14; 
i-5- 



III. LAST ACTS OF JOSHUA, ETC. 

Joshua's charge to the elders of Israel 

Joshua addresses the tribes and renews the covenant 

Death and burial of Joshua 

Burial of Joseph's bones, etc. 



696 



IV. INTERREGNUM AND GOVERNMENT OF 
JUDGES, 330 YEARS. 

Conquests after Joshua's death 

Nations not subdued by Israel 

The Angel of the Lord rebukes the Israelites for not 

driving out the Canaanites 

Commencement of idolatry in Israel 

Account of Micah and his image — 

A party of Danites, having robbed Micah of his im- 
age, establish themselves in Laish (afterwards Dan), 

and set up idolatry 

History of the Levite and his concubine; slaughter 

of the Benjamites, etc 

The captivities of Israel for idolatry, and their de- f 
liverance by judges 1 



Josh. 
Josh. 


i3:i5-33. 
14:6-15; 


15: 
Josh. 

20- 
Josh. 
Josh. 
Josh. 


I3-I9- 
15 : 1-12, 

63- 

16; 17. 
18:1. 
18 : 2-28 


19- 
Josh. 
Josh. 


20. 
21. 


Josh. 
Josh. 
Josh. 
Josh. 


23 ' n 
24:1-28. 

24:29-31. 
24:32,33- 


Tudg 


1 :i-26. 


Judg 


1 : 27-36. 


Judg 
Judg 
Judg 


2:1-5- 
2:6-13. 

17- 



Judg. 18. 

Judg. 19; 20; 21. 
Judg. 2 : 14-23 ; 
3:i-4- 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD IV.— CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B.C. 

1402-1394. 

1 354-1336, 



13 16-1296. 

1256. 

Bethlehem. 

1249, Shechem. 



1235-1232. 
1232-1188. 
1206-1188. 

1187. 
1182-1157. 
1156-1116. 

1 156. 

1155, Shiloh. 

IH3- 
1136-1117. 

1 1 16, Gaza. 
1 1 16, Ebenezer. 

Ashdod, Azotus, 

Acts 8:40; 

Esdud. 

1 1 12, Mizpeh. 

1095, Ramah, in 
Ephraim. 



1096, Ramah. 



Mizpeh. 
Gilgal, S. E. 
Jericho. 
1094. 



1080. 

1064. 
Bethlehem. 



of 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



Captivity of the eastern Israelites for eight years to 

Mesopotamia; Othniel judge 

Captivity of the eastern Israelites for eighteen years 

to Moab ; Ehud judge 

Captivity of the western Israelites to the Philistines; 

Shamgar judge 

Captivity of the northern Israelites for twenty years 
to the Canaanites ; Deborah judge; song of Debo- 
rah and Barak 

Captivity of the eastern and northern Israelites for 

seven years to Midian 

The history of Ruth, an ancestress of David and of) 

the Messiah | 

Gideon judge ; is visited by the Angel of the cove- 
nant, and delivers Israel from Midian ; refuses to 

be made king 

Usurpation of Abimelech; Jotham's fable 

Tola and Jair judges 

The Philistines and Ammonites oppress Israel for 

eighteen years; Jephthah; his vow 

Slaughter of Ephraim by the Gileadites 

Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon judges 

The Philistines oppress Israel forty years 

Birth of Samson 

Birth of Samuel; Hannah's song 

The wickedness of Eli's sons 

Call of Samuel 

Marriage of Samson; his exploits 

Judgment on Eli's house 

Capture and death of Samson 

Israel twice defeated by the Philistines ; ark taken 
and Eli's sons slain; death of Eli 

The ark placed in the house of Dagon ; removed to 
Ekron {Akir). then to Bethshemesh (Ain Shems), 
thence to Kirjath-jearim, where it remains till re- j 
moved by David J 

Samuel judge ; he moves the Israelites to repentance ; 
the Philistines discomfited 

Samuel appoints his sons judges ; their corrupt gov- 
ernment ; the Israelites ask for a king ; God bids 
Samuel hearken to them 

V. THE REIGN OF SAUL, 40 YEARS. 

Samuel privately anoints Saul as king, and gives f 
him three signs { 

Saul chosen and proclaimed king 

Saul rescues Jabesh-gilead ; is inaugurated as king ; 
Samuel's address to Israel 

Saul gathers an army against the Philistines ; he dis- 
obeys Samuel, and is warned of his rejection from 
the kingdom 

The Philistines discomfited ; Saul's rash oath en- 
dangers Jonathan ; the people rescue him ; Saul's 
victories; his family 

Saul smites the Amalekites ; spares Agag and the best 
of the spoil ; denounced by Samuel 

Samuel secretly anoints David at Bethlehem as future 
kins: 



BIBLE«REFERENCE. 



Judg. 3:5-11. 
Judg. 3:12-30. 
Judg. 3:31. 

Judg. 4; 5. 

Judg. 6:1-6. 
Ruth 1-4. 

Judg. 6 : 7-40; 
7; 8. 

Judg. 9. 
Judg. 10:1-5. 
Judg. 10 : 6-18; 

11. 
Judg. 12:1-6. 
Judg. 12:7-15. 
Judg. 13:1. 
Judg. 13:2-25. 
1 Sam. 1 ; 2:1-11. 
1 Sam. 2:12-21. 
1 Sam. 3. 
Judg. 14; 15:1- 

19; 16:1-3. 
1 Sam. 2:22-36. 
Judg. 16:4-31. 

1 Sam. 4: 19-22. 

1 Sam. 5; 6; 
7:1, 2. 

1 Sam. 7:3-17. 

1 Sam. 8. 



1 Sam. 9; 10: 1- 

16. 
1 Sam. 10:17-27. 

1 Sam. 11 ; 12. 



1 Sam. 13: 1-15. 

1 Sam. 13:16-23 
14. 

1 Sam. 15. 

1 Sam. 16:1-13. 
697 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD IV.— CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 

1063. 



1062, Gibeah, 
Naioth. 



1062. 

1061, Nob and 

Gath. 



1062, Adullam. 



Nob 



Keilah. 



1060, Ziph. 

1059, Engedi, 

Hazezon Tamar 

1058, Ziph. 

1057- 



1056. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



Gilboa, Djebal 
Gilbo. 
Ziklag. 



1056, Hebron. 
Acts 13:21. 



David's victory over Goliath ; Jonathan loves Da- I 
vid 1 

David's victories ; Saul's melancholy; he attempts J 
to kill David 1 

David marries Saul's daughter; Saul makes vari- j 
ous attempts to kill him; David flees to Samuel; \ 
Saul sends after him I 



David's covenant with Jonathan 

David flees to Ahimelech (where his lie costs the"] 
lives of the priests of the house of Eli), then to \ 
Achish ; feigns madness J 



David flees again, joined by several followers 



1054. 
698 



David goes to Mizpeh, then to Hareth ; slaughter 
of the priests by Saul 

Abiathar joins David ; David defeats the Philis- 
tines 

Saul pursues David; an invasion obliges him to 
return 

Saul pursues David ; David spares Saul's life ; Saul j 
confesses his fault ( 

Death of Samuel; David and Nabal . 

David again spares Saul's life 

David flees to Achish, 1 Sam. 27:1-7; Psa. 141; sev- 
eral resort to him 

David makes an excursion on the Amalekites, and 
repairs to Gath with the booty 

The Philistines prepare for war, and advance to Shu- 
nem ; David accompanies them ; Saul consults the 
witch of Endor 

David dismissed from the army of the Philistines; 
on his way back to Ziklag he is joined by sev- 
eral 

On his return to Ziklag, David finds that it had been 
sacked by Amalek, and his family taken ; he pur- 
sues Amalek, and smites them 

Saul, defeated in battle and his sons slain, kills j 
himself - — i 

An Amalekite pretends to have slain Saul, and is put 
to death by David 

David's lament over Saul and Jonathan 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



VI. THE REIGN OF DAVID, 40 YEARS. 



David acknowledged as king of Judah 

Ishbosheth, the son of Saul, proclaimed king of Is- 1 

rael by Abner j 

Civil war ensues ; David waxes stronger ; Abner and 

Ishbosheth treacherously slain 



1 Sam. 17:1-54; 

18:1-4; 
Psa. 9. 
1 Sam. 18:5-9; 

16:14-23; 

18:10-16. 
1 Sam. 18:17-30; 

i9 :I -3; 
Psa. 11 ; 

1 Sam. 19:4-24; 
Psa. 59. 
1 Sam. 20. 

1 Sam. 21 ; 
Psa. 56; 34. 

1 Sam. 22: 1 ; 
Psa. 142 ; 

2 Sam. 22:1, 2 ; 

1 Chr. 12:8-18; 

2 Sam. 23:13-17; 
1 Chr. 11:15-19. 

1 Sam. 22:3-19: 
Psa. 17, 35, 52, 64. 

109, 140. 
1 Sam. 22:20-23; 

23- 
Psa. 31. 

1 Sam. 23:13-23; 
Psa. 54 ; 

1 Sam. 23:24-28. 
1 Sam. 23:29; 24; 
Psa. 57, 58, 63. 
1 Sam. 25. 
1 Sam. 26. 

1 Chr. 12:1-7. 

1 Sam. 27:8-12. 



1 Sam. 28. 

1 Sam. 29. 

1 Chr. 12:19-22. 



1 Sam. 30. 
1 Sam. 31. 

1 Chr. 10:1-14. 

2 Sam. 1:1-16. 
2 Sam. 1 : 17-27. 



2 Sam. 2:1-7. 
2 Sam. 2:8-11. 
2 Sam. 12:32; 

3; 4- 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD IV.— CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B.C. 

1049, Hebron, 
Jerusalem. 



1048. 



1046, from Kir- 
jath-jearim to 
house of Obed- 
edom, thence 
to Zion, Psa. 
132. 



1041. 



1038-1037, 
Medeba. 



1036 and 1034, 
Jerusalem. 

io33- 



103 1. 
1028. 

1025. 
1024. 



1024, Bahurim. 
Jerusalem. 



Mahanaim, 65 

miles N. E. of 

Ephraim. 

Jerusalem. 



1023. 
102 1. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



[BLE REFERENCE. 



David made king over all Israel; his troops; he 
dispossesses the Jebusites of the hill of Zion and 
dwells there 



Hiram of Tyre congratulates David; David's fam- 
ily; he twice defeats the Philistines 



David removes the ark; Uzzah, not being a Levite, 
smitten for touching the ark (see Num. 4: 15) 



David forbidden to build the temple ; great bless 
ings promised him; his prayer and thanksgiving "j 



Victories over Philistia, Moab, Syria, and Edom_ 

David's kindness to Mephibosheth 

David defeats Ammon and Syria 

! 

Siege of Rabbah; David's adultery and murder.— -j 

Birth of Solomon ; Amnon, David's eldest son, for- 
ceth his sister Tamar, David's daughter ; David 
fails to punish this injury 

Absalom kills Amnon, and flees 

Absalom brought back and restored to his father's ) 
presence ; j 

Absalom raises a revolt against David 

David and his followers flee; Zadok and Abiathar] 
sent back with the ark; Hushai desired by David I 
to join himself to Absalom to circumvent Ahitho- j 
phel's counsels J 

Ziba's treachery to Mephibosheth ; Shimei curses f 
David j 

Hushai defeats Ahithophel's counsel; Ahithophel ( 
hangs himself { 

David furnished with provisions, chiefly by Bar- ! 
zillai 

Absalom defeated and slain by Joab 

David returns ; Shimei pardoned ; Mephibosheth ex 
poses Ziba's treachery; David's gratitude to Bar 
zillai 

Revolt of Sheba (at Abel) j 

The three vears' famine 



2 Sam. 5:1-3; 
23:8-12,18-39; 
5:4, 5,6-10; 

1 Chr. 1 1 : 1-3 ; 
12:23-40; 

11 : 10-14, 20, 
26-47, 4-9. 

2 Sam. 5:11-25, 

13-17; 

1 Chr. 14:1-17. 

2 Sam. 6: 1-11 ; 
12-23 ; 

Psa. 68, 132, 105, 
96, 106; 

1 Chr. 13:1-4, 
5-14; 15:1 to 
16:43. 

2 Sam. 7 ; 

1 Chr. 17 ; 

Psa. 2, 45, 22, 16, 
118, no. 

2 Sam. 8; 

1 Chr. 18 ; 
Psa. 60, 108. 

2 Sam. 9. 

2 Sam. 10; 

1 Chr. 19; 
Psa. 20, 21. 

2 Sam. n :i ; 

1 1 : 2-27. 

1 Chr. 20:1, 3; 
Psa. 51, 32, S3, 

103. 

2 Sam. 12:24, 25; 

13:1-22. 

2 Sam. 13:23-39. 

2 Sam. 14. 

2 Sam. 15:1-12. 

2 Sam. 15:13-27; 
Psa. 3. 

2 Sam. 16:1-14; 

Psa. 7. 

2 Sam. 16:15-23 ; 

17:1-26. 
2 Sam. 17:27-29; 
Psa. 4, 5, 42, 43, 

55, 62, 70, 71, 

143, 144- 
2 Sam. 18. 



2 Sam. 19; 20:3. 
2 Sam. 20:1, 2, 

4-26. 
2 Sam. 21:1-14. 
699 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD IV.— CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 

1019. 



1016. 
Jerusalem. 



1016, Gibeon, 

Jib, 17 miles 

N. W. of Gilgal 

1015, 

Jerusalem. 



Tyre, Tsur. 

1012, 
Jerusalem. 



1012-1005, 
1 Kin. 6:1-37. 



1005, 

Jerusalem. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



Last wars with the Philistines ; David's praise for J 
victories; his enemies subdued 



David in pride numbers Israel ; the plague 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



David prepares materials and instructs Solomon as 
to the building of the temple 

Adonijah's rebellion; Solomon anointed and pro- 
claimed David's successor; Adonijah submits 

David arranges the courses of the priests, etc 



I 

i 
— 



Arrangement of the State officers-- 

David calls a solemn assembly and exhorts both 
them and Solomon to the work of the temple ; 
the offerings of the princes and people ; Da- 
vid's thanksgiving; Solomon acknowledged as 
king 

David's final charge to Solomon ; directs Joab and 
Shimei to be put to death; David's last words; 
his death 



Psalms of David, of which the date and occasion 



are not known 



VII. THE REIGN OF SOLOMON, 40 YEARS. 

Solomon's burnt-offering; God giving him a choice, 
he asks for wisdom ; wealth and honor added to 
him 

Solomon's wise judgment 



Adonijah and Joab put to death ; Abiathar deposed 
Shimei not to leave Jerusalem 

Solomon obtains materials and men for the build- f 
ing of the temple — 1 

Shimei put to death for going to Gath 

Solomon marries Pharaoh's daughter 



The building of the temple. 



The dedication of the temple 



2 Sam. 21:15-22; 
22:2-51; 

1 Chr. 20:4-8; 
Psa. 18. 

2 Sam, 24:1-9; 
10-25 ; 

1 Chr. 21:1-5; 
27:23,24; 2i:6 > 
7, 8-30. 

1 Chr. 22. 

1 Kin. 1:1-4. 
1 Chr. 23-26. 
1 Chr. 27:1-22, 
25-34- 

1 Chr. 28:11-21 ; 

29:1-25; 
Psa. 72, 91, 145. 

1 Kin. 2:1-9; 

2 Sam. 23:1-7; 

1 Chr. 29:26-30; 

1 Kin. 2:10, 11. 

Psa. 6, 8, 12, 19, 
23, 24, 28, 29, 
38-41, 61, 65, 
69, 78, 86, 95> 
101, 104, 120- 
122, 124, 131, 
*33, 139- 



1 Kin. 2:12 ; 

3:4-15; 

2 Chr.i: 1-5,6-12. 
1 Kin. 3:16-28. 



1 Kin. 2:13-38. 

1 Kin. 5:1-18; 

2 Chr. 2:1-18. 
1 Kin. 2:39-46. 
1 Kin. 3:1-3- 

1 Kin. 6:1-8; 
16-36; 7:13-50? 
6:9-14, 37, 38, 
7:51; 

2 Chr. 3 : 1 to 
4:22; 5:1. 

1 Kin. 8:1-11, 
62-64, 12-61, 
65,66; 

2 Chr. 5 : 2-14 : 
7:4-7; 6; 7-3- 
8, 10; 

Psa. 47, 97-100, 
135, 136- 



700 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD IV.— CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 
I002. 



IOOI, 

Jerusalem. 



993, Jerusalem. 

980-977. 

977- 



976, Jerusalem. 



976, Shechem. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



Other buildings of Solomon; God makes a cove- 
nant with him 



Acquisitions of Solomon ; he carries out David's 
arrangements for the temple services __ 1 

Pharaoh's daughter brought by Solomon to his new 

palace 

Solomon's song 



The greatness of Solomon 



r 

The wisdom of Solomon 

Solomon's fame; visit of the queen of Sheba 

Solomon's wives seduce him into idolatry; Hadad 
and Rezon stirred up against him 

Ahijah predicts to Jeroboam the division of the king- 
dom ; Solomon seeks to kill Jeroboam, who flees 
into Egypt 

Solomon writes Ecclesiastes, or the Preacher, prob- 
ably as an expression of repentance 

Death of Solomon ; Rehoboam his son succeeds 

VIII. DIVISION OF THE KINGDOM. 

On the accession of Rehoboam, the people, headed 
by Jeroboam, demand a relaxation of burdens __ 

Acting upon the advice of the young men instead 
of the old men, Rehoboam refuses the request of 
the people 

Ten tribes revolt ; Judah and Benjamin adhere to J 
Rehoboam, and form the kingdom of Judah | 

The ten tribes make Jeroboam their king, and form 
the kingdom of Israel 



[BLE REFERENCE. 



i Kin. 7 : 1-12; 

9:1-9; 
2 Chr. 7:11-22. 

1 Kin. 9:10-14, 
15, 25; 

2 Chr. 8:1-10, 
12-16. 

1 Kin. 9:24; 

2 Chr. 8:11. 
Song 1-8. 

1 Kin. 4:1-28, 
10:26; 9:26- 
28; 10:14-25, 
27-29; 

2 Chr. 9:26, 25; 
1:14; 8:17, 18; 
9:13-21, 24; 
1:15-17; 9:27, 
28. 

1 Kin. 4:29-33; 

2 Chr. 9:22; 
Prov. 1 -3 1. 

1 Kin. 4:34. 
10:1-13; 

2 Chr. 9:23, 1-12. 

1 Kin. 11:1-25. 



1 Kin. 11:26-40. 
Eccl. 1-12. 

1 Kin. 11:41-43: 

2 Chr. 9:29-31. 



1 Kin. 12:1-5; 

2 Chr. 10:1-5. 

1 Kin. 12:6-15; 

2 Chr. 10:6-15. 

1 Kin. 12:16-19: 

2 Chr. 10:16-19. 



1 Kin. 12-20. 



701 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD V. 

FROM THE DEATH OF SOLOMON TO THE CLOSE OF THE OLD 
TESTAMENT CANON* 

I. HISTORY OF THE TWO KINGDOMS. 



JUDAH. 

REHOBOAM, king 17 years, 1 Kings 

14:21, f. p. {Judah); 2 Chr. 12:13, f-P- 

(reigned). 
Rehoboam, preparing to attack the ten 

tribes, is forbidden by Shemaiah, 1 Kin. 

12:21-24; 2 Chr. 11:1-4. 
Rehoboam fortifies his kingdom ; the 

priests and Levites of Israel resort to 

him ; Rehoboam's family, 2 Chron. 

11:5-23- 



Rehoboam and Judah's idolatry, 1 Kin. 

14:22-24; 2 Chr. 12:1. 
Shishak plunders Jerusalem, 1 Kings 

14:25-28; 2 Chr. 12:2-12. 
Character and death of Rehoboam, 1 Kin. 

14:21, I. p. 29-31; 2 Chr. 12:13, I. p. 

14-16. 
ABIJ AH, or ABIJAM, king 3 years, 1 Kin. 

15:1, 2, 6; 2 Chr. 13:1, 2. 
Abijah defeats Jeroboam in battle, 2 Chr. 

13:3-21. 

His heart not perfect. 

Character and death of Abijah. ASA 
king 41 years, 1 Kin. 15:3-10; 2 Chr. 
13:22; 14:1. 



Asa puts away idolatry and strengthens 
his kingdom, 1 Kin. 15:11-15; 2 Chr. 
14:2-8; 15:16-18. 

Asa's victory over the Ethiopians, 2 Chr. 

14:9-15- 
Moved by Azariah, Asa makes a solemn 

covenant with God, 2 Chr. 15:1-15, 19 
Asa bribes Ben-hadad king of Syria to 

attack Baasha, 1 Kin. 15:16-22. 

Asa, reproved by Hanani for applying to 
Ben-hadad, puts him in prison, 2 Chr 
16:7-10. 

His idolatrous alliance with Syria, and his im- 
prisonment of the prophet, after all his refor 
mations, prove his ruin. 



B. C. 

976 



974 

973 
972 

958 



957 
956 



955 
953 
95i 

944 
942 
941 



ISRAEL. 

JEROBOAM "king 22 years; he estab- 
lishes himself at Shechem, 1 Kings 
12:25. 



Jeroboam, having set up golden calves 
at Dan and Bethel, is reproved by a 
man of God, 1 Kin. 12:26-33; 13:1-10. 

Seduced by an old prophet of Bethel, the 
man of God disobeys the word of the 
Lord, and is slain by a lion, 1 Kin. 
13:11-32. 

These calves borrowed from Egypt, where 
Jeroboam had resided. 

Twice warned by the man of God and by 
Abijah, yet persisting in his idolatry. 

The step seemed politic. It seemed a form of 
worship something like that established at 
Jerusalem, and attracted the tribes, but in 
the end it proved the ruin of the kingdom. 



Ahijah denounces Jeroboam, 1 
I3 : 33, 34; I4:i~ l8 - 



Kings 



Jeroboam's death. NADAB king 2 years, 

1 Kin. 14: 19, 20 ; 15:25, 26. 
Nadab slain at Gibbethon. BAASHA 

king 24 years, 1 Kin. 15:27-34- 



93i 



93o 



Baasha denounced by Jehu; his death. 
ELAH king 2 vears, 1 Kin. 16:1-8. 

Elah slain. ZIMRI king 7 days ; de- 
stroys Baasha's house. Omri elected 

* The names of the new kings are here printed in capitals ; and if founders of new dynasties, in 
italic capitals. 
702 



Baasha, attempting to build Ramah, is 
attacked by the king of Syria, 2 Chr. 
16:1-6. 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD V.— CONTINUED. 



JUDAH. 



Asa's death. JEHOSHAPHAT, king 25 
years ; his piety and prosperity, 1 Kin. 
15:23, 24; 22:41-47; 2 Chr. 16:11-14; 
17:1; 20:31-33; 17:2-19; comp. ver. 6 

and 20:33. 

His great error is his alliance with Ahab, whose 
daughter Athaliah his son Jehoram marries. 
Hence his expedition to Ramoth, which near- 
ly cost him his life. 



Jehoshaphat visits Ahab, and joins with 
him in battle against the Syrians, 
2 Chr. 18. 

Jehoshaphat reproved' by Jehu for join- 
ing with Ahab. He visits his kingdom 
and exhorts the judges, etc., to be 
faithful, 2 Chr. 19 ; Psa. 82. 

Overthrow of Moab, etc. Jehoram re- 
gent, 2 Chr. 20:1-30; Psa. 115, 46. 

Jehoshaphat joins Ahaziah. Being re- 
proved and his ships wrecked, he refu- 
ses to join in a subsequent expedition, 

1 Kin. 23:48, 49; 2 Chr. 20:35, 37. 
Afterwards joins Joram against Moab, 

and is saved only by a miracle, 

2 Kin. 3. 

On 2 Chr. 20 : 13, see Joel 2 : 16. 



2 Kin. 9 : 2, 13. Read, therefore, in 1 Kin. 19 : 16, 
grandson ; and by Elijah anointing Jehu, un- 
derstand ordering Elisha to do it. Jehu was 
anointed to exterminate the house of Ahab. 

Jehoram begins to reign in concert with 
Jehoshaphat, 2 Kin. 8:16. 

2 Chr. 21 : 5. Three dates are given for the be- 
ginning of Jehoram's reign : B. C. 897, when 
he was regent during his father's absence, 
2 Kin. 1 : 17 ; 3:1; 891, 2 Kin. 8 : 16 ; and 889. 

Death of Jehoshaphat. JEHORAM, or 
JORAM, king 8 years ; his wicked and 
troubled reign. Elijah's letter, writ- 
ten before his translation, brought to 
him, 1 Kin. 22:45, 50; 2 Kin. 8:17-22; 
2 Chr. 20:34; 21:1-18. 



B. C. 



926 



917 
914 



910 
to 
906 

902 
and 
901 
900 



897 



893 

8Q2 



990 

889 

to 



king. Zimri destroys himself, 1 Kin. 

16:9-20. 
OMRIkXng 12 years, including 6 years' 

civil war with Tibni. Samaria built, 

1 Kin. 16:21-26. 
Omri dies. AHAB king 22 years. Jeri- 
cho rebuilt by Hiel, who reaps Joshua's 

curse, 1 Kin. 16:27-34. 
1 Kin. 16:25. Comp. Mic. 6:26; 1 Kin. 16:34; 

Josh. 6:26. 

Elijah prophesies a famine ; raises the 
widow's son; his trial with the proph- 
ets of Baal. Elisha a prophet, 1 Kin. 
17-19. 

Ben-hadad besieges Samaria. The Syr- 
ians twice defeated. Ahab denounced, 
1 Kin. 20. 

Ahab seizes Naboth's vineyard. Elijah 
denounces him, 1 Kin. 21. 

Ahab makes war on Syria and is slain, 
as Michaiah predicted. AHAZIAH 
king, 1 Kin. 22:1-35, 36-40, 51-53- 

Ver. 39. See Amos 3 : 15. 



Psa. 82 placed here from internal evidence. 
(Townsend). 

Psa. 115 and 46. The schools of the prophets 
(Naioth), 1 Sam. 10:10; 19:20; 2 Kin. 2:2, 
seem to have trained at this time a large 
number of religious teachers. 



Ahaziah falling sick and sending to in- 
quire of Baalzebub, is denounced by 
Elijah. JEHORAM, or JORAM, his 
brother, king 12 years, 2 Kings 1; 

3-^-3- 
Elijah translated. Elisha acknowledged 

as his successor; his miracles, 2 Kin. 2. 
Joram, joined by Jehoshaphat and the 

king of Edom, defeats Moab, 2 Kin. 

3:4-27- 

Elisha multiplies the widow's oil ; prom- 
ises a son to the Shunammite, 2 Kin. 
4:1-17. 

Naaman healed, 2 Kin. 5. 

Elisha causes iron to swim ; discloses the 
Syrian king's purpose, and smites his 
army with blindness, 2 Kin. 6:1-23. 

Ben-hadad besieges Samaria ; severe 
famine ensues ; plenty restored by the 
sudden flight of the Syrians, 2 Kin. 
6:24-33; 7. 

Elisha raises to life the widow's son; 
other miracles, 2 Kin. 4:18-44; 8:1, 2. 

2 Kin. 4: 34. This is Elisha's twelfth miracle, 
Elijah having wrought six. Townsend pla- 
ces 4:18 after 4: 17; but there is clearly an 
interval of two years or so between them. 



703 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD V.— CONTINUED. 



JUDAH. 

Ahaziah begins to reign as viceroy to 

his father, 2 Kin. 9:29. 
Death of Jehoram. AHAZIAH king one 

year ; his evil reign, 2 Kin. 8 : 23-27 ; 

2 Chr. 21:19, 20; 22:1-4. 
Ahaziah joins Joram against Hazael, and 

afterwards visits him at Jezreel, 2 Kin. 

8:28, 29. 

Ahaziah slain by Jehu, 2 Chr. 22:7-9. 

A THALIAH usurps the throne 6 years. 
Joash the son of Ahaziah rescued, 
2 Kin. 11 :i-3 ; 2 Chr. 22:10-12. 

JEHOASH, or JOASH, king 40 years. 
Athaliah slain, 2 Kin. 11:4-12; 2 Chr. 
23:1-21 ; 24:1, 2. 

Joash repairs the temple, 2 Kin. 12:4-16; 

2 Chr. 24:4-14. 
Death of Jehoiada, 2 Chr. 24:15, 16. 



Joash and the people fall into idolatry 
Zechariah, reproving them, is slain in 
the temple-court (cf. Matt. 23 : 35 ). The 
Syrians invade Judah, 2 Chr. 24:17-24; 
2 Kin. 12:17, 18. 

Joash slain by his servants. AMAZIAH 
king 29 years, 2 Kin. 12:19-21; 14:1-6; 
2 Chr. 24:25-27; 25:1-4. 



Amaziah hires an army of Israelites to 
assist him against Edom, but at a 
prophet's command he sends them 
back, 2 Chr. 25:5-10. 

Amaziah smites the Edomites and wor- 
ships their gods, 2 Chr. 25:11; 2 Kin. 
14:7; 2 Chr. 25:12, 14-16. 

Amaziah provokes the king of Israel to 
battle, and is taken prisoner by him, 
2 Kin. 14:8-14. 



Amaziah slain. UZZIAH, or AZARIAH 
king 52 years. During the days of 
Zechariah he reigns well, 2 Kin. 14:17- 
22; 15:1-4; 2 Chr. 25:25; 26:15. 



B. C. 

886 

885 



877 

860 
855 

850 

849 
848 

841 

840 



838 
836. 
827 



826 
823 
822 



to 
800 



801 



Israel. 



Return of the Shunammite. Hazael kills 
Ben-hadad, and becomes, as Elisha 
predicted, king of Syria, 2 Kin. 8:3-15. 

Joram being wounded in battle by the 
Syrians, retires to Jezreel, 2 Chron. 
22:5, 6. 

Jehu anointed, 2 Kin. 9:1-13. 

Joram slain by Jehu, 2 Kin. 9:14-28. 

JEHU king 28 years ; slays Jezebel, 
Ahab's sons, Ahaziah's brethren, and 
Baal's worshippers, 2 Kin. 9:30-37; 
10:1-31. 



Hazael oppresses Israel, 2 Kin. 10:32, ^Z- 
Death of Jehu. JEHOAHAZ king 17 

years, 2 Kin. 10:34-36; 13:1, 2. 
History of Jonah, Jon. 1-4. 
Israel given over by God to Hazael and 

Ben-hadad, and ' delivered, 2 Kings 

Jehoash begins to reign in concert with 
Jehoahaz, 2 Kin. 13-. 10. 



Death of Jehoahaz. JEHOASH, or JO- 
ASH, king 16 years. He visits Elisha, 
who promises three victories. Hazael 
dies, 2 Kin. 13:8, 9, 11, 14-19. 22-24. 

Elisha dies. A corpse thrown into Eli- 
sha's sepulchre revives, 2 Kin. 13 : 20, 21. 

Jehoash thrice beats the Syrians, 2 Kin. 
13:25- 

The Israelites, who had been dismissed 
by Amaziah, plunder the cities of Ju- 
dah as they return, 2 Chr. 25:13. 



Jehoash defeats the king of Judah and 
plunders the temple, 2 Chr. 25:17-24. 

Death of Jehoash. JEROBOAM II. king 

41 years; he reigns wickedly, 2 Kin. 

13:12, 13; 14:15, 16,23,24. 
Jeroboam restores the coast of Israel, 

according to the word of Jonah; 2 Kin. 

14:25-27- 



j Hosea makes his first appeal to the ten 
I tribes, Hos. 1:3. 



704 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD V.— CONTINUED. 



JUDAH. 
.Amos 7:10-19, Lightfoot and others place after 
2 Kin. 14:28. 

On the increase of Uzziah's array; Joel 
foretells the overthrow of Judah, Joel 
i-3- 



The three children have names given to them, 
indicating the. place of the wickedness of the 
house of Ahab (ver. 4; see 1 Kin. 21:1); 
their punishment, not finding mercy in ca- 
lamity; and their rejection, no longer the 
people of God. They are, however, to be 
gathered again under the Messiah, their one 
Head, ver. 11 ; ver. 7, see 2 Kin. 19 : 35. 



Uzziah struck with leprosy for invading 
the priest's office. Jotham regent, 
2 Kin. 15:5; 2 Chr. 26:16-20, 21. 

.2 Kin. 15 : 5, several, that is, lone or separate. 

Isaiah designated in a vision to the pro- 
phetic office. He prophesies of Christ's 
kingdom and of judgment on the peo- 
ple for their sins, Isa. 1:1; 6 : 2-5. 

Death of Uzziah. JOTHAM king 16 
years; his prosperity, 2 Kin. 15:6, 7, 
32-35; 2 Chr. 26:22, 23; 27:1-6. 

:Micah reproves the wickedness of Judah. 
Mic. 1, 2. 

JRome founded. 



Judah begins to be afflicted by Syria and 
Israel. Death of Jotham, 2 Kin. 15:36- 
38; 2 Chr. 27:7-9. 

AH AZ king 16 years, 2 Kin. 16 : 1-4 ; 2 Chr. 
28:1-4. 

Invasion of Pekah and Rezin. Isaiah 
prophesies on the occasion, denoun- 
cing Ahaz's intended alliance with As- 
syria, 2 Kin. 16:5; Isa. 7-9; 10:1-4. 

Isaiah prophecies the ruin of Damascus 
and of the ten tribes, Isa. 17. 

Judah devastated by Syria and Israel; 
the latter restore their captives by ad- 
vice of Oded, 2 Chr. 28:5-15. 

.Ahaz, being assailed by enemies, hires 
Tiglath-pileser, the king of Assyria, 
against them Obadiah and Isaiah, 
2 Kin. 16:6-9; 2 Chr. 28:16, 21, 17-20; 
Obad. ; Isa. 1:2-31 ; 28. 

.Sacrilege and idolatry of Ahaz, 2 Chr. 
28:22-25; 2 Kin. 16:10-18; Hos. 5, 6. 



B. C. 

793 

737 



783 

771 

770 

769 

765 
761 

759 

757 

756 

753 
742 



740 
740 

738 
730 



ISRAEL. 

Amos denounces judgment against the 
surrounding nations and against Isra- 
el and Judah, Amos 1-9. 

Amos 1:3, see 2 Kin. 16:9; ver. 6, see 2 Kin. 
18:8; ver. 8, see 2 Chr. 26:6; ver. 11, see 
Num.20: 14; Am. 5: 27, see 2 Kin. 10:32; 17:6. 

Death of Jeroboam, 7 Kin. 14:28, 29. 

An interregnum for eleven years. 
State of Israel during the interregnum. 

Hosea denounces judgment. Hos. 4. 
ZECHARIAH, fourth from Jehu, king 6 

months. Shallum slays him, 2 Kings 

15:8-12. 
SHALLUM 'king one month. Menahem 

slays him, 2 Kin. 15:13-15. 
MENAHEM king 10 years, 2 Kings 

15:16-18. 
Pul of Assyria, coming against Israel, is 

bribed to return, 2 Kin. 15:19, 20. 



Death of Menahem. PEKAHIAH king 

2 years, 2 Kin. 15:21-24. 
Pekahiah slain by Pekah. PEKAH\ting 

20 years, 2 Kin. 15:25-28. 
Isa. 1:1. 

Compare Isa. 7 : 1 with 2 Kin. 16 : 5. 
Isa. 1 :j, 8, compare 2 Chr. 28 :6-g. 
Isa. 6 : 1, see John 12:41. 
Isa. 6 : 13, see 2 Kin. 25 : 12. 
Isa. 2 : 19, see Rev. 6 : 15. 
2 Chr. 27 : 2, see chap. 26 : 19. 
Isa. 7 : 8, see 2 Kin. 17 : 24. 
Isa. 7 : 16, see 2 Kin. 15 : 29. 
Isa. 8: 1, a man's pen, that is, common writing; 

see Rev. 13 : 18 ; 21 : 17. 
Mic. 1 : 5, see 1 Kin. 16 : 32. 
Mic. 1 : 13, see Jer. 34 : 7. 



45 



Isa. 17, see 2 Kin. 16 : 9 ; 18 : 11. 



Tiglath-pileser ravages Gilead, Galilee, 
and Naphtali, and carries captive their 
inhabitants to Assyria, 2 Kin. 15:29. 

Isa. 5 : 21, see 2 Sam. 5 : 20. 

Pekah slain by Hoshea, 2 Kin. 15:30; 
17:1. 

Anarchy for nine years. 
HOSHEA king 9 years. Shalmaneser 
king of Assyria invades his territory 
705 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD V.— CONTINUED. 



JUDAH. 

Death of Ahaz, 2 Kin. 16:19, 20; 2 Chr. 

28:26,27; Isa. 14:28-32. 
HEZEKIAH king 29 years, 2 Kin. 18:1, 

2 ; 2 Chr. 29:1. 
Reformation by Hezekiah, 2 Kin. 18:3-6; 

2 Chr. 29:2-36; 30, 31. 



B. C. 
726 



Moab denounced, Isa. n 



16. 



Micah supports Hezekiah's reformation, 

Mic. 2>~7- 
See Jer. 26 : 18 ; Mic. 3 : 9. 



Hezekiah's prosperity, 2 Kin. 18:7, 



Prophecy of the restoration of the ten 
tribes, of the punishment of Egypt, 
and conversion of Egypt and Assyria, i 
Isa. 18 ; 19. 



723 



723 



721 



Israel. 

and makes him a tributary, 2 Kings 
17:1-3. 

Isa. 14:28-32, against Philistia, see 2 Chr. 26:6. 
Ahab, who subdued them, was dead; but a 
cockatrice out of that nest, Hezekiah, was 
still to bite them, 2 Kin. 18 : 8. 

Isa. 15. The destruction of Moab by Shalma- 
neser foretold. They are exhorted to re- 
new their tribute, Isa. 16 : 1. See 2 Kin. 3 : 4. 



Hoshea attacked and imprisoned by 
Shalmaneser for not giving the tribute. 
Hosea predicts the captivity of the ten 
tribes and exhorts to repentance, 2 Kin. 
17:4; Hos. 7-14. 

Shalmaneser besieges Samaria, 2 Kin. 

17:5; 18:9. 
The ten tribes carried into captivity 

unto Assyria, 2 Kin. 17:6-23; 18:10-12. 



II. HISTORY OF JUDAH TO THE CAPTIVITY, 114 YEARS. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B.C. 

715- 

714. 
713, Judaea. 



Jerusalem. 



712. 
712, Jerusalem. 



711, Judaea. 



710-699. 
697, Jerusalem. 



706 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



Tyre denounced, Isa. 23. Prophecy concerning the j 
invasion of Assyria ( 

The desolation and recovery of Jud&ea predicted, 
etc 

Isaiah predicts the invasion by Assyria and the f 
destruction of Babylon. Sennacherib comes up | 
against Judah, but being pacified by a tribute, { 
retires. Isaiah denounces Egypt and warns Je- | 
rusalem I 

Sickness of Hezekiah; his song of thanksgiving, j 
Isaiah predicts the blessings of Christ's kingdom \ 
and judgments of the enemies of Zion ! 

Nineveh denounced by Nahum 

Hezekiah showing in pride to the ambassadors 
from Babylon his treasures, Isaiah predicts the 
Babylonian captivity 

Second invasion of Sennacherib ; destruction of his j 
army 

Various prophecies of Isaiah 

Hezekiah's wealth; his death. Manasseh king [ 
fifty-five years; his awful impiety; judgment de- -j 
nounced by God's prophets I 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Isa. 10:5 ; 14:27. 

Isa. 24; 26 : 17, 

18; 27. 
Isa. 22:1-14; 21 ; 
2 Kin. 18:13-16; 
2 Chr. 32:1-8; 
Isa. 36 : 1 ; 20 ; 

29-31. 
2 Kin. 20; 
Isa. 38 ; 
2 Chr. 32:24; 
Isa. 32-35. 
Nah. 1-3. 
2 Kin. 20:12-19; 
Isa. 39; 

2 Chr. 32:25, 26. 
2 Kin. 18:17-37; 

26-28; 19:1-37. 
Psa. 44, 73, 75, 76 ; 
Isa. 36:2, n:-22; 

37:i-33; 
2 Chr. 32:9-23. 
Is. 40-66; 57 : 3-9. 
2 Kin. 20:20, 21; 

21 : 1-16; 
2 Chr. 32:27-33; 

33:1-10. 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD V.— CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 

678, Samaria. 

677, Babylon. 

642, Jerusalem. 

640. 



634- 
628. 

623, Jerusalem. 



623. 
622, Jerusalem. 

612. 

612. 
611. 

610. 



609, Megiddo 
and Jerusalem. 



Riblah. 



608. 
606. 



Jerusalem. 
606. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



Isaiah predicts the captivity of Shebna 

The heathen nations, who had been transplanted to 
Samaria in place of the Israelites, being plagued by 
lions, make a mixture of religions 

Manasseh taken captive by the king of Assyria ; his 
conversion and restoration; he puts down idol- 
atry 

Death of Manasseh. Amon king two years ; his f 
impiety 1 

Amon slain by his servants. Josiah king thirty 
one years 

Josiah vigorously puts down idolatry 

Jeremiah called ; he expostulates with the Jews on 

account of their sins 

Josiah provides for the repair of the temple. The [ 
Book of the Law having been found, Josiah con- ! 
suits Huldah ; he causes it to be read publicly j 

and renews the covenant [ 

Zephaniah exhorts to repentance 

A most solemn celebration of the Passover by Jo- 
siah 

Jeremiah reproves the backsliding of the people 

and bewails the coming captivity { 

Habakkuk predicts judgment 

Jeremiah exhorts the people to repentance and la- 
ments their approaching calamities 

Jeremiah reminds the people of the covenant of Jo- 
siah 

Josiah slain in battle with the king of Egypt. Jere- | 
miah and the people lament him. Jehoahaz \ 
king three months | 

Jehoahaz deposed and imprisoned by Pharaoh 
necho, and subsequently taken to Egypt. Je 
hoiakim king eleven years 

Jeremiah delivers various predictions, and appeals to 
the Jews respecting the captivity and destruction of 
Jerusalem 

Jeremiah predicts the fate of Pashur, Jer. 20 ; of Shal- 
lum, that is, Jehoahaz, and Jehoiakim 

Apprehension and arraignment of Jeremiah by the 
people 

Jeremiah predicts the overthrow of the army of Pha- 
raoh-necho king of Egypt by Nebuchadnezzar 

The obedience of the Rechabites to their father con- 
trasted with the disobedience of the Jews 

Jeremiah predicts the captivity of the Jews for sev- 
enty years, and the subsequent judgment on Baby- 
lon 

Jeremiah desires Baruch to write his prophecies on a 
roll, and then to read it publicly in the temple 

Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem and puts Jehoia 
kim in fetters, intending to take him to Babylon 
but afterwards releasing him, makes him a tribu 
tary, and spoils the temple 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Isa. 22:15-25. 



2 Kin. 17:24-41. 



2 Chr. 33:11-17. 
2 Kin. 21 : 17-22; 
2 Chr. 33:18-23. 
2 Kin. 21 : 23-26; 

22: 1, 2; 
2 Chr. 33:24, 25; 

34:1, 2. 
2 Chr. 34:3-7. 

Jer. 1:2; 3:1-5. 
2 Kin. 22:3-20; 

23 :1 ~3, 4-2o; 
2 Chr. 34:8, 28- 

33- 
Zeph. 1; 2; 3. 
2 Kin. 23:21-27; 
2 Chr. 35:1-19. 
Jer. 3 :6-n, 12- 

25 ; 4 to 6. 
Hab. 1-3. 

Jer. 7-10. 

Jer. 11; 15, 12. 
2 Kin. 23:29, 30, 

28, 30, /. p., 31, 

32; 
2 Chr. 35 : 20-27 J 

36:1, 2. 

2 Kin. 23:33-37; 
2 Chr. 36:3-5. 



Jer. 13-19. 
Jer. 22: 1-23. 
Jer. 26. 
Jer. 46:1-12. 
Jer. 35. 

Jer. 25. 

Jer. 36:1-8; 45. 

2 Kin. 24:1 ; 
2 Chr. 36:6, 7; 
Dan. 1:1, 2. 

707 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD V.— CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 


EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 


BIBLE REFERENCE. 


B. C. 

606. 


Nebuchadnezzar orders the master of his eunuchs to 
select and send to Babylon some of the royal family 
and nobility to stand in the king's palace. Daniel, 
Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah (otherwise called 
Belteshazzar, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego) 
are taken there. ____ __.. _ 


Dan. 1; 3; 4; 6; 7. 







III. FROM THE FIRST CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM, B. C. 606, TO THE DECREE OF 
CYRUS FOR THE RESTORATION OF THE JEWS, B. C. 536—70 YEARS. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 

Babylon. 

605. 

603. 
Babylon. 



599- 
599- 

597- 

595- 

Babylon. 

594- 
Babylon. 

593- 

Jerusalem. 



590- 

Babylon. 
708 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



EVENTS AT JERUSALEM, WITH CONTEMPO- 
RANEOUS EVENTS AT BABYLON. 

Daniel meets with kindly treatment 

Baruch again reads the prophetic roll ; Jehoiakim 
burns it_- 

Jehoiakim rebels against Nebuchadnezzar 

Daniel before Nebuchadnezzar 

Interprets Nebuchadnezzar's dream, Dan. 2; descri- 
bing the Babylonian, 32, Medo-Persian, 32-39, Mac- 
edo-Grecian, "32-39, and Roman empires, 2>2>, 40-43, 
with Messiah's kingdom, 34, 35, 44, 45. 

Death of Jehoiakim. Jehoiachin or Jeconiah 
king three months 

Second capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. 1 
Jehoiachin is carried to Babylon with many of his j 
subjects. Zedekiah or Mattaniah king eleven j 
years J 

Predictions of the duration of the captivity j 

Of the restoration of the Jews 

Predictions against the surrounding nations 
aniah the false prophet denounced 

Prophecies against Babylon 

Ezekiel's vision in Babylon ; his commission, Ezek. 
1 : 1 to 3-21. He prophecies of the miseries of Je- 
rusalem 

Visions of the idolatries which occasioned the cap 
tivity 

Various predictions against the false prophets, Je- J 
rusalem, and the Jewish nation ( 

Prophecies addressed to the elders of the Jews 



Han- 



Zedekiah's rebellion and wickedness 



The wickedness of priests and people (the cause of 
the captivity, 2 Chr. 36:15, 16). with a summary ac- 
count of the judgments that followed 

Nebuchadnezzar lays siege to Jerusalem for the I 
third time ) 

Ezekiel foretells the destruction of Jerusalem 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Dan 1:5, 8-17. 

Jer. 36:9-32. 
2 Kin. 24:1. 
Dan. 1:18-21. 



2 Kin. 24:5-9; 
2 Chr. 36:8, 9; 
Jer. 22: 24-30; 23. 

2 Kin 24: 10-19; 
2 Chr. 36:10-12 ; 
Jer. 52: 1, 2, 24-30, 

Jer. 29:1-14, 16- 

20. 
Jer. 30; 31. 
Jer. 27; 28; 48; 

49- 
Jer. 50; 51. 

Ezek. 3:22-27; 

4-7- 

Ezek. 8 ; 10; 11. 
Ezek. 12-19; 

16; 18:5-18. 
Ezek. 21-23. 
Jer. 37:1, 2; 
2 Kin. 24:20; 
2 Chr. 36:13; 
Jer. 52:3. 



2 Chr. 36:14-21. 
2 Kin. 25:1 ; 
Jer. 39:1; 52:4; 

37:3.4- 
Ezek. 24. 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD V.— CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 

Jerusalem. 

5S9. 
Babylon. 

Jerusalem. 



Babylon. 

587. 



573- 

572. 

57o- 

569- 

568-563. 

561. 

558. 
556. 

538. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



Capture of the city foretold. The people, at Jere- 
miah's word, release their Hebrew bond-servants__ 

Jeremiah shut up in prison; his predictions there 

Ezekiel in Babylon prophecies against Egypt, Ezek. f 
29:1-16, and against Tyre { 

The Chaldaeans raise the siege to march against the 
approaching Egyptian army. Jeremiah predicts 
the destruction of the Philistines 

On the departure of the Chaldasan army the people] 
recall their bond-servants, for which Jeremiah I 
denounces them and predicts the speedy return j 
of the Chaldaeans J 

Jeremiah reimprisoned ; continues to denounce f 
Zedekiah ; he is put into the dungeon of Malchiah { 

Ezekiel, in Babylon, again prophesies against Egypt j 
and Nineveh [ 

Jerusalem finally taken. Zedekiah carried to Bab 
ylon. Jeremiah delivered 

Nebuzaradan burns the temple and carries away | 
the people, leaving a few poor persons to till the <j 
land I 

I 

Jeremiah bewails the desolation of his country 

Gedaliah appointed governor. Jeremiah and many ( 

others attach themselves to him ( 

Ishmael slays Gedaliah and attempts to carry away ] 
the people to the Ammonites ; Johanan intercepts I 
him; the people, fearing the Chaldaeans, flee into [ 

Egypt, contrary to the command of God J 

Jeremiah prophesies against Egypt and the idola- f 

trous Jews } 

Brief summary of the captivities by Nebuchadnezzar 

REMAINDER OF THE HISTORY OF THE 
JEWS IN CAPTIVITY— BABYLON. 

Ezekiel predicts the utter desolation of Judaea 

Predictions against Ammon, Moab, Edom, Philis- f 

tia, Tyre, and Egypt { 

Ezekiel appeals to the captives 

Evil rulers denounced ; restoration of the Jews 1 

promised; predictions of Messiah's kingdom j 

Prophesies of the church and its enemies, and of the 

conversion of the Jews 

Ezekiel's vision of the future temple 

Last prediction against Egypt j 

Nebuchadnezzar sets up an image 

Daniel interprets Nebuchadnezzar's second dream __ 
The fulfilment of Nebuchadnezzar's dream in his 

madness and subsequent recovery •_ 

Evil-merodach king of Babylon releases Jehoia- f 

chin ( 

Daniel's first vision of the living creatures 

Belshazzar's feast. Babylon taken 

Daniel's vision of the ram and he-goat 

Daniel's prayer for the restoration of Jerusalem, f 

Prophecy of the seventy weeks { 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Jer. 34:1-10. 
Jer. 32; ss. 
Ezek. 26. 
See Isa. 23. 



Jer. 37:5; 47. 

Jer. 34:11-22; 
37:6-10. 

Jer.37:n-2i; 21; 

38; 39:15-18. 
Ezek. 30:20-26; 

3i- 

2 Kin. 25:2, 4-7; 
Jer. 52:5-7; 

39:2-7, 11-14. 
2 Kin. 25:8-21; 
Jer. 52:12-30; 

39:8-10; 
Psa. 74; 79 5 83; 

94- 
Lam. 1-5. 
2 Kin. 25:22-24; 
Jer. 40:1-16. 

2 Kin. 25:25, 26; 
Jer. 41-43; 44:1- 

7- 
Jer. 43:8-13; 

46:13-28; 44. 
Jer. 52:28-30. 



Ezek. 33 : 2i-33- 
Ezek. 25; 27; 28; 

32. 
Ezek. 33:1-20. 

Ezek. 34-37. 

Ezek. 38; 39. 
Ezek. 40-48. 
Ezek. 29:17-2-1; 

30:1-19. 
Dan. 3. 
Dan. 4:1-27. 

Dan. 4:28-37. 
2 Kin. 25:27-30; 
Jer. 52:31-34- 
Dan. 7. 
Dan. 5. 
Dan. 8. 
Dan. 9; 
Psa. 102. 
709 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD V.— CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 

537- 
536. 

Jerusalem and 
Babylon. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



ilBLE REFERENCE. 



Daniel cast into the den of lions Dan. 6. 



Decree of Cyrus for the rebuilding of the temple 
and restoration of the Jews to their own country 

Psalms conjectured to have been written during the j 
distresses and afflictions of the church, chiefly in -j 
the Babylonish captivity 



2 Chr. 36:22, 23 ; 

Ezra 1:1-4; 

Psa. 126; 85. 

jPsa. 10, 13-15, 
25-27, 36, 37, 
49, 5o, 53, 67, 
77, 80, 89, 92, 



I 93,123,130,137- 



IV. FROM THE DECREE OF CYRUS, B. C. 536, TO THE FINAL PROPHECY OF THE 
OLD TESTAMENT, B. C. 397, ABOUT 139 YEARS. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



FROM THE RETURN OF THE JEWS TO THE 
DEDICATION OF THE SECOND TEMPLE. 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



536, Jerusalem. (Return of the Jews. Cyrus restores the vessels of 
the temple. An altar set up 



535, Jerusalem. 

534- 

Babylon. 

520, Jerusalem. 



519- 



516. 



486. 

464. 
462, Susa. 

458. 

457- 
Jerusalem. 

710 



I 
Foundation of the second temple under the direc- j 

tion of Zerubbabel __ 1 

The building of the temple interrupted by the Sa- j 

maritans (. 

The last vision of Daniel 



Building of the temple resumed. Haggai and j 
Zechariah incite the people to the work and ex 
hort them to repentance 



I 

The building of the temple again interrupted and I 

resumed 1 

Dedication of the second temple j 

FROM THE OPPOSITION TO THE JEWS IN 
THE REIGN OF XERXES TO THE DEATH 
OF HAMAN. 

Opposition in the reign of Xerxes 

Opposition in the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus — 
Artaxerxes, or Ahasuerus, divorces Vashti his queen 

Ezra commissioned to visit Jerusalem 

Artaxerxes makes Esther queen. 

Ezra comes to Jerusalem ; causes the people to put 
I away their heathen wives 



Ezra 



2 ; 



Psa. 



1:5-11 

3:i-7; 

87, 107, 111- 
114, 116, 117, 
125, 127, 128, 

134- 
Ezra 3:8-13; 
Psa. 84 ; 66. 
Ezra 4:1-5, 24; 
Psa. 129. 
Dan. 10-12. 
Ezra 4:24; 5:1; 
Hag. 1:1-11; 
Ezra 5:2; 
Hag. 1:12-15; 

2 : 1-9 ; 

Zech. 1:1-6; 
Hag. 2:10-23; 
Zech. 1:7-21 ; 

2; 6; 2:5. 
Ezra 5 : 3-!7; 

6:1-13; 
Psa. 138; 
Zech. 7; 8. 
Ezra 6:14-22; 
Psa. 48 ; 81 ; 146- 

150. 



Ezra 4:6. 
Ezra 4 : 7-23. 
Esth. 1. 
Ezra 7 : 2-14. 
Esth. 2:1-20. 



Ezra 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD V.— CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 


EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 


BIBLE REFERENCE. 


B. C. 

457- 
Susa. 


Concluding prophecies of Zechariah 


Zech. 9-14. 
Esth. 2:21-23. 


Mordecai discovers the conspiracy against Ahasuerus 


453. 452. 


Plot of Haman to destroy the Jews, and its defeat 






The feast of Purim 


Esth. 3-10. 




FROM THE FIRST COMMISSION OF NEHE- 




MIAH TO THE CLOSING OF THE OLD TES- 






TAMENT CANON. 




445, Susa. 


Nehemiah receives a commission from Artaxerxes to 








Neh. i- 2:1-8. 


Jerusalem. 


Nehemiah arrives at Jerusalem. Sanballat strives ] 






to hinder the work ; the builders work under > 


Neh. 2 : 9-20 ; 




arms J 


3; 4- 




Nehemiah relieves the Jews oppressed by usury; his 






own generosity 


Neh. 5. 




The wall completed by the Jews and dedicated 


Neh. 6; 12:27-43. 


Susa. 


Nehemiah returns to Persia 


Neh. 7:1-4. 






Neh. 7 : 6-73 ; 
8; 9; 10; 11; 


Jerusalem. 


Second commission of Nehemiah and reformation- - 


12:1-9, 44-47J 
13:1-3; 
Psa. 1 ; 119. 


433- 


Malachi prophecies against the corruptions intro- f 
duced during the second absence of Nehemiah__ ( 


Mai. 1 ; 2 ; 3:1- 




*5- 


428. 


Further reformation by Nehemiah | 


Neh. 13:4-31- 


397- 


Final prophecy of the Old Testament 


Mai. 3:16-18; 4. 




Detached genealogies, etc., inserted probably at | 
the completion of the canon J 


1 Chr. 1-9; 




Neh. 12:10-26. 



711 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



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712 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



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714 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD VII. 

FROM THE BIRTH OF JESUS CHRIST TO THE END OF THE FIRST CEN- 
TURY. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



A. D. 



68. 

69. 
70. 



71. 

79- 



81. 

9 i 
90. 

96. 

97- 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



Nativity of Jesus Christ (four )^ears before the com- 
mon era). Death of Herod 

Jesus visits Jerusalem, at the age of 12 years 

Augustus Caesar followed by Tiberius. 

Pilate sent from Rome as governor of Judaea 

John the Baptist begins his ministry 

Jesus baptized by John 

Jesus Christ was crucified, and rose from the dead 

Ananias and Sapphira struck dead 

Stephen stoned, and the church persecuted 

Saul converted 

Tiberius dies, and is followed by Caligula. 

Conversion of the Gentiles 

Caius Caligula succeeded by Claudius. 

Herod Agrippa made king of Judaea. 

James beheaded by Herod; Peter liberated by an 

angel 

Herod Agrippa dies at Caesarea. 

Paul's first missionary tour, with Barnabas 

Paul and Barnabas attend the council at Jerusalem __ 

Paul's second missionary tour, with Silas 

Claudius Caesar followed by Nero, at Rome. 

Paul's third tour 

Paul's fifth visit to Jerusalem 

Paul reaches Rome as a prisoner 



The Jewish war begins. 

The Roman general raises the siege of Jerusalem, by 
which an opportunity is afforded for the Christians 
to retire to Pella beyond Jordan, as admonished by 
Christ 

Paul suffers martyrdom at Rome by order of Nero__- 

Vespasian made emperor by his arm)'. 

Jerusalem besieged and taken by Titus Vespasian, 
according to the predictions of Christ; when 1,000,- 
000 Jews perished, by sword, fire, and crucifix- 
ion ; besides 97,000 who were sold as slaves, and 
vast multitudes who perished in other parts of Ju- 
daea 



Jerusalem and its temple razed to their foundations- . 

Vespasian dies, and is succeeded by Titus. Hercu 
laneum and Pompeii destroyed by an eruption of 
Vesuvius. 

Titus dies, and is succeeded by Domitian. 

John banished to the Isle of Patmos, by Domitian 

John writes the Revelation. 

Domitian succeeded by Nerva. 

John liberated from exile. New Testament canon 
closed. 

Nerva dies, and is succeeded by Trajan. 

John, the last surviving apostle, dies, about one hun- 
dred years old. 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Luke 2:1-16. 
Luke 2:41-52. 

Luke 3:1. 
Matt. 3:1. 
Matt. 3:1. 
Matt. 27 ; 28. 
Acts 5. 
Acts 6 ; 7. 
Acts 9; 13:9. 

Acts 10. 



Acts 12:1-19. 

Acts 13; 14. 
Acts 15:2-30. 
Acts 15:38 to 18:1. 

Acts 19:1. 
Acts 20:3 to 21:15. 
Acts 21:17 to 
28:16. 



Matt. 24:16-20. 
2 Tim. 4:6, 7. 



Luke 19:41-44. 
Matt. 24:2. 



Rev. 1:9. 



715 



CHRONOLOGY OF THE PATRIARCHS. 



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716 



TABULAR VIEW OF THE PROPHETS. 



TABULAR VIEW OF THE PROPHETS, 



SHOWING THE PERIODS DURING WHICH IT IS SUPPOSED THEIR 
PROPHECIES WERE DELIVERED. 



KINGS OF JITDAH 

CROWNED. , 

B.C. 1 


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KINGS OF 

ISRAEL 
CROWNED. 


Amaziah, 839 
820 










1 














Jeroboam II., 825 


810 




























Uzziali, 810 
800 






1 


1 




















790 






1 




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780 


1 






1 


















Interregnum, 784 




























Menahem, 772 


























Pekahiah, 761 


Jothara, "58 
750 


























Pekah, 758 


Ahaz, 742 
710 














! 














7 30 
























Anarchy, 729 


Hezekiah, 726 
730 














! 












Hosea, 730 


710 


























o 


700 










— 




I 














Manasseh, 698 
690 










<3" 


660 


























© 

1 

t<. el- 


650 
























Amon, 643. Josiah, 641 
640 
















i 








630 


























620 


1 














I 










3.W 
-»2. 


Jehoahaz, 610 
610 
















1 


I 






— 




1 
















600 


1 









7 
















Jeconiah, 599 
590 


1 


t 




Destr. of Jerusalem, 588 
580 


< 3 


570 




1 


It I 


560 


















* E 


550 
























p. ^ 


54:0 


























E3" 

CO 






























530 ' 


























510 
















i 
1 


a 


1 


























: : ;97 





717 



TABLE OF HEBREW MONTHS AND FESTIVALS. 



Hebrew Months. 



Abib, or Nisan. 

Ex. 12:2, 18; 13:4. 

Esther 3 : 7. 



Nearly corespond- K^jJ- 
ins with our mehaciea 

It ear. 



Iyar, or Zif, 
1 Kings 6:1. 



Sivan, 

Esther 8:9. 



Thammuz, 
Ezek. 8:14. 



Ab. 



Elul, 
Neh. 6:15. 



Ethanim, or Tish- 
ri, 1 Kin. 8:2. 



Marchesvan, or 
Bui, i Kin. 6:38. 



Chisleu, 
Zech. 7:1. 



Tebeth, 
Esther 2:16. 



Shebat, 
Zech. 1:7. 



Adar, 

Esther y.^. 

Ve-Adar is added 

here about seven 

times in 19 years. 



April. 



Mav. 



2d 



June. 3d 



July. 4th 



August. 



September. 



October. 



November. 



ith 



6th 



7 th 



Sth 



December. 9th 



January. 10th 



February. 



March. 



nth 



12th 



Months of 

the Civil 

Year. 



7th 



8th 



9th 



10th 



nth 



1 2th 



1 st 



2d 



4th 

5th 
6th 



< 
in 

> 
in 
Z 
2 



14. Paschal lamb killed. 

15. Passover. 

16. First-fruits of barley har- 

vest presented to the 
Lord. 
21. Passover ended. 



The New Moon is celebrated 
at the beginning of every 
month. 



6. Pentecost. First fruits of 
wheat presented to the 
Lord. 



17. Fast, for the taking of Je- 
rusalem by Titus. 



9. Temple taken on this day 
by the Chaldaeans, and 
afterwards by the Ro- 
mans. Fast. 



1. Feast of Trumpets. New 

Year's Day. 
10. Day of Atonement. Fast. 
I15. Feast of Tabernacles. 
22. Last day of the Feast. 



25. Feast of the Dedication of 
the Temple. 



10. Siege of Jerusalem. Fast. 



14 and 15. Feast of Purim. 
Esther 9:18-21. 



TABLES 

OF 

WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND MONEY, 

MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE. 



PRELIMINARY NOTE. 

It must be borne in mind in using these tables that authorities differ greatly in their 
conclusions from the meagre and uncertain data in their hands, and that nearly all the 
following estimates should be regarded as probable and approximate, rather than as 
reliably exact. 

Certain common measures of weight, length, and value, like the pound, the cubit, 
and the shekel, had, roughly speaking, their equivalents among all the nations around 
the Jews — the Chaldaeans, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans ; yet many mistakes would 
arise should one accept any of these as precise equivalents. 

Those measures also varied within the bounds of each nation from one period of its 
history to another, and in different provinces at the same period. The " shekel of the 
sanctuary " may have been a standard, from which the common shekel fell off. The 
cubit — the measure from the elbow to the end of the middle finger — seems sometimes to 
have reached only to the wrist or to the knuckles ; and it is reckoned by some authori- 
ties at 17 inches, by others as high as 23 inches ; so that we are not sure which is the true 
length in any given passage. 

Until the return from the Babylonian Captivity it is not certain that the Jews had 
any regular coinage. Trade and commerce were largely carried on by barter; and 
though the metals were in common use from the earliest ages as a medium of exchange, 
the requisite amount was ascertained by weighing. Hence the different values of a 
given weight, e. g., a bekah, in silver and in gold. 



bush. 

Cab 1 

Omer = 1.8 cabs 

Seah =3.3 omers 

Ephah = 3 seahs 

Lethek = 5 ephahs___3 
Homer = 2 letheks __6 



1. HEBREW DRY MEASURES. 












APPROXIMATE 


RABBINS. 


JOSEPHUS. 




AVERAGE. 


3ks. qts. pts. litres. 


bush. pks qts. 


pts. 




I 0.24= I.27 


2 


O 


1% quarts. 


2 O.24 = 2.30 


3 


I.I 


2^ quarts. 


6 1.44= 7-65 


1 3 


1-7 


1 peck. 


2 4 O.32 = 22.97 


102 


3-2 


3*A pecks. 


5 0.2 =114.84 


522 





4 bushels. 


I 2 O.42 = 229.68 


11 4 





8 bushels. 



2. HEBREW MEASURES FOR LIQUIDS. 



galls. 

Log 

Hin = 12 logs 

Bath = 6hins 5 

Cor = 10 baths 50 



RABBINS. 

qts. pts. 

0.56 = 

3 0.73 = 
o 0.32 = 



litres. 
O.32 

3-83 
22.97 



JOSEPHUS. 
galls. qts. 



O.43 = 229.68 



pts. 
O.99 
I.96 
1.28 
O.80 



AVERAGE. 

4-5 Pint. 
2% quarts. 
7 gallons. 
70 gallons. 
719 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND MONEY. 



3. SCRIPTURE MEASURES OF LENGTH AND DISTANCE. 

LONG ESTIMATE. SHORT ESTIMATE, 

yds. ft. in. yds. ft. in. metres. 

Digit = 0.912 0.8 0.02 

Handbreadth = 4 digits 3.648 3.15 0.08 

Span = 3 palms 10.944 9.06 0.23 

Cubit = 2 spans 1 9.888 1 6.11 0.46 

Fathom = 4 cubits 7 3.552 6 0.84 1.85 

Reed = 6 cubits ___ 10 11.328 9 1.06 2.77 

Stadium = 400 cubits 243 1 9.6 202 o 10.28 184.94 

Sabbath day's journey = 6 stadia 1461 1 9.6 1212 1 6.8 1109.62 

Mile = 8 stadia 1948 2 4.8 1618 1 0.4 1479.50 



4. HEBREW WEIGHTS, REDUCED TO TROY WEIGHTS. 

lbs. oz. dwts. grs. grammes. 

Gerah= IO , 9 6 0.71 

Bekah = 10 gerahs 4 1^.5 « I2 

Shekel = 2 bekahs 9 3.9! 14.25 

Maneh = 60 shekels- 2 3 9 23.55 855.31 

Kikkar == 50 manehs 114 6 19 1.7 42,765.50 

* Ezek. 45 : 12. According to 1 Kin. 10 : 17, compared with 2 Chron. 9 : 16, a maneh or pound con- 
tained 100 shekels, or 3 lbs., 16 dwt., 16 gr. The kikkar or talent would then contain 30 manehs. 



5. HEBREW MONEY. REDUCED TO U. S. CURRENCY. 

SILVER. 

Gerah $0.0275 

Bekah = 10 gerahs °- 2 75 

Shekel = 2 bekahs 0.55 

Maneh = 100 shekels 54-42 

Kikkar = 30 manehs 1,632.81 



GOLD. 

$0,438 

4-38 

8.76 

876.00 

26,280.00 



GREEK AND ROMAN MONEY, IN U. S. CURRENCY. 

$ 
Mite, lepton (copper) 

Farthing, kodrantes (copper), = 2 mites 

Farthing, assarion (copper), = 4 kodrantes 

Penny, denarion (silver), = 10 assaria 

Didrachma (silver) = 2 denaria 

Stater (silver) = 2 didrachmas 

Mina (silver) = 25 staters 15 

Talent (silver) = 60 minas 928 



cts. 


mills. 





i-9 


O 


3-8 


I 


5-4 


15 


4-7 


30 


9-4 


6l 


8-9 


47 


3-8 


42 


8.0 



720 




X.tby an J), 



ytfUEift Upper and Middle Asia 
"EVauTCl Persia, Kkasistan 



Descendants of Noah. 

See Genesis XQ Chapter 

H3MH Af rica $ S.W Arabia, 



■LssTcCCLT Assyrians 



krjgcogad North Assyria, 



I SaVaVv 



"PeUq 



Iftxw 



Jo\vtcuv Primitive Arabs 



INvvYvov 



IMwaYvnm 

IstanaeUtcs I Jews 



MmoAoA 



ShiUyAv. 



&oaarma\e\K 



M^Twart 



Central 

and 
Southern, 
Arabia 



OpW.r 



SavxVxiVv 



L-aa. 



Lydtans in Asia Minor 



k-rain. 



Syria., Mesopotamia. 
V3x Jf Arabia, east ofEdfim 
M N. of Palestine 



|"Nla8\v N. Assyria 



Z)~O J§&t EtMopians 
Setoa_ S. of Egypt 



groriXrih J!, f IK of iled Sea. 
SaXftqAv .E. AroMa 
RnocmoK i? gafr Arabia 

SAxtba Wesf Arabia 

DtAmi W <f & Arabia 
SabtecKakuJ/W^a n&w mozrift of Med Sea 



"SvnvTQd. Piain. of Shinar 
"M.\ rsaA.1£l Egyptians 

TuuAim Mar Ethiopia 
Arvamxm W of Egypt 
l.e\vaMnv coayf W of -EoypF 

ya^vrRS\m HyDjoer or <S. Egypt 
Cae\aV\m~ JO. coos? of .. 
YYaUsfanv Cgjiaan 



CapYvtor 



Crete 



PlfOa.^. Africa towards the West 
Ca.U3L3."a TheRoly Land 



TAAoTuaws N W Coast of Canaan 



m^flcfts /i^ar Hebron 

near Jerusalem. 



AmovVfas W^j? of Flams of Jordan. 



^^^linthe Centre of Canaan 



Smiths 



7,t,TOgrttts \ In the North 



3 JM^1|<£{£ I§ (Gr.JapetusJEurojx 



COTEieT Cxmineriaiis, Govts, Celt! 



AsWwxvoz coaste of #i« Eaztni 



RvpW ftv H.^j^ outfit 
ToqarmoK Armenia, if Cancan 
Ufe£0g .E . <£ XE. of tfu JGnJcfrw 

"M.3j6«aA Medes, and early Eindu 



JaJVaLtl Jo nians, Greeks 

EYvsVvok Greece, Peloponjusn 



TaTsVviLftVv S. <f .E. Spain. 
"RvXfercv Cyprus, Italy etc 
T> oftflcrocnv Macedonia 



T'COoa.l iVorifc of Armenia 



Tvt&S T/wocc 



_yb?e - T^tf table presents tlie b» 
primitive nations which sprang fi' 
descendants of Noah .solar as th) 
in the JBibh. 

The home of many tribes, tspt^ 
and Africa is ancertatn. 




American. Tract Society 45Q Nassau St. JVew York. 




^Lmerican Tract Society 




» No.asaxz St New York 




^American, Tract Society /5fr Nousscca. Sir. New York 













° 













»- tP vV 




1 



•55 



: KQjh%J&: 







1^ g * kvSl 





FLAN OF THE TEMPLE 

' hlji M ' l l 'll i H 




A The Hbfy-ot Holies 

B The Hofr Place 

C The Altar of Burnt offerings 

D The brazen Lavcr 

E The court of the Priests 

F The 'court of Israel 

G The gate Ni 



H iThe court of the "Women 
I The gate Beautiful 
./ The court of the Gentiles 
K The Eastern, or Shushan Gate 
JL Soloni6n£ Vorch or Colonnade 
M The Royal Porch 

anor N The outer Wall 

O Ap artmente for "various uses 






FLAN OF TH3 



OF THE TABERNACLE 



COURT 



O r 

©Laver 



HoV 



■ Covenants of flAliar ofjlneen 
WoH„« •'Golden C 



of ShowB read bi Altar of 

iBurnt 
^Offerings 



nom.es - ~--p - 

I THE TABERNACLE I 



G.&^epn.; Eng*> 



^ 




If 





American Tract Society 



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